diazinon use in new zealand horticulture · pasture and forage crop insect pests (chapman &...

Diazinon use in New Zealand horticulture Park NM, Walker JTS, Walker GP, Shaw PW, Wallis DR October 2010

A report prepared for:

ERMA New Zealand

Park NM, Walker JTS

Plant & Food Research, Havelock North

Walker GP

Plant & Food Research, Auckland

Shaw PW, Wallis DR

Plant & Food Research, Nelson

SPTS No. 4702

PFR Client Report No. 38240

PFR Contract No. 24849

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This report has been prepared by The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited (Plant & Food Research), which has its Head Office at 120 Mt Albert Rd, Mt Albert, Auckland.

This report has been approved by:

Nicola Park

Researcher, Applied Entomology

Date: 29 October 2010

Louise Malone

Science Group Leader, Bioprotection

Date: 29 October 2010

Contents

Executive summary 1

1 Introduction 3

2 Methods 3 2.1 Factors considered in the assessment of diazinon use 3 2.2 Trends in pesticide use in New Zealand: 2004 survey 4

2.2.1 Diazinon products currently registered for use in New Zealand horticulture 5 2.2.2 Approved handler certification and product tracking regulations 5 2.2.3 Diazinon mode of action 9 2.2.4 Maximum residue levels on New Zealand crops 9 2.2.5 Biosecurity requirements for export crops 10 2.2.6 Pesticide resistance management 11

3 Diazinon use and alternatives in New Zealand horticultural sectors 12 3.1 Avocado 12

3.1.1 Diazinon use on avocado and alternatives 13 3.2 Turf 18

3.2.1 Diazinon use on turf and alternatives 18 3.3 Pipfruit 20

3.3.1 Diazinon use on pipfruit 20 3.4 Grapes 23

3.4.1 Diazinon use on grapes 23 3.5 Kiwifruit 23

3.5.1 Diazinon use on kiwifruit 24 3.6 Citrus 24

3.6.1 Diazinon use on citrus and alternatives 24 3.7 Berryfruit 33

3.7.1 Diazinon use on berryfruit and alternatives 33 3.8 Persimmon 36

3.8.1 Diazinon use on persimmon and alternatives 36 3.9 Tamarillo 40

3.9.1 Diazinon use on tamarillo and alternatives 40 3.10 Allium 46

3.10.1 Diazinon use on onion and alternatives 46 3.11 Feijoa 49

3.11.1 Diazinon use on feijoa and alternatives 49 3.12 Passionfruit 52

3.12.1 Diazinon use on passionfruit 52 3.13 Summerfruit 52 3.14 Carrots 53 3.15 Cereals 53 3.16 Pasture and forage crops 53 3.17 Imported seeds, nursery stock, cut flowers and foliage 53 3.18 Other crops that may use diazinon 54

4 Conclusions 56

5 References 60

6 Acknowledgements 65

7 Appendix 1 Summary of application methods and product label rates67 7.1 Products containing 800, 600 or 500 g/litre diazinon 67 7.2 Products containing 50 g/litre diazinon 71

8 Appendix 2. List of insecticides registered for the control of key pasture and forage crop insect pests (Chapman & Jackson 2010) 72

©The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited (2010) Page 1 This report is confidential to ERMA New Zealand Diazinon use in New Zealand horticulture

Executive summary Diazinon use in New Zealand horticulture Park NM, Walker JTS, Walker GP, Shaw PW, Wallis DR, October 2010, SPTS No.

ERMA New Zealand (Environmental Risk Management Authority) is undertaking a reassessment programme on already approved hazardous substances for which there is evidence that the risks may not be adequately managed by the existing controls.. The information in this report will be available for inclusion in the ERMA New Zealand reassessment application of diazinon (CASRN 333-41-5) being prepared by ERMA New Zealand for public consultation.

Sectors that are potential users of diazinon were identified from product label registrations and from results of the survey reported in Trends in Pesticide Use in New Zealand: 2004 (Manktelow et al. 2005). Scientific and technical experts working on each of the crops were contacted to assess current use patterns, likely impacts of deregistration, alternative pest control methods and any other crops to which diazinon might be applied. A national literature search was used to assist in identifying and validating issues and likely solutions.

In compiling this report, difficulties were encountered in obtaining information to the required detail, particularly for smaller sectors where there are few published data. As there were many sectors to assess, the information provided here is in places only a short summary of the likely issues and impacts surrounding the reviewed active ingredient. The outcomes of the current ERMA reassessments of dichlorvos, acephate and methamidophos will also affect the use of diazinon, particularly on minor crops where there are few, if any, registered alternatives.

Diazinon is a key insecticide across a range of fresh vegetable, fruit and flower crops such as avocado, citrus, pipfruit, passionfruit, carrots, cereal crops, turf and cut flower crops. Its broad-spectrum action and short-residual is an advantage in glasshouse vegetable crops and it is a key pest management tool for many fruit crops. Some export-focussed fruit crops have developed alternatives, where possible, to meet nil detectable diazinon requirements in export markets. Diazinon is also not widely used in process vegetable production. However, diazinon is widely used on pasture and turf and diazinon prills are central to the management of pests in tuber crops such as carrot. In many cases, there are no readily available alternatives.

Consideration must be given, particularly for minor crops whose growers are unable to fund the necessary label claim development for any potential alternative, to identifying a pathway to provide the required efficacy, crop safety and residue data to support a label claim. Sufficient time is needed to develop the technical knowledge and funding to enable the identification and development of alternative control measures.

For further information please contact:

Nicola Park or Jim Walker

The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Ltd

Plant & Food Research Hawke’s Bay

Private Bag 1401

Havelock North

Hastings 4157

NEW ZEALAND

Tel: +64-6-975 8880

Fax: +64-6-975 8881

Email [email protected]

Email [email protected]


1 Introduction ERMA New Zealand (Environmental Risk Management Authority) is undertaking a reassessment programme on already approved hazardous substances for which there is evidence that the risks may not be adequately managed by the existing controls. Following public submissions, an initial list of 20 substances for reassessment was developed in 2007. In 2009, ERMA New Zealand reviewed this Chief Executive Initiated Reassessment (CEIR) list and after a consultation process released an updated list on 29 March 2010 with reassessment priorities listed for 2010–2011 (ERMA NZ 2010a).

The scope of this report is to identify which horticulture sectors currently use diazinon, the likely impacts on pest management for those sectors if diazinon were no longer available, and to determine if there were other pest control options for these sectors to replace diazinon. The information in this report will be available for inclusion in the ERMA New Zealand reassessment of these substances.

2 Methods To identify the sectors likely to be using diazinon, a list was drawn up of sectors that were identified as diazinon users in the 2004 survey reported in Trends in Pesticide Use in New Zealand: 2004 (Manktelow et al. 2005). In addition, crops that were covered by the label claims of products registered for use on New Zealand horticultural crops containing the active ingredient diazinon were also included. Scientific and technical experts working on each of these crops were contacted to assess current use patterns for diazinon and to identify alternative pest control methods. They were also asked if they knew of any other crops to which diazinon might be applied. A national and international literature search was used to assist in identifying and validating issues and likely solutions.

In compiling this report, difficulties were encountered in obtaining information to the required detail particularly for smaller sectors where there are few published data. Also, as there were many sectors to assess, the information provided here is only a short summary of the likely issues and impacts surrounding the reviewed active ingredient. In addition, the outcomes of the current ERMA reassessments of dichlorvos, acephate and methamidophos will also affect the use of diazinon, particularly on minor crops where there are few, if any registered alternatives.

2.1 Factors considered in the assessment of diazinon use

There are a number of factors that were considered when assessing diazinon current use, impacts of deregistration and alternative pest control options. These were:

• Products already registered in New Zealand for that crop

• Products already registered for use in New Zealand for control of that pest

• Products permitted by export sectors to meet export country and customer requirements

• Quarantine requirements for export crops

• Active ingredient mode of action

• Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) in New Zealand and key export markets

• Non-chemical (cultural) control options

• Agrichemical resistance management guidelines

• Compatibility with integrated pest management principles, which gives preference to pest-specific chemistry such as insect growth regulators and other selective insecticides that are neither toxic nor disruptive to beneficial insects.

2.2 Trends in pesticide use in New Zealand: 2004 survey

In 2004, a survey was undertaken to provide up-to-date data on pesticide use in New Zealand and the outcomes were reported in Trends in Pesticide Use in New Zealand:2004 (Manktelow et al. 2005). In compiling this report, a number of sources were used, including a survey of the quantities of pesticides (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides and plant growth regulators) used in 69 sectors within the horticultural, arable, forestry and pastoral industries. Pesticide use in the different sectors was then estimated relative to the known land areas of each sector (Manktelow et al. 2005).

From the pesticide use estimates of the sectors in 2004, 13 sector groups were identified as users of diazinon: pipfruit, summerfruit, avocado, carrots, feijoas, kiwifruit, citrus, lettuce, onion, persimmons, sweetcorn, tamarillos, and dairy industry (pasture) (Table 1) (Manktelow et al. 2005).

Table 1. 2004 crop-based diazinon use estimates in New Zealand (Manktelow et al. 2005).

Crop Area (total national ha)

High Use Total Tonnes a.i./year

(national)

Low Use Total Tonnes a.i./year

(national)

Apples 6075 4.86 (early season) 6.08 (late season 1.22

Apricots 636 0.06 0.06

Avocado 3235 1.62 0.81

Carrots 1831 4.03 2.01

Cherries 550 0.44 0.22

Feijoas 198 0.08 0.08

Kiwifruit 12357 29.66 9.89

Lemons 364 0.44 0.15

Lettuce - North Island 981 0.63 0.16

Lime 20 0.02 0.01

Mandarins 911 2.19 0.73

Nashi 119 0.03 0.01

Nectarines 528 0.03 0.03

Onions - North Island 4560 5.69 2.85

Onions - South Island 1120 0.35 0.17

Oranges 573 1.38 0.34


Peaches 760 0.08 0.08

Pears 910 0.61 0.09

Persimmons 282 0.71 0.14

Plums 394 0.04 0.04

Sweetcorn 5790 0.46 0.46

Tamarillos 270 0.12 0.04

Tangelos 163 0.29 0.10

Dairy (pasture) 1463281 70.24 70.24

2.2.1 Diazinon products currently registered for use in New Zealand horticulture

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered for use in New Zealand horticulture on a wide range of crops, the details of which are shown in Tables 2 and 3. Diazinon is also registered for use in veterinary medicine for the control of fleas and lice in pets and livestock and for use in agriculture for the control of grassgrub in pasture and armyworm, diamondback moth and springtails in forage brassicas. In addition, diazinon is sold to the home gardener for control of soil pests such as grassgrub. However, this report focuses on the horticultural uses of diazinon only.

There are 14 products containing the active ingredient diazinon currently registered in New Zealand as shown on the New Zealand and Food Safety Authority (NZFSA) Agricultural Compounds and Veterinary Medicines (ACVM) Database (NZFSA 2010d). The product names, active ingredient content, formulation type and approximate retail price of each of the products are listed in Table 3. Typical use patterns and application methods for each crop are summarised in Appendix 1 and discussed in more detail in later sections of this report dedicated to each crop.

2.2.2 Approved handler certification and product tracking regulations

The Hazardous Substances and New Organisms (HSNO) Act 1996 defines the criteria for when an Approved Handler Test Certificate is required. An approved handler is required when a pesticide is:

• Highly toxic to people

• Toxic to the environment (ecotoxic) and used in a way that may harm the environment

• Applied into or onto water (ERMA NZ 2009a).

An Approved Handler is a person who is competent and certified to handle pesticides. In addition the transfer of some pesticides needs to be recorded or “tracked”. Not all pesticides require an Approved Handler (ERMA NZ 2005).

According to ERMA registers (ERMA NZ 2006a,b), all diazinon products must be under the control of an Approved Handler where they are used in a wide dispersive manner or by a

commercial contractor. Products containing 800g/kg of the active ingredient diazinon require tracking. Approved handler conditions do not apply for some diazinon products that are sold in small pack sizes for domestic or home garden use by the general public as shown in Table 3.

Table 2. Summary of pests controlled by diazinon based on label claims (Novachem 2009).

Crop Main Pests Controlled (based on label registrations)

apples, pears leaf curling midge, leafroller, woolly apple aphid, San Jose scale, mealybug, aphids

avocado leafroller, mealybug, scale insects, thrips

beans aphids, caterpillars, thrips

carrots & parsnips carrot rust fly

cereals cereal aphids, aphids

citrus aphids, mealybugs, scale insects

established lawns/turf grassgrub, porina caterpillar, slaters, wire worms

feijoa leafroller, greedy scale, mealybug

forage brassica springtails, armyworm, diamondback moth, springtails

grapes mealybug

kiwifruit greedy scale, leafroller

lettuce aphids, caterpillars, thrips

maize aphids, caterpillars, thrips

onions aphids, caterpillars, thrips

ornamentals aphids, thrips, caterpillars

passionfruit leafroller, aphids, passion vine hopper, thrips

pasture armyworm , grassgrub, lucerne flea , porina caterpillar

pasture & crops (newly sown) grassgrub

persimmons leafroller, mealybug, scale insects, thrips

strawberries aphids

summerfruit aphids, mealybug, San Jose scale, thrips, leaf curling midge, woolly aphid, leafroller

sweetcorn aphids, caterpillars, thrips

tamarillos aphids, whitefly, caterpillar, leafroller

tomatoes aphids, caterpillars, thrips

vegetable brassicas (broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower)

aphids, caterpillars, thrips, springtails, diamondback moth


Table 3. Active ingredient content, formulation type and retail cost of diazinon products (Novachem 2009, ERMA NZ 2006a,b, 2010b, NZFSA 2010d).

Product NZFSA

Registration Number

ERMA Approval

Code Approved Handler

Required1,2 Tracking Required

Manufacturer/ Distributor

Date of Registration

Active Ingredient Content and Formulation

Recommended retail Price3 and Available

Pack Sizes

DewTM 600 P007707 HSR000180 yes no Nufarm Limited 23/07/2007 600 g/l oil in water

emulsion

1L: $64.40 10L: $186-$270

20L: $367

Diazinon 20G P001577 HSR000175 under certain conditions no Nufarm Limited 08/09/1969 200 g/kg granule 15kg: $237-$266.70

Gesapon® 20G

P002130 HSR000175 under certain conditions no Orion Crop Protection Ltd 15/12/1982 200 g/kg granule 22kg: $338-$391

Diazol® Insecticide P007254 HSR000180 under certain conditions no Agronica New

Zealand Ltd 17/02/2005 500 g/l oil in water emulsion 10L: $160-$225

Diazinon 800 P000998 HSR000174 yes (all) yes Nufarm Limited 30/03/1967 800 g/l emulsifiable

concentrate

1L $57 5L: $238 10L: $225 20L: $519

Diazinon 800EC P005609 HSR000183 yes (all) yes Greenseal

2000 Ltd 29/05/2000 800 g/l emulsifiable concentrate 20L: $445

Diazol® 800 P007724 HSR002481 yes (all) yes Agronica New Zealand Ltd 22/8/2007 800 g/l emulsifiable

concentrate 5L: $140,

10L: $211-$225

DiGrubTM P005004 HSR000181 yes (all) yes Orion Crop Protection Ltd 14/11/1997 800 g/l emulsifiable

concentrate 5L: $195

20L: $415-$445

Product NZFSA

Registration Number

ERMA Approval

Code Approved Handler

Required1,2 Tracking Required

Manufacturer/ Distributor

Date of Registration

Active Ingredient Content and Formulation

Recommended retail Price3 and Available

Pack Sizes

HortcareTM Diazinon 500EW

P007205 HSR000180 under certain conditions no Grosafe Chemicals Ltd 05/09/2006 500 g/litre oil in water

emulsion 20L: $200

Diazonyl 60EC P005636 HSR000184 under certain conditions no Adria New

Zealand Ltd 01/06/2000 600 g/litre oil in water emulsion 10L: $156-$457

Basudin® 600 EW P007870 HSR002481 under certain conditions no

Zagpro Singapore Pte

Ltd 29/4/2009 600 g/litre oil in water

emulsion

1L: product not available at

horticultural merchants

No insects lawngard

prills P003351 HSR000176 under certain conditions no

Kiwicare Corporation

Ltd 09/08/1984 50 g/kg

granule

3kg: $91.60 & 175g, 350g, 600g

packs for home gardener

Watkins Lawn & Soil Insect Killer

P006029 not listed under certain conditions no Dulux Group

(New Zealand) Pty Ltd

22/12/2004 50g/kg pellet

350g: $16.90 for home gardener

Yates Soil Insect Killer P002199 HSR000176 under certain conditions no

Dulux Group (New Zealand)

Pty Ltd 25/06/1974 50g/kg

pellet 240g: $12-$13

for home gardener

1where ‘all’ is stated the Approved Handler controls apply irrespective of the amount being handled or sold 2 Approved Handler required when they are used in a wide dispersive manner, by a commercial contractor or applied into or onto water 3recommended retail price (GST exclusive) provided by a number of horticultural merchants


2.2.3 Diazinon mode of action

The mode of action of an active ingredient is an important factor to consider as it often highlights why it is the product of choice. Diazinon (CAS Registered Number 333-41-5) is an insecticide and acaricide used to control chewing and sucking insects on a wide range of crops. Diazinon has contact and stomach mode of actions and is non-systemic (University of Hertfordshire 2010). This insecticide targets the nervous system making it generally fast acting. More specifically, it is an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor classed as an organophosphate (Group 1B lepidopteran insecticide mode of action classification, NZCPR 2009, IRAC 2010). The effectiveness of diazinon in controlling a wide range of insect pests and relatively short pre-harvest interval makes this the active ingredient of choice for many users.

