Hewad English language Center New American connection book first section grammar

New American connection book grammar For Hewad students

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Hewad English language Center New American connection book first section grammar

Content

Direct and indirect speech--------------------------------------------------------------------------21: direct speech:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2Rule of basic changes:-------------------------------------------------------------------------------3The rule of changing pronouns---------------------------------------------------------------------4The rule lf changing the tense:---------------------------------------------------------------------5

Practice:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7Reasons:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7

In the following cause the reporting speech will be in the future tense.-------------------9Passive voice----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10

Intransitive verb:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------11Transitive and in transitive verb---------------------------------------------------------------11Basic rules of changing active voice into passive voice------------------------------------12

Usage of Passive voice in tenses-----------------------------------------------------------------12The past prefect tens-------------------------------------------------------------------------------13The usages of the past prefect tense:-------------------------------------------------------------14The present perfect continues tense--------------------------------------------------------------15The past perfect continuous tense----------------------------------------------------------------17Usage of past perfect continuous tense:---------------------------------------------------------18Conditional sentences------------------------------------------------------------------------------19There are five kinds of conditional sentence / if sentence:------------------------------------19Used to-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------20Affirmative formula--------------------------------------------------------------------------------20Interrogative formula-------------------------------------------------------------------------------21

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Hewad English language Center New American connection book first section grammar

Direct and indirect speech

1: direct speech:In direct speech we convey the message of speaker in his own actual words with out any change to an others person.2: indirect speech:In indirect speech/narration, we convey the message of speaker in our words to other person.

Direct speech Indirect speechHe says “ I shall go with You”.

He says that he will go with you.

She says, ”I could not work “.

She says that she could not work.

Ali says, “I am sick”. Ali says that he is sick.She will say, “I am your cousin”

She will say that she is my cousin.

Note: this “,” sing is called comma and these (‘‘/” “) are called inverted comma. Note: the part of a sentence which is between inverted comma is called reported speech and the part of

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Hewad English language Center New American connection book first section grammar

sentence which is not between inverted comma is called reporting speech.

He says to me ” I am sick”Reporting speech reported speech

Assad says to Him “I am working hard”Reporting speech reported speech

She says to me. “I am cheating him”Reporting speech reported speech

Rule of basic changes:

If we change direct speech into indirect speech we act upon the following basic change:1: remover comma and inverted comma.2: put”that” between reporting and reported speech.3: change the capital letter of reported speech into small letter.4: change the verb and Helping verb of the reported speech according change of pronoun.

Direct speech Indirect speech She says, “I am brave “. She says that she is brave.

He says, “I am working hard “.

He says that he is working hard.

He says, “I am joking”. He says that he is joking.

He says, “he is good person”.

He says that he is a good person.

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Hewad English language Center New American connection book first section grammar

The rule of changing pronounsIf we change direct speech into indirect speech the pronoun will change in the following rule way.1: the first person of reported speech change according to the subject of reporting speech2: the second person of reported speech change according to the object of reporting speech.3: the third person of reported speech doesn’t change.

Direct speech Indirect speech

She says “I can work”. She says that she can work.

He says, “my brother studies in Hewad.

He says that his brother studies in Hewad.

They say,” we will defeat them”. They say that they will defeat them. You say, “my father is a teacher”. You say that Your father is a teacher.I say, “I have finished my work”. I say that I have finished my work.He says to her, “I am Your father”. He says to her the he is her father.

They say to us, “we are your friends”.

They say to us that they are our friend.

She says to him,”you cannot do work”.

She says to him that he cannot do work

We say to them, “your brother is naughty”.

We say to them that their brother is naughty.

They say to me, “you are not teaching us”.

They say to me that I am not teaching them.

Note: when there is second person in the reported speech and there is not object in reporting speech, the second person of reported

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speech will change according to situation to first person, second person or third person.Ex:He said “you are wasting my time (direct speech)He said that I was wasting his time.He said that you were wasting his time.He said that he was wasting his time.Note 2: If there is first person plural in reported speech and the subject of reporting speech is 3rd person singular the first person plural of reported speech will change into third person plural.Ex:He says, “We are working hard”. DirectHe says that they are working hard indirect.

The rule lf changing the tense:If we change direct speech into indirect speech we will change into following ways.1: if the reporting speech is in the present or the future, the reported speech doesn’t change, it can be in the present, past or future tenses.If the reporting speech is in the pass the reported speech will change into following tense.1: the present tense into past.2: the present continuous change into past continuous tense.3: the present prefect tense change into past prefect tense. 4: the present prefect continuous tense change into the past prefect continuous tense.5: past tense change into the past prefect tense.