2.2.4 Maximum residue levels on New Zealand crops

Maximum residue limits or MRLs are the maximum permissible level of residue set for each pesticide; these are crop specific. MRLs for pesticides are established in most countries to safeguard consumer health and to promote Good Agricultural Practice (GAP) in the use of pesticides. MRLs vary from country to country depending on the pesticides available, the crops being treated and the way the pesticides are used. Food producers must comply with the MRLs of the countries they export to as a condition of market access. All domestically produced food sold in New Zealand must comply with the New Zealand (Maximum Residue Limits of Agricultural Compounds) Food Standards (the MRL Standards) and amendments (NZFSA 2010a).

The MRL Standards list the MRLs for a range of pesticides, but also include a provision for residues of up to 0.1 mg/kg for agricultural compound/food combinations not specifically listed. In addition, the MRL Standards recognise the role of Codex standards1 for imported food and the Australian MRLs are recognised for food imported from Australia (NZFSA 2010a).

To ensure MRLs are met, withholding periods are established and listed on product labels. A withholding period (also known as pre-harvest interval) is the time required between the final application of that pesticide and harvest of the crop, to ensure pesticide residues will have decayed sufficiently to enable MRLs to be met. This period is usually expressed as days from harvest, or can be a set date or crop growth stage in the season, and often varies between crops. Export crop pre-harvest intervals often differ from New Zealand pre-harvest intervals, as the export crop must meet importing country and final customer MRL standards.

The New Zealand diazinon MRLs are listed in Table 4 and shown alongside the CODEX MRL and corresponding New Zealand pre-harvest interval, which is listed on the product labels. Where there is no New Zealand MRL set, residues must not exceed the default MRL of 0.1 mg/kg.

1 Codex Alimentarius (CODEX) is an international food standard code developed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. This commission was created in 1963 by FAO and the World Health Organisation (WHO) to develop international food standards for use by member nations, designed to protect the health of consumers and promote fair practices in food trade (NZFSA 2010b).

Table 4. Diazinon maximum residue limits (MRLs) and pre-harvest intervals in New Zealand and corresponding CODEX MRLs for the same crops.

Crop New Zealand MRL (mg/kg) (NZFSA 2010c)

CODEX MRL (mg/kg) (CODEX Alimentarius 2009)

New Zealand Pre-Harvest Intervals (Novachem 2009)

Fruits 0.5

Blackberries 0.1 Boysenberries 0.1 Currants 0.2 Cherries 1 Kiwifruit 0.2 Peach 0.2 Plums 1 Pome fruits 0.3 Raspberries 0.2 Strawberry 0.1

Apple - 14 days Avocado - 14 days Cereals - 14 days Citrus - 14 days Feijoas - 14 days Grapes - 14 days Passionfruit - 14 days Pears - 14 days Stonefruit - 14 days Tamarillos - 14 days Kiwifruit - 28 days Persimmons - 7 days Strawberries - use pre-flower only

Vegetables 0.5

Beans 0.2 Broccoli, cabbage 0.5 Chinese cabbage 0.05 Carrot 0.5 Cucumber 0.1 Shelled garden peas 0.2 Lettuce 0.5 Maize 0.02 Onion 0.05 Spring onion 1 Sweet pepper 0.05 Radish 0.1 Spinach 0.5 Summer squash 0.05 Sweetcorn 0.02 Tomato 0.5

Vegetables (except tomatoes) - 14 days Tomatoes - 3 days

Non food crops Not applicable Not applicable

Forage brassica – nil Ornamentals – not applicable Pasture – nil When spraying for surface feeding insects, keep ducks, geese and hens off treated areas for 7 days after spraying.

MRLs and corresponding pre-harvest intervals for all the markets where the crop is to be sold must be considered when assessing alternative agrichemical control options.

2.2.5 Biosecurity requirements for export crops

MAF Biosecurity NZ (MAFBNZ) maintains a database of Importing Countries Phytosanitary Requirements (ICPRs) for exports from New Zealand (MAFBNZ 2010a). In addition, for some countries and commodities, specific compliance programmes for managing phytosanitary risks must be implemented in order to retain export access to that country. There are currently plant product compliance programmes in place for:

• Apple exports to Taiwan


• Bulb exports to Japan

• Cut flower and foliage exports to the USA

• Onion exports to Australia

• Potato exports to Taiwan

• Summerfruit exports to the EU and Switzerland, Western Australia, Japan and Korea

• Tomato exports to Australia

• Tree Fern exports to the EU (MAFBNZ 2010b).

MAFBNZ also manages the biosecurity risks associated with imports and travellers into New Zealand to protect the New Zealand environment and economy from exotic pests and disease, through the development and enforcements of conditions of entry. In spite of this, incursions do occur. Therefore when assessing an active ingredient, these new pests also need to be considered although use patterns are unlikely to be established. Recent examples include the Hadda beetle (Epilachna vigintioctopuntata) and the great white butterfly (Pieris brassicae). The Hadda beetle is a pest on crops such as potato, tomato and aubergine. An advisory group has recently been established to investigate how to manage this new insect pest (MAFBNZ 2010c). The great white butterfly was found in Nelson in June 2010 and MAFBNZ is developing a strategy for managing this new incursion (Nelson Mail 2010). The great white butterfly is a serious pest of brassica crops overseas including cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, rape, swede and turnip. Brassicas are grown widely in New Zealand for domestic consumption and as fodder for livestock. The impact of this incursion on these sectors is uncertain at present (MAFBNZ 2010e).

2.2.6 Pesticide resistance management

The resistance of pests to pesticides occurs where the pest population has changed genetically so that it is less susceptible or sensitive to a pesticide or class of pesticides. This means a higher dose of that pesticide is now required to kill all individuals of the pest population or that the highest practical dose will not kill all the pests (Martin et al. 2005).

The key components of insecticide and miticide resistance prevention and management strategies are:

• Maximise the use of non-pesticide controls

• Apply pesticides only when their use can be justified

• Time pesticide applications for when they are most effective and target applications to the specific parts of the crop where they will be most effective

• Use good application technique and apply when environmental conditions are favourable

• Use only one member of a chemical group of pesticides no more than the specified maximum number of times per year or growing season

• Rotate chemical groups of pesticides (Martin et al. 2005).

Non-chemical control options include:

• Quarantine (keeping the pest off the property and out of the country)

• Breeding plant resistance

• Agronomic and cultural techniques

• Biological control e.g. use of predator insects, insect specific viruses

• Pheromone mating disruption and mass trapping (Martin et al. 2005).

Pesticide (insecticide and miticide) resistance prevention and management strategies have been developed for the following ‘at risk’ pest species:

• Diamond back moth (Plutella xylostella)

• Tomato fruitworm (Heliocoverpa armigera)

• Melon aphid (Aphis gossypii)

• Green peach aphid (Myzus persicae)

• Lettuce aphid (Nasonovia ribisnigri)

• Leafhopper (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

• Leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

• Mealybug (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

• Spider mite (Tetranychidae)

• Thrips (Thysanoptera)

• Whitefly (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae)

• Australian sheep blowfly (Lucilia cuprina)

• Sheep biting-louse (Bovicola ovis)

The details of these individual strategies are discussed, where relevant, in the context of each crop.

3 Diazinon use and alternatives in New Zealand horticultural sectors

3.1 Avocado

The avocado industry comprises 1481 growers with a total production area of 5010 ha. Domestic sales were valued at NZ$17.9 million in 2009 and export sales at NZ$38.4 million from a total crop volume of 14 859 tonnes (7696 tonnes export, 7163 domestic markets) (Plant & Food Research 2009).

Production volumes vary significantly between seasons owing to the variability in fruit set. This is a key issue for this rapidly expanding industry as it develops new markets. Total crop volume in 2009 dropped from 26 766 in 2008. The main export market for New Zealand avocado is Australia, accounting for 91% of exports in 2009. The lower production in 2009 dictated that there was not enough fruit for exports to the USA, which had accounted for 17% of exports the previous year. Japan is also an important market, accounting for 6–7% of exports during the 2008 and 2009 seasons (New Zealand Avocado 2009).


Avocados are a subtropical fruit requiring a frost-free site for successful production. The main growing areas are Mid (Whangarei) and Far North (48% of total production), Bay of Plenty (49%), with the remaining 3% of production primarily from Auckland, Gisborne, Taranaki and Wellington. The planted area continues to expand, with an estimated 938 ha of new plantings between the 2005–06 and 2008–09 seasons (New Zealand Avocado 2009).

The AvoGreen® programme was launched to the industry in 2000 with the aim to “increase profitability and improve the sustainability of avocado growers by ensuring better control decisions and by focusing on the market desire for safe and healthy fruit grown with minimal impact on the environment and the community” (New Zealand Avocado 2010a, p1). AvoGreen® uses the principles of Integrated Pest Management (IPM), which give consideration to non-chemical control methods with an emphasis on biological control and pest and disease monitoring to ensure pesticides are applied only when needed. AvoGreen® is owned, and accreditation and training programmes operated, by the New Zealand Avocado Growers Association (New Zealand Avocado 2010a).

The AvoGreen® Manual describes the monitoring procedures and action thresholds (pest or disease level at which control is required) for the key pests and diseases on avocado. Where agrichemical control is required, the AvoGreen® manual lists the agrichemicals registered on avocado, grouping them by their potential impact on human health and the environment to encourage the use of low impact agrichemicals (New Zealand Avocado 2010b).

3.1.1 Diazinon use on avocado and alternatives

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on avocado to control thrips, scale insects, leafrollers and mealybugs (Novachem 2009).

The MRL for diazinon on avocado in Japan is 0.1 mg/kg but there is no MRL set for the USA, therefore there must be nil detectable diazinon residue on avocado destined for the USA market. The diazinon MRL for Australia and New Zealand is 0.5 mg/kg (NZFSA 2010a).

Diazinon is widely used by the avocado industry. There are 1–4 applications per season applied using an airblast sprayer at 2000–3000 L/ha at product label rates. Diazinon is used mainly for the control of leafroller, armoured scale and thrips. Loss of diazinon would cause significant problems for the avocado industry. Alternative products are all more expensive (H Pak, New Zealand Avocado Growers Association pers. comm.).

3.1.1.1 Armoured scale

There are two species of armoured scales on avocado in New Zealand, latania scale (Hemiberlesia lataniae [Signoret]) and greedy scale (Hemiberlesia rapax [Comstock]). The two species are difficult to distinguish but there are no known differences in their responses to the insecticides used. Armoured scale can cause significant cosmetic damage if uncontrolled. Both species are quarantine pests in Japan but are non-actionable pests in other markets as they already present in most countries (HortResearch 1998, Avocado NZ 2010b).

There are alternatives to diazinon currently registered on avocado for the control of armoured scale (Table 5) but, other than mineral oil, all the remaining products are likely to be short-term options. The alternatives are broad-spectrum organophosphates or carbamates, which are likely to be reassessed by ERMA. Softer chemistry options need to be trialled and registered for the control of armoured scale on avocado. Potential alternatives already registered in New

Zealand are listed in Table 6, including thiacloprid (Calypso®) which is already registered on avocado for the control of thrips.

Table 5. Products currently registered for armoured scale control on avocado (Novachem 2009).

Chemical Group Active Ingredient Registered Products

oil mineral oil Caltex D-C-Tron NR, D-C-Tron Plus, Excel Oil, Excel Sping Oil

carbamate carbaryl* Carbaryl 50F, Sevin® Flo

organophosphate diazinon** DewTM 600, Diazonyl® 60EC, Diazol®, Hortcare Diazinon 500EW

organophosphate acephate** Lancer® 750DF, Orthene® WSG

synthetic pyrethroid & organophosphate

permethrin & pirimiphos-methyl* Attack®

*active ingredients that are on the CEIR list **active ingredients that are reassessment priorities for 2010-2011 (ERMA New Zealand 2010a) Table 6. Potential alternative active ingredients to diazinon for armoured scale control but not registered and/or trialled on avocado (Novachem 2009).

Chemical Group

Active Ingredients Registered in New Zealand

Registered Products Registration Details

chloronicotinyl thiacloprid Calypso®, Topstar®, AlpassoTM

Registered on avocado for the control of thrips and on kiwifruit for armoured scale, on apple for armoured scale, bronze beetle, codling moth, mealybugs.

ketoenol spirotetramat Movento® Systemic insecticide registered on kiwifruit for the control of armoured scale.

neonicotinoid thiamethoxam Actara®

Systemic insecticide for the control of scales and passion vine hopper on kiwifruit and scales and Froggatt's Apple leafhopper on pipfruit and aphids on potatoes.

synthetic pyrethroid bifenthrin

Talstar® 100EC, Venom®, Disect 100EC

Non-systemic registered on kiwifruit for armoured scale and leafroller control and on a range of vegetable crops to control sucking and chewing pests.

thiadiazine buprofezin

Applaud® 40Sc, Buprimax, MortarTM, OvationTM 50 WDG, Pilan® 25WP

An insect growth regulator compatible with IPM programmes. Controls immature stages of mealybug, scale and whitefly. Registered on a range of other fruit crops.

3.1.1.2 Leafroller

Leafroller caterpillars are a major pest of avocado crops in New Zealand. They can cause significant fruit loss through fruit scarring and are a quarantine pest in the key markets of


Australia and the USA. There are a number of leafroller species, with the main ones on avocado being brownheaded leafroller (Ctenopseustis obliquana [Walker]), black-lyre leafroller (Cnephasia jactatana [Walker]), and lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana [Walker]) (HortResearch 1998, Jamieson et al. 2000, New Zealand Avocado 2010b).

There is a range of alternative products to diazinon registered for the control of leafroller on avocado but the list includes organophosphates and a carbamate that are likely to be reviewed through the ERMA reassessment process (Table 7).

Table 7. Products currently registered for leafroller control on avocado (Novachem 2009).


avermectin emamectin benzoate Proclaim®

biological Bacillus thuringiensis Bactercide WG, Biobit® DF, Dipel® DF, Dipel® ES Delfin®, Hortcare Bactur® 48 LC, Hortcare Bactur® WDG

diacylhydrazine tebufenozide Approve® 240SC, Approve® 70W, Comic, Mimic* 700WP

spinosyns spinosad Entrust* Naturalyte* Insect Control, Success® Naturalyte®, Yates Success® Naturalyte®

synthetic pyrethroid taufluvalinate Mavrik® Aquaflo



organophosphate chlorpyrifos*

Chlorpyrifos 50 EC, Chlorpyrifos 48EC, Chlor-pTM480 EC, Hortcare Chlorpyrifos 50 EC, Key BanTM, Lorsban® 50EC, Lorsban® 750WG, Pyrinex®, Pychlorex® 48EC, Toppel, Rampage Encaps




*active ingredients that are on the CEIR list **active ingredients that are reassessment priorities for 2010-2011 (ERMA New Zealand 2010a)

3.1.1.3 Mealybug

Mealybugs are common on avocado. The main species found on avocado is the long tailed mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus [Targioni-Tozzetti]). Mealybugs will infest the fruit and this can be of quarantine concern. They can cause cosmetic fruit damage through the excretion of honeydew on which unsightly black sooty mould can grow (HortResearch 1998, New Zealand Avocado 2010b).

While registered for mealybug control on avocado, diazinon is not primarily used for mealybug control. There are alternatives to diazinon currently registered on avocado for the control of mealybug (Table 8); however, as for scale, these are likely to be reassessed by ERMA. Softer

chemistry options need to be trialled and registered for the control of scale on avocado. Potential alternatives already registered in New Zealand are listed in Table 9, including thiacloprid (Calypso®) which is registered on avocado for the control of thrips.

Table 8. Products currently registered for mealybug control on avocado (Novachem 2009).







*active ingredients that are on the CEIR list **active ingredients that are reassessment priorities for 2010-2011 (ERMA New Zealand 2010a) Table 9. Potential alternative active ingredients to diazinon for mealybug control but not registered and/or trialled on avocado (Novachem 2009).

Chemical Group






synthetic pyrethroid bifenthrin

Talstar® 100EC, Venom®, Disect 100EC

Non-systemic registered on kiwifruit for armoured scale and leafroller control and on a range of vegetable crops to control sucking and chewing pests.




neonicotinoid thiamethoxam Actara®

Systemic insecticide for the control of scales and passion vine hopper on kiwifruit and scales and Froggatt's Apple leafhopper on pipfruit and aphids on potatoes.

3.1.1.4 Thrips

Greenhouse thrips (GHT) (Heliothrips haemorrahoidalis [Bouché]) are a significant pest on avocado (Jamieson et al. 2008). GHT cause fruit scarring which can result in significant


quantities of fruit being rejected for export. GHT are most common from February into autumn and a few may be found in warmer districts throughout the season. They are common internationally, abundant throughout most of the North Island and can be found as far south as Nelson (New Zealand Avocado 2010a,b).

A natural enemy of GHT, Thripobius javae (=semiluteus) is a parasatoid of thrips. Thripobius javae was imported from California and released in Northland, Bay of Plenty and Gisborne in 2001 for biological control of GHT. Thripobius javae was successfully established in all avocado and citrus growing regions but the impact it has had on GHT populations is unknown (Jamieson et al. 2008).

There are several species of thrips in New Zealand that have become resistant to pesticides. No resistance has been recorded in New Zealand for GHT. Guidelines to reduce the risk of resistance developing in GHT populations include using pesticides from several chemical groups and for short residual pesticides, apply each pesticide twice about 7 days apart to kill larvae hatching from eggs (Martin et al. 2005).

There are few alternatives to diazinon currently registered on avocado for the control of thrips (Table 10). To meet resistance management guidelines there need to be several chemical group options. Potential alternatives are also limited. Table 11 lists potential products already registered in New Zealand.

Table 10. Products currently registered for thrips control on avocado (Novachem 2009).



oil mineral oil Caltex D-C-Tron NR, D-C-Tron Plus, Excel Oil, Excel Sping Oil

pyrethroid pyrethrins and piperonyl butoxide Key Pyrethrum, Pyganic®, Pyradym®



*active ingredients that are on the CEIR list **active ingredients that are reassessment priorities for 2010-2011 (ERMA New Zealand 2010a) Table 11. Potential alternative active ingredients to diazinon for thrips control but not registered and/or trialled on avocado (Novachem 2009).

Chemical Group Active Ingredient Registered Products Registration Details

phenyl pryrazole fipronil Ascend®, Albatross® 220Sc, Recoil®

Controls Kelly’s citrus thrips and thrips in onions.

spinosyn spinosad Success® Naturalyte®, Yates Success® Naturalyte®

Controls Kelly’s citrus thrips.


Registered on avocado for leafroller control. Other registrations include

thrips control on a number of crops.



A broad-spectrum insecticide registered on a range of crops.

*active ingredients that are on the CEIR list (ERMA New Zealand 2010a)

3.2 Turf

In 2006, it was estimated there is a turf grass area of 58 139 ha managed for both sports and amenity uses. Schools, councils and golf courses comprise the majority of managed turf areas The sports turf industry estimated to have nearly NZ$33 billion in assets (includes land, buildings and equipment) (2006 data). Schools own the largest share (70%) while municipal councils own 20% of total assets and golf courses 6%. Racing, croquet and bowls accounted for the remaining 4% of total assets (Haydu et al. 2008).

3.2.1 Diazinon use on turf and alternatives

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on turf to control grassgrub, porina caterpillar, slaters and wire worms (Novachem 2009). The main pests in turf are porina, weevils (cotula weevil, Argentine stem weevil), grassgrub, black beetle, crickets, sod web worm, cutworm and earthworms. Diazinon is widely used on all turf areas (golf courses, bowling greens, sports fields, home lawns, passive turf and croquet lawns) and possibly racecourses. The highest use of diazinon would be for porina control, followed by grassgrub adults and larvae, and to a lesser extent greasy cutworm, cotula weevil, Argentine stem weevil, black beetle, and sod web worm (B Hannan, New Zealand Sports Turf Institute pers. comm.).

There are limited effective alternatives for grassgrub control. The synthetic pyrethroids alpha-cypermethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin are being used for grassgrub and sod web worm control but not all find these effective. The synthetic pyrethroids alpha-cypermethrin and lambda-cyhalothrin are an option for foliage eating pests such as porina, greasy cutworm, and cotula weevil. The insect growth regulator Dimilin® 2L is used for porina only. Chlorpyrifos is the main alternative chemical control option for pests found on turf (B Hannan pers. comm.). Products registered for the control of turf and pasture pests are listed in Table 12.

Typical water rates used on turf are 200-300 litres per ha applied with a boom sprayer but can be as high as 600-800 litres per hectare where soil irrigation is needed to target a specific issue. The number of insecticide applications made per year depends on the field purpose and pest problem (B Hannan pers. comm.).

Table 12. Products currently registered for pest control on turf and pasture (Novachem 2009).

Chemical Group Active Ingredient Registered Products Registration and Use

biological Serratia entomophila Bioshield GrassgrubTM grassgrub

carbamate methomyl Lannate® armyworm caterpillar

carbamate oxamyl Vydate® L Registered for Argentine


stem weevil. Only recommended for nematode control.

organophosphate fenitrothion Caterkill TM 1000

Recommended for greasy cutworm and porina control on bowling greens, Argentine stem weevil porina and greasy cutworm on croquet lawns (New Zealand Sports Turf Institute date unknown a & b).

neonicotinoid imidacloprid Confidor®, KohinorTM 350, NupridTM 350SC, Pilarking® 200SL

Systemic insecticide. Recommended for cotula weevil, black beetle and grassgrub control on bowling greens, Argentine stem weevil and black beetle on croquet lawns (New Zealand Sports Turf Institute date unknown a & b).

substituted benzoyl phenyl urea

diflubenzuron Difuse®25WP, Dimilin® 2L, PorinexTM, SniperTM

Insect growth regulator. No contact control. Controls porina caterpillar.

synthetic pyrethroid

alpha-cypermethrin

Alpha-Scud®, Bestseller®100EC, Cypher®, Cypher®EW, Dominex 100EC

Registered for control of Tasmanian grassgrub but not all find it effective. Also recommended for black beetle, greasy cutworm, porina, cotula weevil and Argentine stem weevil control (New Zealand Sports Turf Institute date unknown a & b).


lambda-cyhalothrin

Karate® with Zeon Technology, CyhellaTM

Recommended for stem weevil, black beetle, grassgrub, sod web worm and greasy cutworm control on croquet lawns (New Zealand Sports Turf Institute date unknown a).



Recommended for Argentine stem weevil, black beetle, sod web worm, grassgrub, porina, cotula weevil and greasy cutworm control on croquet lawns (New Zealand Sports Turf Institute date unknown a & b).

organophosphate diazinon**

DewTM 600, Diazonyl® 60EC, Diazol®, Hortcare Diazinon 500EW

Recommended for Argentine stem weevil, black beetle, sod web worm, grassgrub, porina, cotula weevil and greasy

cutworm control on croquet lawns (New Zealand Sports Turf Institute date unknown a & b).

organophosphate trichlorfon** TrifonTM Registered for porina caterpillar control.


3.3 Pipfruit

The New Zealand apple industry comprises 436 growers with a total production area of 9061 ha. The 2009 export crop totalled 308 000 tonnes (66% from Hawke’s Bay, 28% from Nelson, 3% Otago, further 3% from other regions) was the largest for five years. An estimated further 65 000 tonnes were sold on the local market. Pear exports increased to 5421 tonnes (1.8% of exports). The apple export crop was exported to 64 countries while the pear crop went to 25 countries. The EU and UK remain the most important export markets, importing 55% of the crop. Taiwan remains the pipfruit industry’s most significant Asian market with 27 000 tonnes of fruit exported there in 2009. For pears, 46% of the crop went to the USA and Canada (Pipfruit New Zealand 2010).

Initiated by ENZA New Zealand International in 1996, the New Zealand Integrated Fruit Production (IFP) programme for pipfruit introduced major changes to pest management in the New Zealand pipfruit industry, including largely replacing broad-spectrum organophosphates with selective products compatible with biological control. Diazinon is included as a pest control option in the IFP programme for pipfruit (Walker et al. 1997). All New Zealand pipfruit production is grown under IFP methods (91% of planted hectares) or organic production systems. Apple Futures, targeting ultra low residues now accounts for 65% of the total production while organic production accounts for a further 10% (Pipfruit New Zealand 2010).

3.3.1 Diazinon use on pipfruit

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on pipfruit (apples, pears and nashi) to control leaf curling midge, leafroller, woolly apple aphid, San Jose scale, mealybug and aphids (Novachem 2009).

Diazinon is only occasionally used on apples and pears in specific circumstances for which there are currently no alternatives. Up to 12% of pear blocks use diazinon (range between 1 and 5 applications per block) and up to 7% of apple blocks use diazinon (range between 1 and 6 applications per block). Applications are generally made using an airblast sprayer with water rates in the range of 250–2000 litres/ha. Diazinon is not used on nashi (M Butcher, Pipfruit NZ, pers. comm.).

3.3.1.1 Woolly apple aphid

Woolly apple aphid (WAA) (Erisoma lanigerum [Hausemann]) is a serious pest on apple. WAA can cause significant bud damage resulting in yield loss, and fruit damage as a result of sooty mould can be a market access issue (Shaw & Wallis 2009). Diazinon is currently the most effective insecticide available for the control of WAA in apple. On mature larger trees 1–2 applications of diazinon may be made, with industry recommendations that these applications are spot sprayed to where the outbreak has occurred, generally on the lower tree tiers, to limit diazinon use. Diazinon is disruptive to important pipfruit biocontrol agents including the WAA parasitoid Aphelinus mali (Bradley et al.1997) and apple leafcurling midge parasitoid,


Platygaster demades (P Shaw, PFR, pers. comm.) and is not compatible with the Integrated Fruit Production (IFP) programme adopted by the pipfruit industry, which seeks to minimise spray inputs and maximise the impact of biological control. Also, there is now no maximum residue level (MRL) set for diazinon in Europe, and consequently there is a lengthy pre-harvest interval (55 days on apple) to avoid the risk of residues on fruit.

Table 13. Products currently registered for woolly apple aphid control on pipfruit (Novachem 2009).


organophosphate prothiofos Tokuthion®

Broad-spectrum contact insecticide registered on pipfruit for mealybug, scale and woolly apple aphid control. Not IPM compatible. Not included in the NZ Apple Export Programme (Pipfruit NZ 2009b).

carbamate pirimicarb Aphidex® WG, Pirimor® 50, Pirimisect, Piritek®, ProhiveTM

Not compatible with pipfruit IPM programmes. Is included in the NZ Apple Export Programme but pre-bloom to ensure nil detectable residue. Not very effective on WAA (Pipfruit NZ 2009a).

chloronicotinyl thiacloprid1 Calypso®, Topstar®, AlpassoTM

Registered on apple for the control of woolly apple aphid, Froggatt’s apple leafhopper, Fuller’s rose weevil, armoured scale, bronze beetle, codling moth, mealybugs. Long pre-harvest interval of 55 days (Pipfruit NZ 2009b).



Not compatible with pipfruit IPM programmes. Not included in the NZ Apple Export Programme (Pipfruit NZ 2009b).

organophosphate diazinon**1 DewTM 600, Diazonyl® 60EC, Diazol®, Hortcare Diazinon 500EW

Registered on apple for the control of woolly apple aphid, mealybug aphids, overwintering San Jose scale, leafcurling midge. Is included in the NZ Apple Export Programme but not for the UK/EU markets (Pipfruit NZ 2009b).


1products that are currently used in the pipfruit sector (M Butcher pers. comm.)

3.3.1.2 Leafcurling midge

Diazinon is also registered for the control of apple leafcurling midge (ALCM) (Dasineura mali [Kieffer]) and pear leafcurling midge (PLCM) (Dasineura pyri [Kieffer]). Control of ALCM and PLCM may be required on young, vigorously growing trees and grafts where rapid vegetative growth is required. Growers may apply multiple applications of diazinon in an attempt to minimise damage to the young actively growing shoots. Diazinon is effective as a foliar spray against ALCM and PLCM eggs and young hatching larvae and it is a soil-active insecticide.

Table 14. Products currently registered for apple leafcurling midge and pear leafcurling midge control on pipfruit (Novachem 2009).



Registered on apple for the control of leafroller, codling moth, leafhopper, apple and pear midge, mealybug, scale crawlers and for blossom thinning. Is included in the NZ Apple Export Programme but only up to 30 days after petal fall as a fruitlet or secondary thinner (Pipfruit NZ 2009b). Not IPM compatible.


Registered on apple for the control of woolly apple aphid, mealybug aphids, overwintering San Jose scale, leafcurling midge. Is included in the NZ Apple Export Programme but not for the UK/EU markets (Pipfruit NZ 2009b).


There has been a recent change in the quarantine status of ALCM for some markets. Any line of fruit being packed that is found to be infested with mature ALCM larvae or pupae can render the whole line of fruit unacceptable for some Asian markets (e.g. Taiwan, China) and in California. As a result, an interim strategy has been suggested to use diazinon as a soil treatment underneath trees to prevent ALCM emerging after pupation in the soil and as a foliar treatment.

There is an urgent need to find more selective alternative insecticides than diazinon for use on pipfruit and a number of cultural, insecticide, insect pheromone-based and postharvest options are being investigated. A very selective and effective new insecticide, Movento® (spirotetramat) has been evaluated and found to provide excellent control of WAA (P Shaw pers. comm.). It is also effective against scale insects, mealybugs and has activity against ALCM. This insecticide will provide control of the same range of pests as diazinon and will be registered and available for use on pipfruit in the 2011–12 season.


3.4 Grapes

The winegrape production area in New Zealand comprises 31 057ha. Table grape production comprises 37 ha. New Zealand wine is exported to 95 countries, with the largest markets (% by value) being the UK (27%), Australia (32%) and the USA (22%), resulting in an export value of NZ$985 million. The main growing region is Marlborough, which produced 68% of the grapes produced in 2008, with 15% from Hawke’s Bay and 8% from Gisborne. There are now 643 wineries and 1128 growers (Plant & Food Research 2009).

The Sustainable Winegrowing New Zealand® (SWNZ) programme commenced in 1995, with implementation centred on a scorecard that covers all aspects of sustainability in winegrape production. In 2007, New Winegrowers set an industry-wide goal to have 100% of industry members operating under approved independently audited sustainability schemes by 2012. Currently, 85% of the producing vineyard area is processed by SWNZ member wineries and the SWNZ programme is on track to achieving the 100% sustainable production target by 2012 (New Zealand Winegrowers 2009a, p17).

The New Zealand Winegrowers Export Wine Grape Spray Annual Schedule is designed specifically for grapes grown for the export market, but is also suitable for local wine production. Based on data provided by the New Zealand Food Safety Authority, the annually updated schedule lists the products, active ingredients and pre-harvest intervals to use for access to all markets. There are some products which are registered for use in New Zealand that are not included in the export spray schedule, as they are not registered for use in the main export markets. These products can be used only for local production (New Zealand Winegrowers 2009b).

3.4.1 Diazinon use on grapes

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on grapes to control mealybug (Novachem 2009). Diazinon is listed for the control of mealybug in the New Zealand Winegrowers Export Wine Grape Spray Annual Schedule (New Zealand Winegrowers 2009b). Mealybugs are a serious pest of grape as they transmit Grapevine Leafroll-associated Virus Type 3 (GLRaV-3). The key mealybug species are citrophilus mealybug (Pseudococcus calceolariae) and longtailed mealybug (P. longispinus). Both species can transmit GLRaV-3 and are commonly found in vineyards in the North Island and northern South Island (New Zealand Winegrowers 2009c).

Insecticides are currently the most effective way to control mealybug. Broad-spectrum insecticides (organophosphates and carbamates) are not recommended in the SWNZ programme. Therefore, the preferred insecticide for mealybug control is the insect growth regulator buprofezin and where high levels of mealybug are found the organophosphate prothiofos and oil at budburst (New Zealand Winegrowers 2009d). Diazinon is not generally used in winegrape production.

3.5 Kiwifruit

New Zealand exports of kiwifruit were valued at $1072 million in 2009 with the major markets being EU (29.6%), Japan (23.7%), and Spain (11.8% by value). There is a planted area of 12 337 ha of kiwifruit production, 2710 growers, 71 packhouses and 92 coolstores (Plant & Food Research 2009).

Since 1997, all fruit grown in New Zealand for export has been managed using either organic principles (certified organic) or the IPM programme called KiwiGreenTM, which has resulted in a significant reduction in insecticide use (Hill et al. 2010).