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Hewad English language Center New American connection book first section grammar

6: the past continuous tens change into the past prefect continuous 7; tense, the past perfect and the past prefect continuous tenses don’t change.8: In all future tenses,” shall” changes into should and “will” change into would.

Direct speech Indirect speech

He says “don’t work with them” He says that he does not work with them

She will say, “I have waited for them”

She will say that she has waited for them.

You said, “I play very well”. You said that you played very well.They said, “we are playing with out teacher”,

They said that they were playing with their teacher.

She said, “my sister has gone to Kabul”

She said that her sister had gone to Kabul.

Nadir said, “I have been playing since morning”.

Nadir said that he had been playing since morning.

He said, “I was working with my brother”.

He said that he had been working with his brother.

You said, “ I went to bazaar with my father.

You said that you had gone to bazaar with your father.

She said, “I had already cleaned the room”.

She said that she had already cleaned the room.

They said, “ we had been working for two hours”,

They said that they had been working for two hours

He said, “my mother will go with me to Kabul”,

He said his mother would go with him to Kabul

I said, “they will not come again”. I said that they would not come again.

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She said, “I will be sleeping”. She said that she would be sleeping

He said, “I would have been reading for two hours”.

He said that he would have been reading for two hours.

Qari said, “god is kind and merciful”.

Qari said that God is kind and merciful.

Practice:Change the following direct sentence into indirectShe said, “I go to school every day”, he says, “ I work hard”, they said, “we are playing football”, they will say “we are playing”, he said, “ I have bought a car”, she said, “ I wend to college “ you said, “we were helping them”, you say “ we were helping them”, the said “we defeated them when he came”. She said to him “you will not pass” the said to me “ you will be the chief quest” she said to him, “ you father will be sleeping” he said to him, “ you will have eaten the food before I come” she said to me , we have ,already defeated them”, they said to me, “you deceived us, he said to her, “you were not working hared that is تیرایستلwhy you failed”, you said to me “ I will buy you a car’. You said to him, “ I am joking with you” she said to us “ you teased my friend”, they said to us, “ we have sent you a card”. He said me I have finished my work”.

Note: because of some reasons “would” is used more than should even in the place of should “would” is preferred.

Reasons: 1: now days “will is preferred instead of “shall “with first person,

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2: because of changing of first person into third of second person

Direct speech Indirect speechI said, “ I will do this work”.

I said that I would do this work

He said, “I shall work here”.

He said that he would work her”.

You said, “I shall type this letter”.

You said that you would type that letter.

Note: when there are two sentences combined with the help of a conjunction and both sentences have go different tense.If change such kind of sentences from direct into indirect, we change the tenses or both sentences according to rule Ex: He said, “They have already slept when I reached there”.He said that they had already slept when he had reached there.She said, “He will have finished his work before we reached there”.She said that he would have finished his work before they reached there.

Note: in the following cases the reporting speech will be in the present tense.1: when the conversation is continuedex: he says “I don like them” he says that he does not like them.2: when some one is talking by phone and whatever he is listening to he is reporting to another person .ex: he says “I will come tomorrow” He says that he will come the next day.3: if a person reports a statement time and again.

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Hewad English language Center New American connection book first section grammar

Ex: He always says “ I will not leave him”He says that he will not live him.4: if some one is reading a letter for illiterate person.Ex: He has written in the letter “I will sent two thousand for her” He writes that he has sent two thousand for her.5: if some read the instructions of an institution or a department etc and reports it to anther person.Ex It says that students can not take part in politics.6: for conveying message to another person.Ex: Father says that you should do that work first.

In the following cause the reporting speech will be in the future tense.

1: when some one predicts some thing about some one (it means when some one says some thing about some one that he/she will say like this)ex: he will say “ I don have money” he will say that he doesn’t have money.She will say “ I don’t like this place”She will say that she don’t like that place.They will say “ we are working” They will say that they are working.Note: if shall is being used as a suggestion or an offer to do some thing for some one “ shall” will change into “should”Ex: Direct: he said “ shall I close the door? “ Indirect: He asked if /whether he should close the door.The rule of changing “here and now words”

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If we change direct into indirect the following words are changed into the following ways.

1. “this” change in to ...............................that/the2. “these” change into..............................those3. “now” …………………………then/right away 4. “tomorrow”..........................................the next day/ the

following day/the coming day.5. the day after tomorrow”.......................in two days time 6. “yesterday: ..........................................the previous day/ the

last day/ the day before.7. the day before yesterday......................To days before. 8. to day ..................................................that day. 9. to right .................................................that right last night ..............................................that night here .....................................................there hither ...................................................thither come.....................................................go go ........................................................come ago........................................................before sir and madam .....................................respectfully

good/morning/after noon/evening/......greeted good night /good bye/ fare well don’t change hello , hallo نمانحل, yes no alright are removed next (Sunday, months year etc) ……..the previous ( Sunday,

months and etc)

Passive voiceWhen doer of work is the subject of the sentence that is called active voice.When the affected person or thing is the subject of the sentence that sentence is called passive voice.