3.5.1 Diazinon use on kiwifruit

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on kiwifruit to control greedy scale and leafroller caterpillars (Novachem 2009). Diazinon is not used for the control of leafroller on kiwifruit as there are effective alternatives that are compatible with the Kiwigreen® programme (Park & Walker 2009). Diazinon was until recently a key insecticide for the control of armoured scale on kiwifruit. However the EU has reduced the maximum residue levels for diazinon to 0.01 mg/kg (effectively nil detectable), which has resulted in diazinon being removed from the Zespri® Crop Protection Programmes. Diazinon can no longer be used on kiwifruit vines but can be used on shelterbelts, which are a host for armoured scale. Alternative active ingredients are chlorpyrifos, buprofezin, bifenthrin, thiacloprid and thiamethoxam (Steven et al. 2007) and the recently registered active ingredient spirotetramat (Novachem 2009).

3.6 Citrus

The citrus sector covers five crops with a total production area of 1834 ha. Mandarins and oranges account for approximately 75% of the citrus production area with mandarins at 691 ha, oranges 681 ha, lemons 332 ha, tangelos 89 ha and grapefruit 41 ha (Plant & Food Research 2009). There are 440 growers, with domestic sales valued at NZ$40 million in 2010 and export sales at NZ$5 million from a total crop volume of 40 000 tonnes (N Johnson, New Zealand Citrus Growers, pers. comm.).

The major citrus-growing regions of New Zealand are Northland, Bay of Plenty and Gisborne. The main export destinations are Japan and the USA for lemons, Japan and the UK for mandarins and the Pacific Islands for oranges (NZCGI 2010).

The New Zealand citrus industry follows an integrated pest and disease management (IPM) programme that was developed through a MAF Sustainable Farming Fund project (project number 02/073) and launched to the industry in 2005. The programme is documented in an industry manual called Practical, Safe and Effective Integrated Pest Management Strategies for New Zealand Citrus (NZCGI 2005a).

3.6.1 Diazinon use on citrus and alternatives

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on citrus to control aphids, mealybug and scale (Novachem 2009). When the industry IPM programme was developed, Kelly’s citrus thrips, soft wax scale, citrus red mite and citrus flower moth were identified as the pests that required the most attention (NZCGI 2005a). Generally, diazinon is used for thrips and whitefly control (S Minchin, New Zealand Citrus Growers, pers. comm.).

Benchmarking of agrichemical use in 2005 recorded an average of 3.6 insecticides applied per block to oranges, 2.9 to mandarins and 4 to lemon (NZCGI 2005a).

Diazinon is most important for citrus. It is a broad-spectrum insecticide but with no observed disruption of biocontrol. It is cost effective and controls most of the major pests of citrus (W Heggarty pers. comm.). One or two applications of diazinon are likely to be made per season, with the main pest targets being thrips and Australian citrus whitefly.

Insecticide applications are made on citrus using airblast sprayers with typical water rates being 1500–3500 L/ha (N Johnson pers. comm.) at product label rates. The most common type of


sprayer used is the airblast sprayer, either with or without air assistance, and some with Mazzotti guns (NZCGI 2005b).

3.6.1.1 Citrus aphids

Citrus aphids are distributed worldwide. The black citrus aphid (Toxoptera citricida [Kirkaldy]) has only been recorded on citrus while the camellia aphid (Toxoptera aurantii [Boyer de Fonscolombe]) has a wide host range. Light infestations are not usually harmful but heavy infestations can cause leaf curl, delays in production and a decline in plant vigour (NZCGI 2005b). Table 15 lists the products registered for the control of aphids on citrus. Aphids are a minor pest but this list highlights all the available registered insecticides that are likely to be reassessed by ERMA.

Table 15. Products currently registered for aphid control on citrus (Novachem 2009).

Chemical Group Active Ingredient Registered Products Target Pest

mineral oil mineral oil BP Crop Oil, Caltex DC Tron® NR, DC-Tron® Plus, Excel® Oil, Excel® Spring Oil

An impervious layer of oil suffocates target pests. If pest populations are high, add an insecticide. Do not apply in hot or slow drying conditions. Controls citrus red mite, scale, aphids (NZCGI 2005a).

not classified polysaccharides from plant extracts

Agri-50NF Forms a sticky layer to entrap small insects such as aphids, scale, whiteflies, psyllids.

organophosphate acephate** Lancer® 750 DF, Orthene® WSG

Green peach aphid, caterpillars, grassgrub beetle. 14 day NZ pre-harvest interval.

organophosphate diazinon** DewTM 600 Aphids, caterpillars, whitefly, grassgrub beetle. 14 day NZ pre-harvest interval.


Chlorpyrifos 500EC, Chlor-pTM480 EC, Hortcare Chlorpyrifos 480 EC, Key BanTM, Lorsban® 50EC, Lorsban® 750WG, Pyrinex®, Pychlorex® 48EC, Toppel, Rampage Encaps

A broad-spectrum insecticide registered on a wide range of crops. Has contact and vapour action.

organophosphate malathion Malathion 50EC No longer available.


permethrin & pirimiphos-methyl*

Attack® Broad-spectrum insecticide with contact and fumigant action.


3.6.1.2 Mealybug

The most common species of mealybug found on citrus is the long-tailed mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus [Targioni-Tozzetti]). Other species found on citrus are the citrophilus mealybug (Pseudococcus calceolariae [Maskill]) and the obscure mealybug (Pseudococcus viburni [Maskell]). High infestations of mealybug on fruit can cause cosmetically damaging sooty mould that grows on the honeydew excreted from the mealybugs. Mealybug can occur inside the calyx or under the sepals and this is a quarantine issue for some markets (NZCGI 2005b).

Mealybugs are capable of becoming resistant to insecticides. Again, minimising insecticide use and using insecticides from a range of chemical groups are critical to conserving their effectiveness. There is a mealybug resistance management strategy with recommendations to follow (Martin et al. 2005). Mealybug are a minor pest but Table 16 indicates that most of the registered insecticides available for mealybug control on citrus are likely to be reassessed by ERMA. The insect growth regulator buprofezin is a potential alternative already registered on citrus for scale control.

Table 16. Products currently registered for mealybug control on citrus (Novachem 2009).







A broad-spectrum insecticide registered on a wide range of crops. Has contact and vapour action. Resistance to chlorpyrifos has been reported from South Australia (Martin et al. 2005).






3.6.1.3 Scale

The ‘soft scale insects’ (Coccidae) are the most abundant group of scale insect species found on citrus and include soft wax scale (Ceroplastes destructor [Newstead]), Chinese wax scale (Ceroplastes sinensis [Del Guercio]), black (olive) scale (Saissetia oleae [Olivier]), soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidum [L]) and hemispherical scale (Saissetia coffeae [Walker]). Other scale species that are pests of citrus are cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi [Maskell] and armoured scale species such as Californian red scale (Aonidiella aurantii [Maskell], purple


(mussel) scale (Lepidosaphes beckii (Newman), latania/greedy scale (Hemiberlesia lataniae [Signoret]/Hemiberlesia rapax [Signoret]). The ‘soft scale’ species produce honeydew, which that can result in black sooty mould contamination. The armoured scale insects are a cosmetic issue on fruit. Scale-infested trees have reduced vigour and often smaller yields (NZCGI 2005b).

Broad-spectrum organophosphates will control scale but are highly toxic to natural enemies (Lo & Blank 1992). Trials have shown mineral oils, and oil with buprofezin give good control and were safe on natural enemies. Thiacloprid and thiamethoxam were also trialled, but while effective, were likely to disrupt biological control resulting in red mite outbreaks (NZCGI 2005a). Products registered for the control of scale on citrus are listed in Table 17.

Table 17. Products currently registered for mealybug control on citrus (Novachem 2009)

Chemical Group Active Ingredient

Registered Products Target Pest

thiadiazine buprofezin Applaud® 40 SC, Buprimax, MortarTM, Pilan® 25WP, OvationTM 50 WDG

Insect growth regulator registered for the control of scale on citrus. IPM compatible. Gave good control in trials (NZCGI 2005a).

mineral oil mineral oil Caltex D-C-Tron NR, D-C-Tron Plus, Excel® Oil, Excel® Spring Oil

Creates an impervious layer of oil that suffocates pests. Do not use in slow drying or hot conditions. Oils gave good control in trials (NZCGI 2005a).

not classified polysaccharides from plant extracts

Agri-50NF Forms a sticky layer to entrap small insects such as aphids, scale, whiteflies, psyllids.




A broad-spectrum insecticide registered on a wide range of crops. Has contact and vapour action. Kelly’s citrus thrips resistance to chlorpyrifos has been reported from South Australia (Martin et al. 2005).






3.6.1.4 Citrus thrips

Kelly’s citrus thrips (Pezothrips kellyanus [Bagnall]) and greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis [Bouche]) are major pests of citrus. Kelly’s citrus thrips feed on young flower fruit and tissue causing fruit scarring. Citrus that flower over a long period like lemon are vulnerable to damage throughout that period. Kelly’s citrus thrips are found only on citrus. Greenhouse thrips feed on leaves and shoots and can cause significant fruit damage characterised by silvering of the rind. Greenhouse thrips have a wide host range (Martin et al. 2005, NZCGI 2005b). Acephate is very effective for controlling thrips but can be disruptive to natural enemies. Avermectin and Surround® were identified as potential alternatives for Kelly’s thrips control but with further work required before deciding if they should be registered (NZCGI 2005a). Diazinon is not registered for the control of thrips on citrus but it is registered for the control of thrips on vegetable crops. As one of the most commonly used insecticides on citrus, diazinon may also be assisting with thrips control. Table 18 lists the products currently registered for thrips control on citrus and Table 19 lists potential alternative products registered for the control of other species of thrips based on registrations on other crops.

Table 18. Products currently registered for thrips control on citrus (Novachem 2009).


mineral oil mineral oil Caltex D-C-Tron NR, D-C-Tron Plus, Excel® Oil, Excel® Spring Oil

No commercial control (K Pyle, Pyle Orchards and Consulting pers. comm.). Creates an impervious layer of oil, which suffocates pests. Do not use in slow drying or hot conditions. Use an insecticide if pest populations high.

phenylpyrazole fipronil Ascend®, Albatross® 220Sc, Recoil®

Kelly’s citrus thrips. Can cause outbreaks of red mite (NZCGI 2005a) and very toxic to bees and long withholding period of 42 days precludes use on lemon (K Pyle pers. comm.).

pyrethrins pyrethrins Key Pyrethrum, Pyganic®, Pyradym®

Greenhouse thrips. Potential to disrupt biocontrol (Jamieson et al. 2010a).

spinosyn spinosad

Success® Naturalyte®, Yates Success® Naturalyte®, Entrust* Naturalyte* Insect Control

Trials with oil suggest can provide good control and no secondary pest outbreaks but lack persistence therefore reapplication necessary (NZCGI 2005a).

organophosphate acephate** Orthene® WSG Kelly’s citrus thrips. Provides very effective control. Can disrupt biocontrol if used multiple times.



Causes scale outbreaks on citrus as is destroys parasites and predators (K Pyle pers. comm.). A broad-spectrum insecticide registered on a wide range of crops. Has contact and vapour action.

*active ingredients that are on the CEIR list **active ingredients that are reassessment priorities for 20102011 (ERMA New Zealand 2010a)


In New Zealand, the risk of pesticide resistance is confined to onion thrips and western flower thrips and possibly Kelly’s citrus thrips. Resistance to chlorpyrifos has been reported from South Australia on Kelly’s citrus thrips. The thrips insecticide resistance and management strategy recommendation includes using pesticides from several chemical groups (Martin et al. 2005). Further work is needed to identify alternative insecticides that do not disrupt biocontrol.

Table 19. Potential alternative active ingredients for thrips control but not registered and/or trialled on citrus (Novachem 2009).


Currently Registered on Citrus


avermectin abamectin Avid®, ApostleTM, Verdex® 18EC

Miticide registered on a range of crops. IPM compatible. Trials with oil suggest can provide good control and no secondary pest outbreaks but lack persistence therefore reapplication necessary (NZCGI 2005a).

kaolin clay kaolin

Surround® WP

Registered on apple and grape for sunburn and heat stress. White clay residue needs to be washed off at packing. Effect of layer on tree physiology needs trialling (NZCGI 2005a).

neonicotinoid thiacloprid Calypso®, Topstar®, AlpassoTM

Systemic insecticide registered on avocado for the control of thrips, Compatible with IPM. Trials showed severe outbreaks of citrus red mite (NZCGI 2005b).

neonicotinoid imidacloprid

Confidor®, KohinorTM 350, NupridTM

350SC, Pilarking® 200SL

Systemic insecticide. Registered for the control of thrips on onion. Another neonicotinoid so likely to be disruptive to mite predators.

spinosyn spinetoram

Delegate®

Registered on pipfruit for codling moth and leafroller control. Like spinosad, would need to check effect on

natural enemies. Reports from South Africa indicated not IPM compatible-especially toxic to wasp parasitoids (K Pyle pers. comm.).


deltamethrin Decis® Forte, BallisticTM, Deltaphar® 25 EC

Registered on onions and ornamentals for thrips control.

Not IPM compatible (K Pyle pers. comm.).


lambda-cyhalothrin


Registered on a wide range of crops and insect pests including grapes and onions for thrips control. Registered on citrus for Fuller’s rose weevil control.

synthetic pyrethroid taufluvalinate Mavrik®

Aquaflo

Contact insecticide to control caterpillars, beetles, thrips and aphids on a wide range of crops. Not IPM compatible. Caused major red mite problems when tried early 90s (K Pyle pers. comm.).

tetronic & tetramic acid derivatives

spiromesifen Oberon®

Contact insecticide registered for the control of greenhouse whitefly on tomatoes and cucumber. Current registration restricted to glasshouse crops.


spirotetramat Movento®

Systemic insecticide registered on kiwifruit for the control of armoured scale and on potato for TPP. IPM compatible. Trials are planned (K Pyle pers. comm.).


Broad-spectrum insecticide registered for thrips control on avocado and persimmon. Not IPM compatible.

organo-phosphate

diazinon** DewTM 600

Registered for use on citrus for the control of aphids, mealy bug and scale.


Registered for the control of thrips on vegetable crops, ornamentals, passionfruit and persimmon.

Short control on lemons of 2 weeks compared with 5 weeks with acephate – will not handle heavy infestations (K Pyle pers. comm.).

organo-phosphate methamidophos** Metafort® 60L,

Tamaron®

Contact and systemic insecticide. Controls thrips on onion. Not IPM compatible.


3.6.1.5 Australian citrus whitefly

The Australian citrus whitefly (Orchamoplatus citri) was first detected in Auckland in 2000 and has now spread to all the main citrus-growing regions. Australian citrus whitefly causes significant sooty mould problems on commercial and home garden citrus. Up to 90% crop damage has been reported on commercial mandarin and orange crops. All varieties of citrus are susceptible (Jamieson et al. 2010a).

There are no insecticides currently registered for Australian citrus whitefly control on citrus (Novachem 2009). Biological control is being researched for the long-term management of this pest but insecticides are required in the short term. Applications of pymetrozine, diazinon, buprofezin and mineral oil, which are insecticides that are registered for use on citrus for the control of other pests, have all been found to reduce Australian citrus whitefly populations. It is also important that a range of chemical groups is available as whitefly may develop resistance, as outlined in the whitefly insecticide resistance management and prevention strategy (Martin et al. 2005). Research by Jamieson et al. (2010a,b) identified insecticide options (pymetrozine, diazinon, buprofezin, mineral oil and spirotetramat) that, in combination, may be effective in controlling Australian citrus whitefly and are least likely to disrupt biological control. These potential options are listed in Table 20. Good spray coverage and timing of the applications targeting the more vulnerable crawler and young nymph stages are essential factors in achieving good control (Jamieson 2010b).

Whitefly is controlled with a range of products including oil, pymetrozine, spirotetramat, diazinon, and buprofezin. Buprofezin is generally the product of choice for one of the two required sprays for Australian citrus whitefly control, and the timing of this application means that this is effective also for control of some scale species (S Minchin pers. comm.).

Table 20. Potential active ingredients for Australian citrus whitefly (ACWF) control but not registered and/or trialled on citrus (Novachem 2009).


Currently Registered on Citrus


mineral oil mineral oil BP Crop Oil, Caltex DC Tron® NR, DC-Tron® Plus, Excel® Oil, Excel® Spring Oil

An impervious layer of oil suffocates target pests. Do not apply in hot or slow drying conditions. Gave good control in trials (Jamieson et al. 2010a,b).


Confidor®, KohinorTM 350, NupridTM 350SC, Pilarking® 200SL

Systemic insecticide. Registered for the control of thrips on onion and aphids on vegetables. Soil application in late spring or early summer effective for ACWF control in potted trials (Jamieson et al. 2010a) but not in field trials (Jamieson 2010b).

not classified azadirachtin Neemazal-T/STM

Biochemical insecticide. Gave good control in potted trials (Jamieson et al. 2010a), but not in field trials (Jamieson et al. 2010b).

pyridine azomethine

pymetrozine Chess® WG, Bravium

Registered on tamarillo for control of aphids, whitefly. Compatible with IPM programmes. Not as effective in potted trials (Jamieson et al. 2010a), but effective in field trials (Jamieson et al. 2010b).

tetronic & tetramic acid derivatives spiromesifen Oberon®

Contact insecticide for the control of greenhouse whitefly in cucumbers and tomato/potato psyllid on potatoes. Reported effective in controlling ACWF in potted trials (Jamieson et al. 2010a). Current registration restricted to glasshouse crops.

tetronic & tetramic acid derivatives spirotetramat Movento®

Systemic insecticide registered on kiwifruit for the control of armoured scale and on potato for TPP. IPM compatible. Effective in field trials (Jamieson et al. 2010b).


Applaud® 40 SC, Buprimax, MortarTM, Pilan® 25WP, OvationTM 50

Insect growth regulator registered for the control of whitefly on tamarillo. IPM compatible. Reported effective in controlling ACWF in trials.


WDG (Jamieson et al. 2010a,b).

organophosphate diazinon** DewTM 600 Aphids, caterpillars, whitefly, grassgrub beetle. Effective in controlling ACWF in trials (Jamieson et al. 2010a,b) but potentially disruptive of biocontrol.

organophosphate acephate** Orthene® WSG Kelly’s citrus thrips. Reported effective in controlling ACWF by growers but potentially disruptive of biocontrol (Jamieson et al. 2010a).

**active ingredients that are reassessment priorities for 2010-2011 (ERMA New Zealand 2010a)

3.7 Berryfruit

The New Zealand berryfruit industry comprises approximately 240 growers, accounting for a planted area of 2563 ha. Berryfruit is composed of six crops:

• blackcurrant – 1450 ha, 52 growers, fresh sales value domestic NZ$3.6 million, processed export NZ$18.2 million

• boysenberry – 274 ha, 55 growers, fresh sales value domestic NZ$ 4.8 million, process export NZ$4.1 million

• raspberry – 150 ha, 60 growers, fresh sales value domestic NZ$3.0 million, process export NZ$0.2 million

• blueberry – 522 ha, 95 growers, fresh sales value domestic NZ$25.6 million, export NZ$13.4 million, processed export NZ$1.0 million

• strawberry – 170 ha, 100 growers, fresh sales value domestic NZ$21.3 million, export NZ$5.0 million

• other brambles – 120 ha, fresh sales value domestic NZ$0.6 million (Plant & Food Research 2009).

The strawberry industry is serviced by four strawberry runner producers with a total production area of approximately 30 ha (I Horner, PFR, pers. comm.).

3.7.1 Diazinon use on berryfruit and alternatives

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on strawberry to control aphids (Novachem 2009). Diazinon may be used by 10% of strawberry growers (G. Langford, PFR pers. comm.) and by most boysenberry growers (G Battersby, Nelson grower. pers. comm.). A single application may be applied pre-flowering mainly to control black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus [Fabricius]) but also to control aphids on strawberry and as a pre-flowering “cleanup” of other pests such as leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), raspberry budmoth (Heterocrossa rubophaga), leafhoppers (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) and raspberry sawfly (Priophorus tener [Zaddach]). The key to managing most of these pests is to ensure good control pre-flowering as there are few insecticide options that are safe for bees and have short pre-harvest intervals, making them suitable post-flowering. Insecticides used must also be safe for the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis [Athias Henriot], which controls two-spotted

mite (Tetranychus urticae [Koch]). Diazinon is listed as slightly harmful to the egg, nymph and adult stages of P. persimilis when applied as a high volume spray (Koppert 2010).

Diazinon is also used on strawberry runner beds to control aphids and thrips and primarily for black beetle control after P. persimilis have been distributed. Insecticides are applied throughout the growing season from September to May (G Langford pers. comm.).

Applications are made to boysenberry using hydraulic over-row booms and boom sprayers are used on strawberry and strawberry runner beds. Alternative pre-flowering insecticides to diazinon include methoxyfenozide, spinosad, tebufenozide and chlorpyrifos. For post-flowering control, methomyl is used (G Langford pers. comm.). Table 21 lists the insecticides currently registered on berryfruit and Table 22 lists potential alternatives to diazinon.

Table 21. Products currently registered on berryfruit (Novachem 2009).


biological Bacillus thuringiensis

Bactercide WG, Biobit® DF, Dipel® DF, Dipel® ES Delfin®, Hortcare Bactur® 48 LC, Hortcare Bactur® WDG

Registered for the control of leafroller caterpillars on berryfruit.

carbamate methomyl Lannate® L

Registered on strawberries for aphid and leafroller control registered on canefruit for bud moth and leafroller. Broad-spectrum, short life in the plant and short PHI.


Registered on berryfruit and blueberries for the control of caterpillars and raspberry bud moth, also thrips on strawberries. Broad-spectrum, quick knockdown, short persistence. Safe on Phytoseiulus persimilis.


Registered for the control of leafhoppers on berryfruit.

organophosphate azinphos-methyl*** Cotnion® 200

Reassessed by ERMA New Zealand. Five year phase out to 1 January 2015 on strawberry runner production.

organophosphate diazinon** DewTM 600, Diazol®, Hortcare Diazinon 500EW

Registered on strawberry for aphid control. Safe on Phytoseiulus persimilis.

organophosphate dimethoate* Dimezyl® 40EC, Perfekthion® S, Rogor® E

Broad-spectrum systemic insecticide. Registered on berryfruit (blackcurrants, strawberries) for aphid and strawberry aphid control)


organophosphate dichlorvos** Nuvos®, DivapTM

Registered on berryfruit for the control of aphids, caterpillars and mites. Broad-spectrum insecticide.

organophosphate phorate*

Crop Care Phorate 20G, Disect, Thimet® 20G (granule applied at planting)

Registered on strawberries for aphid control.

*active ingredients that are on the CEIR list **active ingredients that are reassessment priorities for 2010-2011 (ERMA New Zealand 2010a) ***ERMA reassessment completed. Five year phase out (ERMA New Zealand 2009b) Table 22. Potential alternative active ingredients to diazinon but not registered and/or trialled on berryfruit (Novachem 2009).

Chemical Group Active Ingredient Products Registration details

anthranilic diamide chlorantraniliprole Altacor® 35 WDG

Newly registered on pipfruit for leafroller and codling moth. Particularly active on lepidopteron pests, primarily as a larvicide.


Non-systemic with translaminar activity. Good coverage is essential, quickly moves into young leaves. Registered for the control of leafrollers on kiwifruit, pipfruit, grapes and avocado.

benzoylurea lufenuron Match®, Nuron®

Registered for the control of codling moth and leafroller larvae in apples and pears.

chloronicotinyl thiacloprid Calypso®, Topstar®

Systemic insecticide controlling a range of pests on apples, thrips in avocados, nectarines and peaches and armoured scale on kiwifruit. Moderately harmful to P. persimilis ( Koppert 2010).

chloronicotinyl and synthetic pyrethroid

thiacloprid and deltamethrin Proteus®

Systemic and contact insecticide registered for the control of thrips in onions.

diacylhydrazine tebufenozide

Approve® 240SC, Approve® 70W, Comic, Mimic* 700WP

Insect growth regulator. IPM compatible. Slightly harmful on P. persimilis (Koppert 2010).

ecdysteroid agonist methoxyfenozide Prodigy®

Systemic and contact insecticide for the control of leafroller on apples, pears, kiwifruit and grapes. IPM compatible. Safe on P. persimilis (Koppert 2010).

oxadiazine indoxacarb Steward® 150SC

Very effective on all larval stages of most Lepidoptera species. IPM compatible. Currently registered on kiwifruit for leafroller control and

Chemical Group Active Ingredient Products Registration details

vegetable brassica for diamondback moth and cabbage white butterfly control.

spinosyn spinosad

Success® Naturalyte®, Yates Success® Naturalyte®, Entrust* Naturalyte® Insect Control

Controls caterpillars on avocado, pipfruit, brassica vegetable and field tomato and thrips on citrus. Slightly harmful on nymph and adult P. persimilis (Koppert 2010).

spinosoid spinetoram Delegate®

Works by contact and ingestion activity. Registered on pipfruit for codling moth and leafroller control.


Chlorpyrifos 50 EC, Chlorpyrifos 48EC, Chlor-pTM 480 EC, Hortcare Chlorpyrifos 50 EC, Key BanTM, Lorsban®

Broad-spectrum control. Has contact and vapour action. Registered on a wide range of crops. Used on berryfruit pre-flowering as an early season broad-spectrum “cleanup” [G. Langford pers. comm.]. Moderately harmful to nymph and adult P. persimilis ( Koppert 2010).


3.8 Persimmon

The New Zealand persimmon industry comprises approximately 88 growers, and accounts for a planted production area of 180 ha. The 2009 crop volume was 3420 tonne valued at NZ$1 million on the domestic market and NZ$7.6 million export value (Plant & Food Research 2009). The main growing regions are Auckland/Northland and Gisborne. Approximately 80% of the New Zealand persimmon crop is exported, with the export markets, in order of decreasing export volume, being Malaysia, Europe/UK, Thailand, Australia, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan and Japan (Persimmon Industry Council 2010).

Using Integrated Pest Management (IPM) principles and with funding assistance for research and programme development from AGMARDT and the Ministry for the Environment, the persimmon industry Green & Gold® IPM system and manual was developed and released to persimmon growers in 2001 (Persimmon Industry Council 2001).

3.8.1 Diazinon use on persimmon and alternatives

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on persimmon to control leafroller, mealybug, scale and thrips (Novachem 2009). Persimmon are not an easy crop to spray and spray coverage is critical to obtain good control. Applications are with an air-blast sprayer using high volume spraying with water rates at 1500 to 2000 litres per hectare, with the higher rates at full canopy (Persimmon Industry Council 2001). Table 23 lists the insecticides currently registered on persimmon.


There is a wide range of insects and mites recorded on persimmon in New Zealand. These insects can be categorised as major pests (damaging fruit), minor pests (indirect damage by weakening trees therefore reducing yields), and passenger pests (contaminating fruit). Any of these three categories of pest has the potential to cause serious biosecurity problems if found on export fruit.

The major pests of persimmon are:

• Mealybugs – most commonly the longtailed mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus) • Leafroller – most commonly the brown-headed leafroller (Ctenopseustis obliquana) in

Gisborne and the lightbrown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) elsewhere • Stathmopoda species – garden featherfoot (Stathmopoda skelloni) • Armoured scales – the most serious is latania scale (Hemiberlesia lataniae) • Greenhouse thrips – Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis • Tydeid mites – Orthotydeus californicus and O. caudatus • Persimmon bud mite – Aceria diospyri.

Passenger pests include thrips (Nesothrips propinquus), oribatid mites, psocids (also known as booklice), spiders and slaters. There are also a number of minor pests (Persimmon Industry Council 2001).

The persimmon industry currently relies on Attack® (active ingredients permethrin and pirimiphos-methyl) (28%) and chlorpyrifos (20%), which together account for nearly 50% of all insecticide applications (MAF 2009). Diazinon is listed in the persimmon industry Green & Gold® IPM 2001 programme for the control of leafroller, mealybug, thrips or scale when pest levels are high during three intervals; late January, early March and mid-April (Persimmon Industry Council 2001).

In 2007, a commercial evaluation of the Green & Gold persimmon crop protection programme was made in Gisborne, funded by the Ministry for Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF) Sustainable Farming Fund. The main findings were that the programme was unable to achieve pest control comparable with conventional blocks. Key pests such as leafroller and mealybug should be able to be controlled by more selective insecticides, but there were a concerning number of contaminants (e.g. spiders, booklice and woodlice) on conventional and IPM programme fruit, which created a quarantine issue for export fruit (MAF SFF 2007).

Postharvest disinfestation trials have found treatments such as extended coolstorage, modified atmosphere (low oxygen, high carbon dioxide), and hot water treatment are not economically viable options, do not fit with current fruit transport and handling systems, and there are fruit damage risks. (A Woolf, I Turk,, PFR, pers. comm.).

Diazinon is very good for scale control but is no longer used on export crops for Europe, with growers instead using chlorpyrifos (W Heggarty, Fruitfed Supplies, Gisborne, pers. comm.) The EU has reduced the maximum residue levels for diazinon to 0.01 mg/kg and permethrin to 0.05 mg/kg (effectively nil detectable) (Lupton 2007).

In conclusion, the registration and use of more selective insecticides will control key pests such as leafroller and mealybugs. Alternative active ingredients are listed in Table 24.

Table 23. Insecticides currently registered on persimmon (Novachem 2009).





Registered for the control of caterpillars.



An insect growth regulator compatible with IPM programmes. Registered for mealybug control.

carbamate carbaryl* Carbaryl 50F, Sevin® Flo Registered for the control of leafroller, mealybug, scale crawlers, thrips. Quick knockdown, short persistence.

organophosphate diazinon** DewTM 500, Diazinon 50W, Diazinon EC, Diazinon 800, Diazinon 800 EC, Diazonyl® 60EC, DigrubTM, Diazol®, Hortcare Diazinon 500EW

Registered for the control of leafroller, mealybug, scale insects, thrips. New Zealand pre-harvest interval of 7 days.

organophosphate dichlorvos** Nuvos®, DivapTM Broad-spectrum insecticide. Registered for the control of caterpillars and latania scale. Used for the control of “passenger” insects (Persimmon Industry Council 2001). Short pre-harvest interval of 7 days for local and export.



Attack®

Broad-spectrum insecticide with contact and fumigant action. Registered for the control of greedy and latania scale, leafroller and mealybug.



Table 24. Potential alternative active ingredients to diazinon but not registered and/or trialled on persimmon (Lupton 2007, Novachem 2009, D Steven, IPM Research Ltd, pers. comm.).

Chemical Group Active Ingredient Products Registration Details

anthranilic diamide chlorantraniliprole Altacor® 35 WDG

Newly registered on pipfruit for leafroller and codling moth. Particularly active on lepidopteron pests, primarily as a larvicide.


Non-systemic with translaminar activity. Good coverage is essential, quickly moves into young leaves. Registered for the control of leafrollers on kiwifruit, pipfruit, grapes and avocado.

benzoylurea lufenuron Match®, Nuron®

Registered for the control of codling moth and leafroller larvae in apples and pears.

chloronicotinyl thiacloprid Calypso®, Topstar®

Systemic insecticide controlling a range of pests on apples, thrips in avocados, nectarines and peaches and armoured scale in kiwifruit.


thiacloprid and deltamethrin Proteus®

Systemic and contact insecticide registered for the control of thrips in onions.

diacylhydrazine tebufenozide

Approve® 240SC, Approve® 70W, Comic, Mimic® 700WP

Insect growth regulator. IPM compatible.

ecdysteroid agonist methoxyfenozide Prodigy®

Systemic and contact insecticide for the control of leafroller on apples, pears, kiwifruit and grapes. IPM compatible.

oxadiazine indoxacarb Steward® 150SC

Very effective on all larval stages of most Lepidoptera species. IPM compatible. Currently registered on kiwifruit for leafroller control.


Thrips on onion.

spinosyn spinosad

Success® Naturalyte®, Yates Success® Naturalyte®, Entrust* Naturalyte® Insect Control

Controls caterpillars on avocado, pipfruit, brassica vegetable and field tomato and thrips on citrus.

spinosoid spinetoram Delegate® Works by contact and ingestion activity. Registered on pipfruit for codling moth and leafroller

Chemical Group Active Ingredient Products Registration Details

control.



Systemic insecticide registered on kiwifruit for the control of armoured scale and on potato for TPP. IPM compatible.


Chlorpyrifos 50 EC, Chlorpyrifos 48EC, Chlor-pTM 480 EC, Hortcare Chlorpyrifos 50 EC, Key BanTM, Lorsban®

Broad-spectrum control. Has contact and vapour action. Registered on a wide range of crops.


3.9 Tamarillo

The tamarillo industry comprises 175 growers, with a planted area of 194 ha. The 740-tonne crop has a domestic sales value of NZ$1.8 million and export value of NZ$0.4 million which was a significant drop from 2008 where the export value was NZ$1.1 million (Plant & Food Research 2008, 2009) which was as a result of closed export markets due to the incursion of the tomato/potato psyllid into New Zealand. Tamarillo are sensitive to frost so are mainly grown in the relatively frost-free regions of Bay of Plenty, Auckland and Northland (Rheinlander et al. 2009) with plantings also in Gisborne, Taranaki, Levin, Nelson and Karamea (Watson 2009).

The main export market is Australia. However, as a result of the establishment of tomato/potato psyllid (TPP) in New Zealand, Australia closed imports of tamarillo along with all other solanaceous crops from New Zealand (Watson 2009). Exports to Australia have now recommenced (as at August 2010) but with stringent pre-clearance requirements. All tamarillo exported to Australia now require mandatory pre-export fumigation with methyl bromide (AQIS 2010).