Ex:

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He is seeking them active کوی پلتنه پسی دوی په هغهThey are being sought by him passive

پلتنه زریعه په هغه د پسی دوی په کیزی

She is praising you active کند ستایشمی را شما اوYou are being praised by her شوید ستایشمی او توسط شما

Before starting passive voice you need to know some verb’s rules:Transitive verb can change from active voice into passive voice because it has object.Like He is eating an apple, active = an apple is being eaten by him. Passive

Intransitive verb: intransitive verb don’t change from active voice into passive voice in literary English because it doesn’t have object.

He is dying active = no passive She is sleeping active = no passive He is running active = no passive

But intransitive verb can be change from active voice into passive voice in colloquial English

Active Passive She is sleeping The action of sleeping is being done by

her.He is running The action of running is being done by

him.They are coming. The action of coming is being done by

them She is smiling The action of smiling is being done by

her.

Transitive and in transitive verb: T AND IN some time change and some time don’t change to passive voice: Active Passive

She is sweeping No passive

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She is sweeping the room The room is being swept by her.

Basic rules of changing active voice into passive voice

1. Subject is change into object.2. Object is change into subject.3. The first and the second form of the verb is change into

the third form of the verb.4. After third from of the word “by” is coming.5. I is changed into “me”6. he is changed into “him”7. she is changed into “her”8. they is change into “them”9. we is changed into “ us”10. You and it are not changed.

Usage of Passive voice in tenses The present indefinite tense To change the present indefinite tense from active voice into passive voice “ am is are “are used as helping verb.Active Passive

He teaches herS v o

She is taught by her. S h.v v prep o

She helps me S v o

I am helped by her.S h.v v perp o

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They invite us We are invited by them.

Different between active and passive Active Passive

V = 1v V = 3v

h.v = do, does h.v = is am are

Simple, negative, interrogative, and nag & int. sentence

Active Passive They console him He is consoled by them

Do they console him? Is he consoled by them?

They don’t console him. He is not consoled by them.

Do the no console him? Is he not consoled by them?

Don’t they console him? Isn’t he consoled by them?

Practice:Change the following active sentences to Passive sentence: 1: they repeat the exercise, 2: we play chess, 3: they forget us, 4: she teaches English, 5: he writes a story, 6: you save him, 7: I console them, 8: she sews a dress, 9: he pinches him, 10: bungles his car.

The past prefect tens

It describes and action completed in the past before a certain moment

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POSITIVE SENTENCE

H.V = had

S+(H.V)+3V +O .NEGATIVE

S+ H.V+3V+O+.AFFIRMATIVE (H.V)+ S +3V +O +.Ex:They had eaten the food وه خوړلی دودی دویShe had gone to aHerat.We had not gone to Herat.Had you gone to Herat?Had they not gone to Herat

The usages of the past prefect tense: The past prefect tense performs the same function in the past as the present prefect tense does in the present.

Present PastI haven’t seen him for long time

I hadn’t seen him for long time.

We haven’t heard any thing from him.

We hadn’t heard any thing form him.

They haven’t bought the house.

The had not bought the house.

2: the present prefect tense express that an action completed in the past before an other action.We had eaten food when they came.The junior doctor had operated the patient when the senior doctor came. The robber had robed the bank when the police came.

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He had killed him when the nation arm arrived.Note: the words ( when, before, because ) can work as a conjunction between the pas prefect and the past indefinite tense.Ex: Robber had robed the bank before police came.They disconnected his line because he had not deposited the bill.

The present perfect continues tense

It denotes an action that started in the past and s still continuing

Usage of the present perfect continues tense 1:the present perfect continues tense is used for the action which begins in the past and continue up to the time speaking in the present:Note: we usually mention the point and the period of time with the help lf ’since’ and ’for’EX:

T has been raining since morning.They have been playing for two hours.

2:the present prefect continues tense is used for the action which have been happening in the past and their signs of happing are presents in the presents at the time lf speaking :

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EX:Someone has been wearing my shoes.

Somebody has been using my shaving cream.Somebody has been smoking my cigarettes.

3: the present perfect continues tense is used for the actions which are changing or developing or increasing continuouslyexThe price of petrol has been increasingTheir problems have been increasing.

POSITIVE SENTENCE

H.V = have been/has been

S+(H.V)+V-ING +O +SINCE/FOR + TIME +E.P.ONEGATIVE

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S+ HAVE/HAS +NOT +BEEN +V-ING +O- +SINCE/FOR + TIME +E.P.O

AFFIRMATIVE (H.V)+ S +V-ING +O +SINCE/FOR + TIME-

+E.P.O

EX:The have been playing since morning.She has been sleeping since yesterday

They have not been playing since morning She has not been sleeping since yesterday

Have they been playing since morning?Has she been sleeping since morning?

The past perfect continuous tense It denotes an action that started at a particular time in the past and was still in progress. Note:We can mention the period of time or the point of time of an action with help of “since and “fore”

POSITIVE SENTENCE

H.V = had been

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S+ (H.V) +V-ING +O +SINCE/FOR + TIME +E.P.ONEGATIVE

S+ HAVE/HAS +NOT +BEEN +V-ING +O +SINCE/FOR + TIME +E.P.OAFFIRMATIVE

(H.V)+ S +V-ING +O +SINCE/FOR + TIME +E.P.O

EX:They had been playing since morning.She had been sleeping since yesterday

They had not been playing since morning She had not been sleeping since yesterday

Had they been playing since morning?Had she been sleeping since morning?

Question: what is the different between the past continuous and past perfect continuous tense?Answer: the first difference: we usually mention the period of time or the point of time in past perfect continuous tense with the help of since or for we can mention only common time or with out period of time or point of an action in past continues tens.

Ex: Past continues tense Past perfect continues tense

They were fighting (yesterday)

They had been fighting since yesterday

I was waiting for you I had been waiting for you for two hours.

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Usage of past perfect continuous tense: 1: the past perfect progressive is used for the action which was in progress since a specified point of or period of time in the past.

Ex: We had been playing since morning.They had been fighting for two hours.

2: the past perfect continuous tense is used for the actions which had been happening in the past.ExI locked my shoes because some one has been using them.I left keeping my cigarettes on the table because some had been stealing them.

3:The past The past perfect continuous tense for the action with stress/emphasis which was in progress before an others action or an other time in the past.We had been going to their house until their father’s death.He had been teaching us until we became teacher.The had been waiting for him at four o’clock when he came at 7 o’clock.

Conditional sentences Definition: there are two parts in conditional sentence, one is called if clause or conditional clause and the second is called main clause or result clause, in if clause/conditional clause we say a condition and the main/result clause we say the result of the said condition.

Ex: If clause Main clause

If Hassina works hard She will pass the exam.

If they had played well. They would have won the match

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There are five kinds of conditional sentence / if sentence:

1: type 1/ fist conditional/ the will condition.2: type 2:/ second conditional/ the would conditional 3: type 3: third conditional. / The would have condition.4: mixed conditional sentence.5: zero conditional.

Type 1/ first conditional 1 : in type 1: we predict about the result of the action. 2: In type 1: we say such kind of conditions, which are probable, possible and expressed to happen and if the condition is fulfilled, the result will be expected to happen. 3: the tense if the if clause is present not future but the meaning is some time in the present and sometime in the future.

Formula:

If clause main clause If + S + present indefinite tense +,+S+ future indefinite tense Note: change are possible both in if and main clause

Here we predict about the result of a condition, we say that if this condition happens like this the result of it will be like this.

Ex: If S. Mohammad runs fast, he will win the race.If Najeeb works hard, he will pass the exam.

Used to

Used+1V:Used+V1 is used for those past habits which we don’t used now

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Note:

Pronunciation-’d’ of used to is silent it is pronounce “use to”

Affirmative formulaS + used to + 1V + o +.

Negative formula

s + didn’t + use to + 1V + o +.

Interrogative formulaDid + s + use to + 1V +o +?

Ex:

I used to play football.I did not use to play football.Or I used not to play football

Did I use to play football?OrUsed i to play football?

What did you used to play?Where did you used to read?How did you used to go to the school?

Used to + beUsed to is used for past condition or state of a person, a thing or a place.

Ghazni used to be a peaceful

Improved transition: ارونه ه تيريدن ،اوشتنه،

The characters بنه يا كيفيت ، مقام او يو in Book A face a moral dilemma حيثيت چه حالت يو اسي دانتخاب مشكل ، مجبوروي a contested ,سري كول مسابقه ، كول . مجادله

Examples of Transitions:

Illustration n, شرح توضيح حركندونه،

Thus, for example, for instance, namely نامه په ، ,to illustrate, in other words, in particular ,يعنيspecifically, such as.

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Contrast توپيرحركنديدل د مخي له كيدو پرتله د

On the contrary, خالف يا ضد ,contrarily, notwithstanding په بردي سربيره ، دي په but, however سرلهدي سرله ، هم خوبيا حال، ,nevertheless ,هر دي له in spite of سره ضد in contrast, yet, on one , په

hand, on the other hand, rather, or, nor هم نه conversely , او دول مخالف at the same time, while ,پهthis may be true.