3.9.1 Diazinon use on tamarillo and alternatives

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered to control leafroller, aphids and whitefly on tamarillo (Novachem 2009). There are a number of insect pests of tamarillo, the most important being green peach aphid and whitefly; present but less serious are green looper caterpillars and grassgrub (Page Bloomer Associates 2010). Field studies by Rheinländer et al. (2009) also recorded aphids and whitefly in large numbers. The new pest tomato/potato psyllid (TPP) (Bactericera cockerelli [Sulc]) is also a very serious pest of tamarillo, destroying trees where no insecticide control is undertaken. The tamarillo industry is trialling options for effective control of TPP but these do not include diazinon (Watson 2009).

Diazinon is used by approximately 10% of growers. Where diazinon is used, applications are made using an airblast sprayer at water rates of 600 to 1200 L/ha at product rates as stated on the label. Where used a minimum of two and maximum of six applications are made per season (C. Watson, New Zealand Tamarillo Growers Association, pers. comm.).


3.9.1.1 Whitefly The greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum [Westwood]), has a wide host range and in the late 1970s a strain adapted itself to tamarillos and became a major pest (Martin et al. 2005). Whitefly is susceptible to developing resistance to pesticides, so adhering to the strategy for the management and prevention of whitefly insecticide resistance is recommended (Martin et al. 2005). The resistance management strategy for tamarillo recommends the use of non-insecticide controls such as removal of host weeds. Where insecticide use is needed, it is recommended to apply a cluster of 2–6 sprays of one insecticide to kill all stages of a generation, then the next time insecticide is required, to use an insecticide from a different chemical group (Martin et al. 2005). Table 25 lists the products registered for the control of whitefly on tamarillo. While at a glance the list looks extensive, with five chemical groups, the biological insecticides are to be applied frequently as curatives only, the organophosphates are under ERMA reassessment, and there is recorded incidence of whitefly resistance to buprofezin in New Zealand, therefore restricting its use (Martin et al. 2005). New insecticides compatible with IPM programmes are listed as potential alternatives for the control of whitefly on tamarillo in Table 26.

Table 25. Products currently registered for whitefly control on tamarillo (Novachem 2009).



biological insecticide Lecanicillium lecanii (strain K4V1)

VertikilTM Use only as a curative. No preventative properties.

biological insecticide Lecanicillium muscarium (strain K4V2)

VertiblastTM Use only as a curative. No preventative properties.

pyridine azomethine pymetrozine Chess® WG, Bravium® Green peach aphid, whitefly. Compatible with IPM programmes.14 day NZ pre-harvest interval.

synthetic pyrethroid deltamethrin BallisticTM, Decis® Forte, Deltaphar® 25 EC

Non-systemic and quick acting. 7 day NZ pre-harvest interval.

synthetic pyrethroid taufluvalinate Mavrik® Aqua Flo Green peach aphid, whitefly. 60 day NZ pre-harvest interval.



An insect growth regulator compatible with IPM programmes. Controls immature stages of

mealybug, scale and whitefly. Resistance to whitefly recorded in NZ. Use no more than twice per season and use with another chemical group (Martin et al. 2005).


Aphids, caterpillars, whitefly, grassgrub beetle. 14 day NZ pre-harvest interval.

organophosphate dichlorvos** Nuvos®, DivapTM Broad-spectrum insecticide. Green peach aphid, caterpillars, whitefly. Short pre-harvest interval of 7 days for local and export.

**active ingredients that are reassessment priorities for 2010-2011 (ERMA New Zealand 2010a) Table 26. Potential alternative active ingredients to diazinon for whitefly control but not registered and/or trialled on tamarillo (Novachem 2009).

Chemical Group Active Ingredients Registered in New Zealand

Registered Products Registration details


spiromesifen Oberon® Non-systemic. Mode of action will control whitefly (IRAC 2010).



Systemic insecticide registered on kiwifruit for the control of armoured scale and on potato for TPP. IPM compatible. Mode of action will control whitefly (IRAC 2010).

3.9.1.2 Aphids Aphids are pests of tamarillo as they can cause damage through feeding activity, but more critically are vectors of viruses such as the cucumber mosaic virus, tamarillo mosaic virus and potato mosaic virus. Studies by Olson et al. (1983) identified six species of aphid on tamarillo, with the green peach aphid (Myzus persicae) comprising 89% of aphid numbers. Aphids are present all year, and with most tamarillo orchards already carrying virus, insecticide protection from aphids is really only necessary during periods of peak aphid numbers in spring and autumn. The study by Olson et al. (1983) found acephate, pirimiphos-methyl/permethrin and dimethoate gave 53–100% control, with lower levels of control achieved with diazinon.


Table 27 lists insecticides registered for control of aphid on tamarillo; however, if a number of these are deregistered through ERMA reassessment, there are few alternatives to meet the resistance management guidelines for green peach aphid. Acephate and dichlorvos are being reassessed; diazinon is not as effective in controlling green peach aphid; taufluvalinate has a long pre-harvest interval, which leaves only pymetrozine as a currently registered long-term option. To meet resistance management guidelines, pymetrozine cannot be applied more than twice at 7–14 day intervals at the first sign of pests and then alternated with other products (Novachem 2009). Insecticides from alternative chemical groups need to be registered for the control of green peach aphid with potential options listed in Table 28.

Table 27. Products currently registered for aphid control on tamarillo (Novachem 2009)



pyridine azomethine pymetrozine Chess® WG, Bravium® Green peach aphid, whitefly. Compatible with IPM programmes.14 day NZ pre-harvest interval.

synthetic pyrethroid taufluvalinate Mavrik® Aqua Flo Green peach aphid, whitefly. 60 day NZ pre-harvest interval.




Aphids, caterpillars, whitefly, grassgrub beetle. Not as effective for controlling green peach aphid (Olson et al. 1983). 14 day NZ pre-harvest interval.

organophosphate dichlorvos** Nuvos®, DivapTM Broad-spectrum insecticide. Green peach aphid, caterpillars, whitefly. Short pre-harvest interval of 7 days for local and export.

**active ingredients that are reassessment priorities for 2010-2011 (ERMA New Zealand 2010a)

Table 28. Potential alternative active ingredients to diazinon for green peach aphid control but not registered and/or trialled on tamarillo (Martin et al. 2005, Novachem 2009).

Chemical Group Active Ingredients Registered in New Zealand

Registered Products Registration details

carbamate methomyl Lannate® L Broad-spectrum, short life in the plant and short PHI.

carbamate pirimicarb Aphidex® WG, Pirimor® 50, Pirimisect, Piritek®, ProhiveTM

Partially systemic aphicide with strong fumigant action.


Systemic insecticide registered on avocado for the control of thrips, on kiwifruit for armoured scale, on apple for armoured scale, bronze beetle, codling moth, mealybugs. Compatible with IPM. Neonicotinoid mode of action will control aphids (IRAC 2010).


bifenthrin Talstar 100EC Non-systemic, controls a wide range of sucking and chewing pests.





spiromesifen Oberon® Non-systemic. Mode of action will control aphids (IRAC 2010).



Systemic insecticide registered on kiwifruit for the control of armoured scale and on potato for TPP. IPM compatible. Mode of action will control aphids (IRAC 2010).

organophosphate dimethoate* Dimezyl® 40EC, Perfekthion® S, Rogor® E

Broad-spectrum systemic insecticide.

*active ingredients that are on the CEIR list (ERMA New Zealand 2010a)

3.9.1.3 Leafroller

Diazinon is registered for the control of leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) as noted on various product labels. The four products registered for the control of caterpillar and/or leafroller on tamarillo are listed for ERMA reassessment (Table 29). Alternatives that are compatible with IPM, and are from more than one chemical group that can be alternated to meet resistance management guidelines are needed. Potential alternatives are listed in Table 30.


Leafroller insecticide resistance has been recorded in New Zealand and it is extremely important that the leafroller insecticide resistance management strategy recommendations continue to be followed (Martin et al. 2005).

Table 29. Products currently registered for caterpillar control on tamarillo (Novachem 2009).


carbamate carbaryl* Carbaryl 50F, Sevin® Flo Caterpillar, grassgrub beetle, leafroller. Quick knockdown, short persistence.


Aphids, caterpillars, grassgrub beetle.


Broad-spectrum insecticide. Aphids, caterpillars, whitefly, grassgrub beetle.

organophosphate dichlorvos** Nuvos®, DivapTM** Broad-spectrum insecticide. Aphids, caterpillars, whitefly.


Table 30. Potential alternative active ingredients to diazinon for leafroller control but not registered and/or trialled on tamarillo (Novachem 2009).


Currently Registered on Tamarillo

Registered Products

anthranilic diamide chlorantraniliprole Altacor®

avermectin emamectin benzoate

Proclaim®



diacylhydrazine methoxyfenozide Prodigy*


spinosyn spinosad Success® Naturalyte®, Yates Success® Naturalyte®, Entrust*

Naturalyte* Insect Control

spinosyn spinetoram Delegate*


3.10 Allium

The onion industry is comprised of 108 growers with a total production area of 4657 ha. The domestic market for onions had a sales value of NZ$25 million and export sales value of NZ$76.3 million fob in 2009. There are 28 garlic growers with a total production area of 268 ha. In 2009, domestic sales were valued at NZ$6.5 million and there were NZ$0.6 million worth of fresh exports. Other allium crops are shallots, spring onion and leeks. The main onion-growing regions are Pukekohe, Waikato, Hawke’s Bay, Manawatu/Wanganui and Canterbury (Plant & Food Research 2009). The main export markets are the EU, Japan, Fiji and Indonesia (Horticulture NZ 2010).

With assistance from MAF SFF funding, the industry developed an IPM programme, which was launched in 2007 and documented in a manual, Best Practices for Integrated Pest Management in New Zealand Allium Crops (Onions New Zealand 2007).

3.10.1 Diazinon use on onion and alternatives

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered to control caterpillars, aphids and thrips on onion (Novachem 2009). Insecticide applications are made with a boom sprayer at water rates of 300-400 L/ ha. Based on resistance management guidelines, a minimum of three and maximum of four applications of diazinon could be made per season (Martin et al. 2005, Onions New Zealand 2007). However, resistance to diazinon is evident in all regions (Onions New Zealand 2007) so it is unlikely diazinon is used in onion production.

3.10.1.1 Onion thrips

Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci [Lindeman]) are the main insect pest of New Zealand onions. Infestations can cause loss of green tissue and loss of yield while damage to the onion bulbs reduces bulb quality and therefore their sales value (Martin et al. 2008). Growers have increased their vigilance in monitoring and controlling thrips since the incursion of Iris Yellow Spot Virus (IYSV) into New Zealand in January 2008. IYSV is vectored by thrips (Martin et al. 2008).

Thrips are susceptible to developing resistance to insecticides. Onion thrips’ resistance to synthetic pyrethroids has been recorded in the North and South Islands of New Zealand, resistance to dichlorvos recorded near Auckland (Martin et al. 2005) and resistance to diazinon now evident in all regions (Onions New Zealand 2007).

Research on the selective insecticides spinosad and imidacloprid found that while good thrips control was achieved, biological control was disrupted. Biological control is not a viable option for thrips control unless more selective chemistry is developed and registered and even in unsprayed plots natural enemies did not provide effective thrips control (Workman & Martin 2002). The identification of pheromone compounds that could be used in lures has opened the way for initial investigations into improved monitoring, mass trapping, and lure-and-kill systems for thrips pest management (Teulon et al. 2007). However, these are yet to be developed so the control of thrips in allium crops remains based on insecticide use. Products currently


registered for the control of onion thrips are listed in Table 31 and some potential alternatives in Table 32.

Table 31. Products currently registered for thrips control on onion (Novachem 2009).



biological Beauveria bassiana conidia (K4b1)

BeaugenicTM For indoor and outdoor crops for the control of thrips, cicada and psyllids.

biological Lecanicillium lecanii, conidia (K4v1)

VertikilTM Fungus that controls whitefly and juvenile thrips. Has no preventative properties.

biological Lecanicillium muscarium blastospores (K4v2)

VertiblastTM Fungus that controls psyllids, thrips, aphids, whiteflies. Has no preventative properties.

carbamate formetanate Dicarzol® 500

A contact insecticide with some residual activity for the control of onion thrips on bulb onion.


Confidor®, Cyrus®, KohinorTM 350, NupridTM

350SC, Pilarking® 200SL

Systemic insecticide. Maximum of 4 applications.

neonicotinoid and synthetic pyrethroid

thiacloprid and deltamethrin

Proteus® Systemic and contact insecticide for the control of thrips. Some strains of thrips are resistant to synthetic pyrethroids. Use no more than two applications (Onions New Zealand 2007).


Thrips on onion – do not apply more than 4 per season.


lambda-cyhalothrin


Registered on a wide range of crops and insect pests. Some strains of thrips are resistant to synthetic pyrethroids. Avoid using synthetic pyrethroids for thrips control (Onions New Zealand 2007).


Contact insecticide. Some strains of thrips are resistant to synthetic pyrethroids. Avoid using synthetic pyrethroids for

thrips control (Onions New Zealand 2007).


alpha-cypermethrin,

Alpha-Scud®, Bestseller®100EC, Cypher®, Cypher®EW, Dominex 100EC

Non-systemic. Some strains of thrips are resistant to synthetic pyrethroids. Avoid using synthetic pyrethroids for thrips control (Onions New Zealand 2007).


deltamethrin Decis® Forte, BallisticTM, Deltaphar® 25 EC

Non-systemic. Some strains of thrips are resistant to deltamethrin. Avoid using synthetic pyrethroids for thrips control (Onions New Zealand 2007).

organophosphate chlorpyrifos* Lorsban® 750WG, Pyrinex®, Toppel, Rampage Encaps

A broad-spectrum insecticide registered on a wide range of crops. Has contact and vapour action.

organophosphate methamidophos** Metafort® 60L, Tamaron®

Contact and systemic insecticide. Controls thrips on onion.


Aphids, caterpillars, thrips on vegetables. Some strains of onion thrips are resistant to diazinon therefore not listed as an option in the industry thrips control strategy (Onions New Zealand 2009).


Table 32. Potential active ingredients for thrips control but not registered and/or trialled on onion (Novachem 2009).

Chemical Group

Active Ingredient


spinosyn spinosad

Success® Naturalyte®, Yates Success® Naturalyte®, Entrust* Naturalyte* Insect Control

Found to be effective in reducing thrips numbers but prevented the development of natural enemies (Workman & Martin 2002).

spinosyn spinetoram Delegate® Registered for the control of leafroller and codling moth in pipfruit.


spiromesifen Oberon® Non-systemic acaricide/insecticide. Current registration restricted to glasshouse crops and potato.

tetronic & tetramic acid

spirotetramat Movento® Systemic insecticide registered on kiwifruit for the control of armoured


derivatives scale and on potato for TPP. IPM compatible.

3.10.1.2 Aphids

There are three species of aphid found on onion. They are the shallot aphid (Myzus ascalonicus [Doncaster]), onion aphid Neotoxoptera formosana [Takahashi]) and the marigold aphid (Neotoxoptera oliveri [Essig]). Aphid feeding can cause distortion of the plants and can be a vector for viruses.

Diazinon is the only active ingredient registered for the control of aphids on onion but generally, the products used for onion thrips also control aphids. However, for the allium crops shallots and chives, which are not hosts to thrips, insecticides specifically for aphid control are sometimes needed. A second application may be needed if aphids are still present one week after application. If there are any further applications needed, an insecticide from a different chemical group is needed to meet resistance management guidelines (Onions New Zealand 2007).

3.10.1.3 Caterpillars

The greasy cutworm (Agrotis ipsilon aneituma [Walker]) feed on a wide variety of plants. They cause sporadic damage in allium crops, with larger damaging cutworm larvae developing from October onwards. Young larvae feed on foliage and the larger larvae cut off seedlings and drag the vegetation into the burrow. Good weed and crop debris control will probably reduce the risk of greasy cutworm larvae. There are no other caterpillar species listed as major pests on allium crops (Onions New Zealand 2007). The lambda-cyhalothrin products CyhellaTM and Karate® with Zeon Technology are registered to control cutworm (Novachem 2010).

3.11 Feijoa

The feijoa industry comprises 200 growers with a total planted area of approximately 200 ha. The crop has a sales value of NZ$1.7 million on the domestic market and NZ$0.2 million of export sales (Plant & Food Research 2009).

The NZ Feijoa Growers Association (NZFGA) is an incorporated society established to serve the interests of feijoa growers in New Zealand. It is funded through a compulsory levy (NZFGA 2010).

3.11.1 Diazinon use on feijoa and alternatives

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on feijoa to control leafroller, greedy scale and mealybug (Novachem 2009). Diazinon is used to control leafrollers and scale. There are usually 1 or 2 applications per season but there can be up to 3 (D Steven pers. comm.). Feijoa are supplied fresh for the domestic and export market (small volumes to Australia and potentially the USA) and for processing.