Addition

And, in addition to, furthermore پردي moreover ,عالوه داچي ،‌بله پردي ,besides, than, too , برسيرهalso, both-and, another, equally important, first, second, etc., again, further, last, finally, not only-but also, as well as, in the second place, next, likewiseهمدادول, similarly, in fact, as a result, consequently كشي نتيجه ,in the same way, for example, for instance, however, thus, therefore , پهotherwise.

Time

After, afterward, before, then, once, next, last, at last, at length, first, second, etc., at first, formerly, rarely, usually, another, finally, soon, meanwhile, at the same time, for a minute, hour, day, etc., during the morning, day, week, etc., most important, later, ordinarily, to begin with, afterwards, generally, in order to, subsequently, previously, in the meantime, immediately, eventually, concurrently پيشدل كشي يووخت په .simultaneously , همزمان، غبرگ همزمان، جوخت،

Space

At the left, at the right, in the center, on the side, along the edge, on top, below, beneath, under, around, above, over, straight ahead, at the top, at the bottom, surrounding, opposite, at the rear, at the front, in front of, beside, behind, next to, nearby, in the distance, beyond, in the forefront, in the foreground, within sight, out of sight, across, under, nearer, djacent, in the background.

Concession تيريدنه ، اميتاز

Although, at any rate, at least, still, thought, even though, granted that, while it may be true, in spite of, of course.

Similarity or Comparison

Similarly, likewise, in like fashion, in like manner, analogous to

Emphasis

Above all, indeed, truly, of course, certainly, surely, in fact, really, in truth, again, besides, also, furthermore, in addition.

Details

Specifically, especially, in particular, to explain, to list, to enumerate, گنل in detail, namely شميرل،، يعني , including.

Examples

For example, for instance, to illustrate, thus, in other words, as an illustration, in particular.

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Consequence نتجه ، ، پايله or Result

So that, with the result that, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, so, because, since, due to, as a result, in other words, then.

Summary

Therefore, finally, consequently, منتج thus, in short, in conclusion, in brief, as a result, accordingly

Suggestion

For this purpose, to this end, with this in mind, with this purpose in mind, therefore:

Glossary of English Grammar Terms This glossary of English grammar terms relates to the English language. Some terms here may have additional or extended meanings when applied to other languages. For example, "case" in some languages applies to pronouns and nouns. In English, nouns do not have case and therefore no reference to nouns is made in its definition here. 

Term Definition

active voice

one of two voices in English; a direct form of expression where the subject performs or "acts" the verb; see also passive voiceeg: "Many people eat rice"

adjectivepart of speech that typically describes or "modifies" a nouneg: "It was a big dog."

adjective clause seldom-used term for relative clause

Adjunct‌مل:‌فرعي،‌مرستيال،‌ضميمه،

‌)‌ګر‌(‌معترضه‌فقره،‌هغه‌كلمه‌يا‌فقره‌چې‌په‌مبتدا‌او‌خبر‌كې

‌زياتوالى‌راولي‌)‌منطق‌(‌عرض:مل،‌صفت،‌الحاقي‌برخه.‌

Word or phrase that adds information to a sentence and that can be removed from the sentence without making the sentence ungrammaticaleg: I met John at school.

adverb word that modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb

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eg: quickly, really, very

adverbial clause

dependent clause that acts like an adverb and indicates such things as time, place or reasoneg: Although we are getting older, we grow more beautiful each day.

affirmativestatement that expresses (or claims to express) a truth or "yes" meaning; opposite of negativeeg: The sun is hot.

affix

language unit (morpheme) that occurs before or after (or sometimes within) the root or stem of a wordeg: un- in unhappy (prefix), -ness in happiness (suffix)

agreement(also known as "concord")

logical (in a grammatical sense) links between words based on tense, case or numbereg: this phone, these phones

antecedent

word, phrase or clause that is replaced by a pronoun (or other substitute) when mentioned subsequently (in the same sentence or later)eg: "Emily is nice because she brings me flowers."

appositive

noun phrase that re-identifies or describes its neighboring nouneg: "Canada, a multicultural country, is recognized by its maple leaf flag."

article determiner that introduces a noun phrase as definite (the) or indefinite (a/an)

aspect

feature of some verb forms that relates to duration or completion of time; verbs can have no aspect (simple), or can have continuous or progressive aspect (expressing duration), or have perfect or perfective aspect (expressing completion)

auxiliary verb(also called "helping verb")

verb used with the main verb to help indicate something such as tense or voiceeg: I do not like you. She has finished. He can swim.

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bare infinitive

unmarked form of the verb (no indication of tense, mood, person, or aspect) without the particle "to"; typically used after modal auxiliary verbs; see also infinitiveeg: "He should come", "I can swim"

base formbasic form of a verb before conjugation into tenses etceg: be, speak

case

form of a pronoun based on its relationship to other words in the sentence; case can be subjective, objective or possessiveeg: "I love this dog", "This dog loves me", "This is my dog"

causative verb

verb that causes things to happen such as "make", "get" and "have"; the subject does not perform the action but is indirectly responsible for iteg: "She made me go to school", "I had my nails painted"

clause group of words containing a subject and its verbeg: "It was late when he arrived"

comparative,comparative adjective

form of an adjective or adverb made with "-er" or "more" that is used to show differences or similarities between two things (not three or more things)eg: colder, more quickly

complementpart of a sentence that completes or adds meaning to the predicateeg: Mary did not say where she was going.

compound nounnoun that is made up of more than one word; can be one word, or hyphenated, or separated by a spaceeg: toothbrush, mother-in-law, Christmas Day

compound sentence

sentence with at least two independent clauses; usually joined by a conjunctioneg: "You can have something healthy but you can't have more junk food."

concord another term for agreement

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conditional

structure in English where one action depends on another ("if-then" or "then-if" structure); most common are 1st, 2nd, and 3rd conditionalseg: "If I win I will be happy", "I would be happy if I won"

conjugate

to show the different forms of a verb according to voice, mood, tense, number and person; conjugation is quite simple in English compared to many other languageseg: I walk, you walk, he/she/it walks, we walk, they walk; I walked, you walked, he/she/it walked, we walked, they walked

conjunctionword that joins or connects two parts of a sentenceeg: Ram likes tea and coffee. Anthony went swimming although it was raining.

content word

word that has meaning in a sentence, such as a verb or noun (as opposed to a structure word, such as pronoun or auxiliary verb); content words are stressed in speecheg: "Could you BRING my GLASSES because I've LEFT them at HOME"

continuous(also called "progressive")

verb form (specifically an aspect) indicating actions that are in progress or continuing over a given time period (can be past, present or future); formed with "BE" + "VERB-ing"eg: "They are watching TV."

contraction shortening of two (or more) words into oneeg: isn't (is not), we'd've (we would have)

countable nounthing that you can count, such as apple, pen, tree (see uncountable noun)eg: one apple, three pens, ten trees

dangling participle

illogical structure that occurs in a sentence when a writer intends to modify one thing but the reader attaches it to anothereg: "Running to the bus, the flowers were blooming." (In the example sentence it seems that the flowers were running.)

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declarative sentencesentence type typically used to make a statement (as opposed to a question or command)eg: "Tara works hard", "It wasn't funny"

defining relative clause(also called "restrictive relative clause")

relative clause that contains information required for the understanding of the sentence; not set off with commas; see also non-defining clause eg: "The boy who was wearing a blue shirt was the winner"

demonstrative pronoundemonstrative adjective

pronoun or determiner that indicates closeness to (this/these) or distance from (that/those) the speakereg: "This is a nice car", "Can you see those cars?"

dependent clause

part of a sentence that contains a subject and a verb but does not form a complete thought and cannot stand on its own; see also independent clauseeg: "When the water came out of the tap..."

determiner

word such as an article or a possessive adjective or other adjective that typically comes at the beginning of noun phraseseg: "It was an excellent film", "Do you like my new shirt?", "Let's buy some eggs"

direct speech saying what someone said by using their exact words; see also indirect speech eg: "Lucy said: 'I am tired.'"

direct object

noun phrase in a sentence that directly receives the action of the verb; see also indirect object eg: "Joey bought the car", "I like it", "Can you see the man wearing a pink shirt and waving a gun in the air?"

embedded question

question that is not in normal question form with a question mark; it occurs within another statement or question and generally follows statement structureeg: "I don't know where he went," "Can you tell me where it is before you go?", "They haven't decided whether they should come"

finite verb verb form that has a specific tense, number and personeg: I work, he works, we learned, they ran

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first conditional

"if-then" conditional structure used for future actions or events that are seen as realistic possibilitieseg: "If we win the lottery we will buy a car"

fragment

incomplete piece of a sentence used alone as a complete sentence; a fragment does not contain a complete thought; fragments are common in normal speech but unusual (inappropriate) in formal writingeg: "When's her birthday? - In December", "Will they come? - Probably not"

function

purpose or "job" of a word form or element in a sentenceeg: The function of a subject is to perform the action. One function of an adjective is to describe a noun. The function of a noun is to name things.

future continuous(also called "future progressive")

tense* used to describe things that will happen in the future at a particular time; formed with WILL + BE + VERB-ingeg: "I will be graduating in September."