The main pests are (Thorp & Bieleski 2002, Steven 2006):

• leafroller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae)

• looper caterpillars (Cleora scriptara)

• armoured scale especially greedy scale (Hemiberlesia rapax)

• Chinese wax scale (Ceroplastes sinensis)

• mealybug (Pseudococcus longispinus)

• passion-vine hopper (Scolypopa australis)

• bronze beetle (Eucolaspis brunnea)

• grassgrub (Costelytra zealandica)

• greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis)

• oribatid mites

• feijoa bud mite (Aceria feijoae) – found in New Zealand in the late 1980s but not known to cause significant damage

• guava moth/fruit driller (Coscinoptycha improbana [Meyrick]) – found in Ahipara, Northland, New Zealand in 1997.

Guava moth is a serious pest of feijoa and macadamia crops in Northland and it has been found on home garden fruit crops such as loquat, guava, plum, peach, nashi pear and citrus. In the laboratory, guava moth larvae bore directly into fruit beneath their egg capsule. If this also occurs in the field, guava moth will be very difficult to control with insecticide. Therefore, to control guava moth, approaches such as cultural control, pheromone-based control and biological control will need to be identified and developed (Jamieson et al. 2004). The most recent survey conducted in 2008 found guava moth had spread to Auckland as far south as Tuakau (Clearwater 2008).

DewTM600 is the only insecticide specifically registered for use on feijoa. Bacillus thuringiensis is also registered on fruit crops for the control of caterpillars such as leafroller. On export crops, diazinon can only be used during the period after harvest through to pre-flowering to ensure nil detectable MRLs for diazinon are met in export markets. Diazinon is used for mealybug and scale control and as a general pest “clean-up”. During flowering and post-flowering, Bacillus thuringiensis is recommended for leafroller control and oils for scale, mealybug and thrips control (Sale 2004).

There are several alternatives available for the control of leafroller but they are all approximately twice as expensive as diazinon. There are no alternatives for scale with a short pre-harvest interval (D Steven pers. comm.). Table 33 lists potential options for leafroller and scale control.

Table 33. Potential alternative active ingredients but not registered and/or trialled on feijoa (Steven 2006, Novachem 2009).

Chemical Group



anthranilic diamide

chlorantraniliprole Altacor® 35 WDG Newly registered on pipfruit for leafroller and codling moth. Particularly active on lepidopteron pests, primarily as a larvicide.

avermectin emamectin benzoate

Proclaim® Non-systemic with translaminar activity. Good coverage is essential, quickly moves into young leaves. Registered for the control of leafrollers on kiwifruit, pipfruit, grapes and avocado.


Bactercide WG, Biobit® DF, Dipel® DF, Dipel® ES

Registered for the control of caterpillars.


Delfin®, Hortcare Bactur® 48 LC, Hortcare Bactur® WDG




thiacloprid and deltamethrin

Proteus® Systemic and contact insecticide registered for the control of thrips in onions.


Insect growth regulator. IPM compatible.

ecdysteroid agonist

methoxyfenozide Prodigy® Systemic and contact insecticide for the control of leafroller on apples, pears, kiwifruit and grapes. IPM compatible.


neonicotinoid thiamethoxam Actara® Systemic insecticide for the control of scales and passion vine hopper on kiwifruit and scales and Froggatt's Apple leafhopper on pipfruit and aphids on potatoes.

oxadiazine indoxacarb Steward® 150SC Very effective on all larval stages of most Lepidoptera species. IPM compatible. Currently registered on kiwifruit for leafroller control and vegetable brassica for diamondback moth and cabbage white butterfly control.

spinosyn spinosad Success® Naturalyte®, Yates Success® Naturalyte®, Entrust* Naturalyte® Insect Control

Controls caterpillars on avocado, pipfruit, brassica vegetable and field tomato and thrips on citrus.

thiadiazine buprofezin Applaud® 40Sc, Buprimax, MortarTM, OvationTM 50 WDG, Pilan® 25WP


3.12 Passionfruit

The New Zealand passionfruit industry has approximately 90 growers accounting for a production area of 47 ha. The sales value of the crop was NZ$0.6 million in export earnings in 2009 (Plant & Food Research 2009). Passionfruit produces a continuous crop, with flowering and fruit set happening at the same time as the first fruit ripens. This extends the harvest season, commencing in late January through to September. Approximately 25–40% of the crop is exported, with the remaining crop for the domestic market and processing (Sale 2003). The main growing regions are Bay of Plenty and Northland. The USA is the main export market. There is the potential to increase exports to Australia and Japan (Laurenson 2005).

3.12.1 Diazinon use on passionfruit

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on passionfruit to control leafroller, aphids, passionvine hopper and thrips (Novachem 2009). The only other insecticide registered for use on passionfruit is dichlorvos, which is also currently undergoing reassessment by ERMA.

The crop is sprayed with a knapsack or framework sprayer (not airblast as the fruit are delicate and easily knocked off the vines) at water rates of 1000 L/ha. There is low pest pressure. The key pests are Fuller’s rose weevil (Asynonchus cervinus), which feed on the growing tips, chewing insects at the start of the season, and thrips, which get under the skin causing ‘pimpling’ on the skin surface (K Sandom pers. comm.). Various growers’ comments also highlighted mealybug (Pseudococcus species), green vegetable bug (Nezara viridula) and passionvine hopper (Scolypopa australis) as significant pests of passionfruit.

There is grower concern that the potential deregistration of diazinon and dichlorvos will force them to use products not registered for passionfruit. For growers who are certified to the NZ GAP Approved Supplier Programme (www.newzealandgap.org.nz), this situation would be unacceptable within the requirements of the programme and outside New Zealand supermarket product specifications (R Roscoe, passionfruit grower Northland, pers. comm.).

Passionfruit is a minor crop, whose growers are unable to fund the necessary trials to provide the data to support a label claim for any potential alternative. Consideration must be given to identifying a pathway to provide the required efficacy, crop safety and residue data to support a label claim, and sufficient time to develop the technical knowledge and funding to enable the identification and development of alternative control measures.

3.13 Summerfruit

The summerfruit industry comprises 337 growers, with a planted area of 2294 ha producing apricots (457 ha), cherries (520 ha), nectarines (377 ha), peaches (527 ha) and plums (413 ha). Summerfruit fresh fruit exports were valued at NZ$30.1 million, with the main export crops being apricots and cherries, and domestic sales valued at NZ$41 million (Plant & Food Research 2009).

The industry SummerGreenTM IFP (Integrated Fruit Production) programme was developed in the late 1990s. SummerGreenTM is a programme of continuous improvement, identifying best management practices for summerfruit production and introducing new technologies to replace less desirable agrichemicals (Summerfruit New Zealand 2005).

Diazinon products are registered for the control of aphids, mealybug, San Jose scale, thrips, leaf curling midge, woolly aphid, leafroller on summerfruit (Novachem 2009). Diazinon is rarely


used by summerfruit growers. There are alternative products available that are effective and that are compatible with IPM (P Lo, PFR, pers. comm.).

3.14 Carrots

There are 50 carrot growers accounting for a total production area of 1159 ha, with domestic sales valued at NZ$30 million, fresh exports at NZ$9.8 million and processed exports at NZ$0.8 million. Carrots are mainly grown in Auckland, Manawatu/Wanganui and Canterbury (Plant & Food Research 2009).

Diazinon prills are registered on carrots and parsnips to control carrot rust fly (Novachem 2009). Diazinon prills are also used on potato to control soil pests (T Herman, Fruitfed Supplies Hastings, pers. comm.).

3.15 Cereals

Cereals such as wheat and barley account for a production area of several thousand hectares. Diazinon is applied to 50–60% of that production area (M Parker, FAR, pers. comm.).

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on cereal to control cereal aphids (Novachem 2009). Diazinon 800EC formulations are used for cereal aphids, armyworm caterpillars and grassgrub. Applications are made at product label rates of 800ml/200L/ha. Diazinon 20G prills are important for grassgrub control on wheat and barley and are used for control of carrot rust fly. The diazinon 20G prills are applied for grassgrub control during direct drilling in late autumn, with product rates for grassgrub, porina and carrot rust fly as stated on the product label. A potential alternative to diazinon prills is Suscon® Green, which is a chlorpyrifos granule (M Parker pers. comm.)

3.16 Pasture and forage crops

Diazinon is used on forage crops and in pasture management. Insecticide use for the management of pasture pests and fodder crops is outside the scope of this report. However, a useful summary of a study on the implications of insecticide reassessment for pasture pest management compiled by Chapman & Jackson (2010) is attached as Appendix 2.

3.17 Imported seeds, nursery stock, cut flowers and foliage

MAF Biosecurity sets import entry conditions for the importation of plant material into New Zealand as a component of its biosecurity risk management system for New Zealand. There are circumstances where plant material is treated for pests at a MAF-accredited facility after the material has arrived in New Zealand. MAFBNZ standards detail the conditions for importation of various plant material groups which includes disinfestation requirements such as pesticide treatments for material that does not meet import entry conditions (e.g. Standard 155.02.06 Importation of Nursery Stock) (MAFBNZ 2010d). In its submission on the ERMA NZ Chief Executive Initiated Reassessment (CEIR) List, MAFBNZ included diazinon as required for the treatment of imported seeds, nursery stock, cut flowers and foliage in MAF approved facilities. A review of these uses and potential alternatives has not been undertaken as part of this report. However, ERMA NZ has undertaken that this use will be considered in the reassessment process (ERMA New Zealand 2010a).

3.18 Other crops that may use diazinon

Growers of the following crops also may use diazinon. For some crops, the use is minor but for others they may be a significant component of their pest management. Because insect control practices vary greatly for these crops and, for some crops, the number of growers is relatively small, details of the use of these organophosphates are not given in this report. Further dialogue with growers of these crops is required to fully profile impacts of diazinon use. A guide only is given here with production areas and grower numbers soured from Plant & Food Research (2009) unless stated:

• Kumara

o Hectares: 1264 o Growers: 75 o Key Pest: black beetle o Diazinon used at low levels but this could increase if methamidophos were no

longer available (S Lewthwaite PFR pers. comm.)

• Lettuce (outdoor)

o Hectares: 1309 o Growers: 306 o Key pests: currant-lettuce aphid, tomato fruitworm (Helicoverpa armigera),

soybean looper, thrips o Recent incursions: currant-lettuce aphid (Nasonovia ribisnigiri) March 2002.

Difficult to control with foliar sprays as it feeds within the lettuce hearts (Fagan et al. 2010). Most currant-lettuce aphid susceptible varieties are pre-plant seedling tray drenched with the systemic Confidor® (imidacloprid) (G Walker PFR pers. comm.).

o IPM: programme for outdoor lettuce launched 2005 o Resistance: currant-lettuce aphid already partially resistant to acephate (Fagan

et al. 2010) o Diazinon registered on lettuce for aphid, caterpillar and thrips control.

• Silverbeet/spinach

o Hectares: 306 o Growers: 94

o Key pests: thrips, aphids, caterpillars, onion thrips, slugs

o Diazinon may be used in silverbeet/spinach production but is of minor use (G Walker PFR pers. comm.).

• Sweetcorn

o Hectares: 5800 o Growers: 256 o Key pests: corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera), green vegetable bug (Nezara

viridula), armyworm (Mythimna separata) o Corn earworm biocontrol not effective in field crops in New Zealand o Diazinon not used much on sweetcorn (G Walker pers. comm.) o Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on sweetcorn to

control caterpillars, aphids and thrips (Novachem 2009).

• Maize (fodder)


o Hectares: 90–100 000 (varies considerably each year) (M Parker pers. comm.) o Key pests: corn earworm (Helicoverpa armigera), green vegetable bug (Nezara

viridula), armyworm (Mythimna separata) (FAR 2009) o Biocontrol: Cotesia ruficus highly effective parasitoid of armyworm o Diazinon very occaisionaly used on maize crops. Methamidophos used (M

Parker pers. comm.). Armyworm biocontrol effective o Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on maize to control

aphids, caterpillars and thrips (Novachem 2009).

• Vegetable brassica

o Hectares: 3875 o Growers: 260 o Key pests: diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), white butterfly (Pieris rapae),

soybean looper (Thysanoplusia orichalcea), tomato fruitworm (Helicoverpa armigera), onion thrips (Thrips tabaci), cabbage grey aphid (Brevicoryne brassicae ) IPM programme for vegetable brassica has been developed (Wright et al. 2007)

o Resistance management: diamondback moth resistance to synthetic pyrethroids. (Martin et al. 2005, Wright et al. 2007)

o New incursions: Giant white cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicae) (Nelson Mail 2010)

o Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on vegetable brassica to control caterpillars, aphids and thrips (Novachem 2009)

o Alternatives to diazinon available for vegetable brassicas (G. Walker pers. comm.)

• Asian brassica

o Key pests: leaf miner (Scaptomyza flava), diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella), aphids

o IPM programme for vegetable brassica includes details for Asian brassica (Wright et al. 2007)

o Diazinon may be used in Asian brassica production.

• Vegetable brassica seed and fodder brassica

o Hectares: 1,500-2,000 of vegetable brassica seed (M Parker pers. comm.) o Pests: green peach aphid (Myzus persicae), cabbage grey aphid, diamondback

moth, white butterfly, European leaf miner springtails o Diainon EC formulations sometimes used for springtail control on fodder

brassica and brassica seed crops (M Parker pers. comm.)

• Ryegrass seed crops

o 1-2 applications of diazinon applied to ryegrass seed crops (M Parker pers. comm.)

• Melons

o Diazinon prills very occaisionaly applied to melon crops (M Parker pers. comm.)

• Vegetable glasshouse production

o Snap beans possibly and cucumber o Short residual of diazinon is an advantage in vegetable glasshouse production

(G Walker pers. comm.).

• Vegetable field crops o Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on beans and tomato

to control caterpillars, aphids and thrips (Novachem 2009) o Diazinon is not generally used in process crops such as beans, peas or tomato

(G Walker pers. comm.). • Ornamentals and cut flowers

o Diazinon is used on nursery and flower crops where the predatory mite P. persimilis is used for the control of Two Spotted Mite (safe for P. persimilis)

o Diazinon used to control scale and to a lesser extent aphids, caterpillars and thrips in orchid production

o Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on ornamentals to control aphids, thrips and caterpillars (Novachem 2009)

o The New Zealand cut flower, plant, bulb and seed sector had an export sales value of NZ$142.6 million, with orchids the highest value at NZ$22 million. There are 597 farms growing cut flowers and seeds (Plant & Food Research 2009).

4 Conclusions Avocado

Diazinon is registered on avocado to control thrips, scale insects, leafroller and mealybug and is widely used for the control of leafroller, thrips and scale. There are a number of alternatives available for leafroller control. However, the alternatives for mealybug and scale control are broad-spectrum organophosphates or carbamates, which need replacement by softer chemistry options. There are few alternatives registered on avocado for the control of thrips. To meet resistance management guidelines, there need to be several chemical group options. Potential alternatives are also limited. The deregistration of diazinon would have an impact on the viability of pest management in the avocado industry as there are few alternatives currently available for mealybug, scale and particularly thrips control.

Tamarillo

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on tamarillo to control leafroller, aphids and whitefly. There are alternatives currently registered on tamarillo for the control of leafroller. However, these are all short-term options all listed for ERMA reassessment and three of the four currently being reviewed (dichlorvos, diazinon and acephate). Similarly, organophosphates comprise part of the resistance management options for whitefly and green peach aphid control on tamarillo; however, green peach aphid resistance to diazinon has already developed. The reassessment and potential deregistration of the other organophosphates registered on tamarillo would impact on the use of the remaining insecticides, particularly dichlorvos, with the exception of diazinon. Diazinon is not effective in controlling the key pests tomato/potato psyllid and green peach aphid. Deregistration of diazinon would not have an impact on the viability of pest management of tamarillo production.


Citrus

Diazinon is registered on citrus for the control of aphids, mealybug and scale. One or two applications of diazinon are likely to be made per season, with the main pest targets being thrips and the recent arrived Australian citrus whitefly. Its broad-spectrum activity makes it effective for the control of all the main citrus pests where biocontrol has been disrupted. Deregistration of diazinon would have an impact on the viability of pest management in the citrus industry. Time is needed to research and implement alternative control strategies for Kelly’s citrus thrips, greenhouse thrips, and Australian citrus whitefly.

Allium

Diazinon is registered on onion to control caterpillars, aphids and thrips. Onion thrips are the main insect pest of New Zealand onions. Growers have increased their vigilance in monitoring and controlling thrips since the incursion of Iris Yellow Spot virus (IYSV) into New Zealand in January 2008. IYSV is vectored by thrips. However, onion thrips’ resistance to diazinon is evident in all regions. Therefore, diazinon is not recommended for the control of thrips and there are alternatives available for the control of aphids and the main caterpillar pest greasy cutworm. Diazinon is not used in onion or garlic production.