future perfecttense* used to express the past in the future; formed with WILL HAVE + VERB-edeg: "I will have graduated by then"

future perfect continuous

tense* used to show that something will be ongoing until a certain time in the future; formed with WILL HAVE BEEN + VERB-ingeg: "We will have been living there for three months by the time the baby is born"

future simple

tense* used to describe something that hasn't happened yet such as a prediction or a sudden decision; formed with WILL + BASE VERBeg: "He will be late", "I will answer the phone"

genitive case

case expressing relationship between nouns (possession, origin, composition etc)eg: "John's dog", "door of the car", "children's songs", "pile of sand"

gerund noun form of a verb, formed with VERB-ingeg: "Walking is great exercise"

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gradable adjective

adjective that can vary in intensity or grade when paired with a grading adverb ; see also non-gradable adjectiveeg: quite hot, very tall

grading adverbadverb that can modify the intensity or grade of a gradable adjectiveeg: quite hot, very tall

hanging participle another term for dangling participle

helping verb another term for auxiliary verb

imperativeform of verb used when giving a command; formed with BASE VERB onlyeg: "Brush your teeth!"

indefinite pronoun pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is vague and "not definite".eg: anything, each, many, somebody

independent clause(also called "main clause")

group of words that expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence; see also dependent clauseeg: "Tara is eating curry.", "Tara likes oranges and Joe likes apples."

indirect object

noun phrase representing the person or thing indirectly affected by the action of the verb; see also direct object eg: "She showed me her book collection", "Joey bought his wife a new car"

indirect question another term for embedded question

indirect speech(also called "reported speech")

saying what someone said without using their exact words; see direct speecheg: "Lucy said that she was tired"

infinitive

base form of a verb preceded by "to"**; see also bare infinitiveeg: "You need to study harder", "To be, or not to be: that is the question"

inflection change in word form to indicate grammatical meaning

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eg: dog, dogs (two inflections); take, takes, took, taking, taken (five inflections)

interjection

common word that expresses emotion but has no grammatical value; can often be used alone and is often followed by an exclamation markeg: "Hi!", "er", "Ouch!", "Dammit!"

interrogative(formal) sentence type (typically inverted) normally used when asking a questioneg: "Are you eating?", "What are you eating?"

interrogative pronoun pronoun that asks a question.eg: who, whom, which

intransitive verbverb that does not take a direct object; see also transitive verbe.g. "He is working hard", "Where do you live?"

inversion

any reversal of the normal word order, especially placing the auxiliary verb before the subject; used in a variety of ways, as in question formation, conditional clauses and agreement or disagreementeg: "Where are your keys?","Had we watched the weather report, we wouldn't have gone to the beach", "So did he", "Neither did she"

irregular verbsee irregular verbs list

verb that has a different ending for past tense and past participle forms than the regular "-ed"; see also regular verb eg: buy, bought, bought; do, did, done

lexicon, lexis all of the words and word forms in a language with meaning or function

lexical verb another term for main verb

linking verb verbs that connect the subject to more information (but do not indicate action), such as "be" or "seem"

main clause another term for independent clause

main verb(also called "lexical verb")

any verb in a sentence that is not an auxiliary verb; a main verb has meaning on its owneg: "Does John like Mary?", "I will have arrived by 4pm"

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modal verb(also called "modal")

auxiliary verb such as can, could, must, should etc; paired with the bare infinitive of a verbeg: "I should go for a jog"

modifier

word or phrase that modifies and limits the meaning of another wordeg: the house => the white house, the house over there, the house we sold last year

moodsentence type that indicates the speaker's view towards the degree of reality of what is being said, for example subjunctive, indicative, imperative

morphemeunit of language with meaning; differs from "word" because some cannot stand alonee.g. un-, predict and -able in unpredictable

multi-word verb

verb that consists of a basic verb + another word or words (preposition and/or adverb)eg: get up (phrasal verb), believe in (prepositional verb), get on with (phrasal-prepositional verb)

negativeform which changes a "yes" meaning to a "no" meaning; opposite of affirmativeeg: "She will not come", "I have never seen her"

nominative case another term for subjective case

non-defining relative clause(also called "non-restrictive relative clause")

relative clause that adds information but is not completely necessary; set off from the sentence with a comma or commas; see defining relative clause eg: "The boy, who had a chocolate bar in his hand, was still hungry"

non-gradable adjective

adjective that has a fixed quality or intensity and cannot be paired with a grading adverb; see also gradable adjective eg: freezing, boiling, dead

non-restrictive relative clause another term for non-defining relative clause

noun part of speech that names a person, place, thing, quality, quantity or concept; see also proper noun and compound nouneg: "The man is waiting", "I was born in London",