Winegrape

Diazinon is registered for the control of mealybug on grape. Mealybugs are a serious pest of grape as they transmit Grapevine Leafroll-associated Virus Type 3 (GLRaV-3). However, diazinon is not compatible with the Sustainable Winegrowing New Zealand® programme. The preferred insecticide for mealybug control is the insect growth regulator buprofezin and, where high levels of mealybug are found, the organophosphate prothiofos and oil at budburst. Diazinon is not generally used in wine grape production therefore de-registration of diazinon would not have an impact on the viability of pest management in wine grape production.

Kiwifruit

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on kiwifruit to control greedy scale and leafroller caterpillars. The EU has reduced the maximum residue levels for diazinon to effectively nil detectable, which has resulted in diazinon being removed from the Zespri® Crop Protection Programmes. Diazinon can no longer be used on kiwifruit vines but can be used on shelter, which is a host for armoured scale. There are alternative insecticides registered for the control of leafroller and armoured scale. Therefore, de-registration of diazinon would not have an impact on the viability of pest management of current pests in kiwifruit production.

Pipfruit

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on pipfruit (apples, pears and nashi) to control leaf curling midge, leafroller, woolly apple aphid, San Jose scale, mealybug and aphids. Diazinon is only occasionally used on apples and pears in specific circumstances for which there are currently no alternatives for the control of woolly apple aphid (WAA) and apple leafcurling midge (ALCM) and pear leafcurling midge. Up to 12% of pear blocks use diazinon (range: 1–5 applications per block) and up to 7% of apple blocks use diazinon (range: 1–6 applications per block). Applications are generally made using an airblast sprayer with water rates ranging from 250 to2000 L/ha. Diazinon is not used on nashi.

There is an urgent need to find more selective insecticides than diazinon for use on pipfruit, and a number of cultural, insecticide, insect pheromone based and postharvest options are being investigated. A very selective and effective new insecticide, Movento® (spirotetramat) has been evaluated and found to provide excellent control of WAA. It is also effective against scale insects and mealybugs, and has activity against ALCM. This insecticide will provide control of the same range of pests as diazinon and will be registered and available for use on pipfruit in the 2011–2012 season.

Turf

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on turf to control grassgrub, porina caterpillar, slaters and wire worms. The main invertebrate pests in turf are porina, weevils (cotula weevil, Argentine stem weevil), grass grub, black beetle, crickets, sod web worm, cutworm and earthworms. Diazinon is widely used on all turf areas (golf courses, bowling greens, sportsfields, home lawns, passive turf and croquet lawns) and possibly racecourses. The number of insecticide applications made per year depends on the field purpose and pest problem.

Berryfruit

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on strawberry to control aphids. Diazinon may be used by 10% of strawberry growers and by most boysenberry growers. A single application may be applied pre-flowering mainly to control black vine weevil but also to control aphids on strawberry and as a pre-flowering “cleanup” of other pests such as leafroller, raspberry budmoth, leafhoppers and raspberry sawfly.

Diazinon is also used on strawberry runner beds to control aphids and thrips, and primarily for black beetle control after P. persimilis have been distributed. Insecticides are applied throughout the growing season from September to May.

Persimmon

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on persimmon to control leafroller, mealybug, scale and thrips. Diazinon is very good for scale control but is no longer used on export crops for Europe due to the EU reducing maximum residue levels for diazinon to effectively nil detectable. However, there are potential alternative insecticides compatible with the industry Green & Gold® IPM programme although most of them are not registered for use on persimmon.

Feijoa

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on feijoa to control leafroller, greedy scale and mealybug (Novachem 2009). There are usually 1 or 2 applications per season but there can be up to three. DewTM600 is the only insecticide specifically registered for use on feijoa. Bacillus thuringiensis is also registered on fruit crops for the control of caterpillars such as leafroller. On export crops, diazinon can be used only during the period after harvest through to pre-flowering to ensure nil detectable MRLs for diazinon are met in export markets. Diazinon is used for mealybug and scale control and as a general pest “clean-up”.

Passionfruit

Agrichemical products containing diazinon are registered on passionfruit to control leafroller, aphids, passionvine hopper and thrips. The only other insecticides registered for use on passionfruit is dichlorvos, which is also currently undergoing reassessment by ERMA.


There is grower concern that the potential deregistration of diazinon and dichlorvos will force growers to use products not registered for passionfruit. For growers who are certified to the NZ GAP Approved Supplier Programme, this situation would be unacceptable within the requirements of the programme and outside New Zealand supermarket product specifications.

Passionfruit is a minor crop, whose growers are unable to fund the necessary trials to provide the data to support a label claim for any potential alternative. Consideration must be given to identifying a pathway to provide the required efficacy, crop safety and residue data to support a label claim, and sufficient time to develop the technical knowledge and funding to enable the identification and development of alternative control measures.

Carrots

There are 50 carrot growers accounting for a total production area of 1159 ha. Diazinon prills are used at planting on carrots and parsnips to control carrot rust fly. Diazinon prills are also occasionally used on potato to control soil pests.

Cereals

Cereals such as wheat and barley account for a production area of several thousand hectares. Diazinon is applied to 50–60% of that production area.

Glasshouse production The short residual of diazinon is an advantage in vegetable glasshouse production. Diazinon is also used on nursery and flower crops where the predatory mite P. persimilis is used for the control of Two Spotted Mite (safe on P. persimilis). Diazinon is used to control scale and to a lesser extent aphids, caterpillars and thrips in orchid production.

Imported seeds, nursery stock, cut flowers and foliage

In its submission on the ERMA NZ Chief Executive Initiated Reassessment (CEIR) List, MAF Biosecurity New Zealand included diazinon as required for the treatment of imported seeds, nursery stock, cut flowers and foliage in MAF approved facilities. A review of these uses and potential alternatives has not been undertaken as part of this report. However, ERMA NZ has undertaken that this use will be considered in the reassessment process.

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Workman PJ, Martin NA. 2002. Towards integrated pest management of Thrips tabaci in onions. New Zealand Plant Protection 55:188-192 (2002) www.nzpps.org.nz

6 Acknowledgements Alistair Currie, Plant & Food Research, Nelson

Brendan Hannan, New Zealand Sports Turf Institute

Cathy McKenna, Plant & Food Research, Te Puke

Craig Watson, New Zealand Tamarillo Growers Association

Dave Rogers, Plant & Food Research, Havelock North

Dave Teulon, Plant & Food Research, Christchurch

David Manktelow, Manktelow & Associates, Napier

David Steven, IPM Research Ltd

Garry Hill, Plant & Food Research, Te Puke

Geoff Langford, Plant & Food Research, Nelson

Graham Battersby, grower and boysenberry research group member, Nelson

Graham Walker, Plant & Food Research, Auckland

Henry Pak, New Zealand Avocado Growers Association

Ian Horner, Plant & Food Research, Havelock North

Keith Pyle, Pyle Orchards and Consulting, Tauranga

Keith Sandom, Passionfruit Growers Association and grower members

Lisa Jamieson, Plant & Food Research Auckland

Mike Butcher, Pipfruit NZ Inc, Hastings

Mike Parker, FAR, Waikato

Nick Martin, Plant & Food Research, Auckland

Nikki Johnson, New Zealand Citrus Growers Inc.

Paul Munro, Peracto, Pukekohe

Peter Lo, Plant & Food Research, Havelock North

Ron van Toor, Plant & Food Research, Christchurch

Sally van der Zijpp, Sustainable Winegrowing New Zealand

Sarah Gurnsey, Horticentre, Whangarei

Steve Lewthwaite, Plant & Food Research, Pukekohe

Steve Minchin, New Zealand Citrus Growers Inc.

Tim Herman, Fruitfed Supplies, Hastings

Trevor Lupton, Lewis Wright, Gisborne

Willie Heggarty, Fruitfed Supplies, Gisborne


7 Appendix 1 Summary of application methods and product label rates

7.1 Products containing 800, 600 or 500 g/litre diazinon

Crop type Crop Application

equipment

Diazinon 800, Diazinon 800EC,

Diazol 800 & DiGrub label rate (800 g/L

diazinon)

Dew 600 label rate (600 g/L diazinon)

Diazonyl 60EC (600 g/L

diazinon)

Diazol label rate (500 g/L

diazinon)

Hortcare Diazinon

500EW label rate (500 g/L

diazinon)

Water rate (litres per hectare)

Min number of apps

per year

Max number of apps per year

% of crop that uses diazinon

Total crop

area(ha) (from

FreshFacts 2009

unless stated)

Cereals cereals jet squirt boom,

prills-direct drilling

800 ml in 200L

water/ha. Aerial make 2

passes at right angles using 400 ml/100 L

water/ha for each pass

1 L/ha in water rate 200

L/ha

1 L/ha in 200 litre of water

for aerial applications make two passes at

right angles each applying 500ml in 100 litres of water

per ha.

1.2 L/ha. For aerial

application make 2

passes at right angles to

each other each applying 600ml in 100

L/ha

1.2 l/ha in 200 litre of water 220-450 1 1 50-60%

Field crop boysenberry hydraulic over-

row booms 1.25 L in 200 L water/ha 1.25 L/ha 1.5 L/ha

1.5 litres/ha in 200 litres water/ha

500 1 1 100% 274

Field crop ornamentals mist blower or

handgun 80 ml/100 L

Field crop strawberries boom 1.25 L in 200

L water/ha 1.25 L/ha 1.5 L/ha 1.5 litres/ha in

200 litres water/ha

220-450 1 1 10% 170

Field crop

strawberry runner

production boom 1.25 L in 200

L water/ha 1.25 L/ha 1.5 L/ha 1.5 litres/ha in

200 litres water/ha

220-450 multiple 100%

30 (I Horner pers.

comm.)


equipment



diazinon)



diazinon)


diazinon)

Hortcare Diazinon


diazinon)


Min number of apps

per year



Total crop

area(ha) (from

FreshFacts 2009

unless stated)

Covered crop

cucumber, snap beans

Fog or light spray,

dispensing system or handgun

1 L/ha (100ml/100 L) in 200-300 L of water per

ha

1.25 L/ha in 200-300 L water/ha

1.3 L/ha (100ml/100 L) in 200-300 L of water per

ha

1.6 L/ha water rate 200L/ha

for low volume broadcast on ground crops.

Field crop kumara

Boom – market gardeners may use mist blower on small scale

1 L/ha (100ml/100 L) in 200-300 L of water per

ha

1.25 L/ha in 200-300 L water/ha

1.3 L/ha (100ml/100 L)

in 200-300 litres of water

per ha

1.6 L/ha water rate 200 L/ha for low volume broadcast on ground crops.

220-450, 60 L/ha for mist

blower 10% 1,264

Pasture

pasture (for armyworm

control, diamondback

moth for Diazonyl 60

EC)

800 ml in 200 L of water/ha

1 L/ha in 200 L water/ha.

1 litre in 110-170 L of water/ha

1.2 L/ha, water rate 50 L/ha aerial for

pasture, ground crops

200 L/ha water rate using low volume

broadcast application.

1.2 L in 200 L of water/ha

Pasture pasture (for grassgrub control)

jet squirt boom

3 L in 150-250 l water/ha jet

squirt boom at 150-250 L water /ha.

4 L/ha in 200 L water/ha jet squirt boom at

150-250 L water /ha.

4 L in 150-250 L water/ha jet squirt boom at

150-250 L water /h

4.8 L/ha, water rate 50 L/ha aerial for



broadcast application

4.8 L in 200 L water/ha jet

squirt boom at 150-250 L water /ha.



equipment



diazinon)



diazinon)


diazinon)

Hortcare Diazinon


diazinon)


Min number of apps

per year



Total crop

area(ha) (from

FreshFacts 2009

unless stated)

Pasture pasture (for lucerne flea

control) 350 ml/20 L

water/ha 460 ml/ 200 L

water/ha 460 mL/ha

550 ml/ha, water rate 50 L/ha aerial for




550 ml/ 200 L water/ha

Pasture pasture (for

porina control)

1-1.5 L/ha in 170-280 L water/ha.

1.5-2 L/ha in 200l water/ha

1.3-2 L/ha 170-280l water/ha

1.8-2.4 L/ha water rate 50 L/ha aerial for




1.8-2.4 L/ha in 200 L

water/ha.

Tree crop apples airblast 60ml/100 L

Leaf curling midge: 4 L/ha

ground application,

foliar 80 ml/100. Scale & aphid: 80 ml/100 L.


ground application,

foliar 80 ml/100.

Leafroller 80ml/100 L

Leaf curling midge: 4.8

L/ha ground application, foliar 100 ml/100 L.

Leafroller: 100 ml/100 L.

Scale & aphid: 80 ml/100 L



Leafroller 100 ml/100 L

250-2000 1 6 7%

9,061 (Pipfruit

New Zealand 2010)


equipment



diazinon)



diazinon)


diazinon)

Hortcare Diazinon


diazinon)


Min number of apps

per year



Total crop

area(ha) (from

FreshFacts 2009

unless stated)

Tree crop pears airblast 60 ml/100 L


ground application,

foliar 80 ml/100. Scale & aphid: 80 ml/100 L.


ground application,

foliar 80 ml/100.

Leafroller 80ml/100 L



Leafroller: 100 ml/100 L.

Scale & aphid: 80 ml/100 L



Leafroller 100 ml/100 L

250-2000 1 5 12% 694

Tree crop avocado airblast or aerial 80 ml/100 L 80 ml/100 L 100 ml/100 L 100 ml/100 L 2000-3000 1 4 100% 5,010

Tree crop citrus airblast 80 ml/100 L 1500-3500 1 2 100% 1,834

Tree crop feijoa airblast 80 ml/100 L 1000 1 3 80% 251

Tree crop persimmons airblast

80 ml/100 L at green tip then as required

1500-2000 1 3 20% 180

Tree crop tamarillos airblast 60 ml/100 L 80 ml/100 L 80 ml/100 L 100 ml/100 L 100 ml/100 L 600-1200 2 6 10% 194



equipment



diazinon)



diazinon)


diazinon)

Hortcare Diazinon


diazinon)


Min number of apps

per year



Total crop

area(ha) (from

FreshFacts 2009

unless stated)

Turf established lawns/turf boom 60 ml/100 L 80 ml/100 L 80 ml/100 L 100 ml/100 L

200-300 (max. 600-

800)

depends on field purpose & pest

problem

100% (racetracks

?) 58,139

Vine & Bush passionfruit

knapsack or framework (not

airblast) 80 ml/100 L 1000 multiple 100% 47

7.2 Products containing 50 g/litre diazinon


equipment

Diazinon 20G & Gesapon® 20G label rate (200 g/kg diazinon)

No insects lawngard prills

(50 g/kg diazinon)

Watkins Lawn & Soil Insect Killer, Yates Soil Insect

Killer (50g/kg diazinon)

Water rate (litres

per hectare)

Min number of apps per year



Total crop area(ha)

(from FreshFacts 2009 unless

stated)

Number of growers


stated)

Field crop

carrots & parsnips

direct drilled at planting

11 kg/ha apply in band under seed

band 20 cm wide and cultivate to 5-

10 cm deep. 1 g/metre 1 1 100% 1,159 50

Field crop potato direct drilled at

planting 11 kg/ha apply in band under seed

band 20 cm wide and cultivate to 5-

10 cm deep. 1 g/metre 1 1 10% 9,787 225


equipment

Diazinon 20G & Gesapon® 20G label rate (200 g/kg diazinon)

No insects lawngard prills

(50 g/kg diazinon)

Watkins Lawn & Soil Insect Killer, Yates Soil Insect

Killer (50g/kg diazinon)

Water rate (litres

per hectare)

Min number of apps per year



Total crop area(ha)


stated)

Number of growers


stated)

Pasture cereal direct drilled at planting

grassgrub 11 kg/ha

porina 5.5 kg/ha 1 1 50-60%

2000 (M. Parker pers.

comm.)

Pasture/ Field crop

pasture & crops (newly

sown)

direct drilled at planting

11 kg/ha broadcast. Work into a depth of 5 cm during final

cultivation. Or drill with seed at 5.5

kg/ha grassgrub 11

kg/ha porina 5.5 kg/ha

Turf turf broadcast sow and irrigate in

grassgrub 11 kg/ha

porina 5.5 kg/ha

Home garden

use

established lawns

broadcast sow and irrigate in

grassgrub: 100 g per 20 sqm,

porina caterpillar: 100 g per 40 sqm, slaters: 10 g per

sqm, wire worms : 10 g per sqm

porina caterpillar 2

g/sqm, grassgrub 4 g

per sqm, slaters 10

g/sqm

8 Appendix 2. List of insecticides registered for the control of key pasture and forage crop insect pests (Chapman & Jackson 2010) See over page for hard copy. See separate pdf called “Diazinon use in New Zealand Horticulture - Appendix 2.pdf” for electronic copy.

diazinon use in new zealand horticulture · pasture and forage crop insect pests (chapman &...

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