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"Is that your car?", "Do you like music?"

noun clause

clause that takes the place of a noun and cannot stand on its own; often introduced with words such as "that, who or whoever"eg: "What the president said was surprising"

noun phrase (NP)

any word or group of words based on a noun or pronoun that can function in a sentence as a subject, object or prepositional object; can be one word or many words; can be very simple or very complexeg: "She is nice", "When is the meeting?", "The car over there beside the lampost is mine"

numberchange of word form indicating one person or thing (singular) or more than one person or thing (plural) eg: one dog/three dogs, she/they

object

thing or person affected by the verb; see also direct object and indirect object eg: "The boy kicked the ball", "We chose the house with the red door"

objective case case form of a pronoun indicating an objecteg: "John married her", "I gave it to him"

part of speechone of the classes into which words are divided according to their function in a sentenceeg: verb, noun, adjective

participle verb form that can be used as an adjective or a noun; see past participle, present participle

passive voice

one of two voices in English; an indirect form of expression in which the subject receives the action; see also active voiceeg: "Rice is eaten by many people"

past tense(also called "simple past")

tense used to talk about an action, event or situation that occurred and was completed in the pasteg: "I lived in Paris for 10 years", "Yesterday we saw a snake"

past continuous tense often used to describe an interrupted action in the past; formed with WAS/WERE + VERB-ing

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eg: "I was reading when you called"

past perfecttense that refers to the past in the past; formed with HAD + VERB-ed eg: "We had stopped the car"

past perfect continuous

tense that refers to action that happened in the past and continued to a certain point in the past; formed with HAD BEEN + VERB-ingeg: "I had been waiting for three hours when he arrived"

past participle

verb form (V3) - usually made by adding "-ed" to the base verb - typically used in perfect and passive tenses, and sometimes as an adjectiveeg: "I have finished", "It was seen by many people", "boiled eggs"

perfectverb form (specifically an aspect); formed with HAVE/HAS + VERB-ed (present perfect) or HAD + VERB-ed (past perfect)

person

grammatical category that identifies people in a conversation; there are three persons: 1st person (pronouns I/me, we/us) is the speaker(s), 2nd person (pronoun you) is the listener(s), 3rd person (pronouns he/him, she/her, it, they/them) is everybody or everything else

personal pronoun pronoun that indicates personeg: "He likes my dogs", "They like him"

phrasal verb

multi-word verb formed with a verb + adverbeg: break up, turn off (see phrasal verbs list)NB: many people and books call all multi-word verbs "phrasal verbs" (see multi-word verbs)

phrasetwo or more words that have a single function and form part of a sentence; phrases can be noun, adjective, adverb, verb or prepositional

plural

of a noun or form indicating more than one person or thing; plural nouns are usually formed by adding "-s"; see also singular, number eg: bananas, spoons, trees

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position

grammatically correct placement of a word form in a phrase or sentence in relation to other word formseg: "The correct position for an article is at the beginning of the noun phrase that it describes"

positivebasic state of an adjective or adverb when it shows quality but not comparative or superlativeeg: nice, kind, quickly

possessive adjective adjective (also called "determiner") based on a pronoun: my, your, his, her, its, our, theireg: "I lost my keys", "She likes your car"

possessive case case form of a pronoun indicating ownership or possessioneg: "Mine are blue", "This car is hers"

possessive pronoun pronoun that indicates ownership or possessioneg: "Where is mine?", "These are yours"

predicate

one of the two main parts (subject and predicate) of a sentence; the predicate is the part that is not the subjecteg: "My brother is a doctor", "Who did you call?", "The woman wearing a blue dress helped me"

prefix affix that occurs before the root or stem of a wordeg: impossible, reload

preposition

part of speech that typically comes before a noun phrase and shows some type of relationship between that noun phrase and another element (including relationships of time, location, purpose etc)eg: "We sleep at night", "I live in London", "This is for digging"

prepositional verbmulti-word verb that is formed with verb + prepositioneg: believe in, look after

present participle

-ing form of a verb (except when it is a gerund or verbal noun)eg: "We were eating", "The man shouting at the back is rude", "I saw Tara playing tennis"

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present simple (also called "simple present")

tense usually used to describe states and actions that are general, habitual or (with the verb "to be") true right now; formed with the basic verb (+ s for 3rd person singular)eg: "Canada sounds beautiful", "She walks to school", "I am very happy"

present continuous (also called "present progressive")

tense used to describe action that is in process now, or a plan for the future; formed with BE + VERB-ingeg: "We are watching TV", "I am moving to Canada next month"

present perfect

tense that connects the past and the present, typically used to express experience, change or a continuing situation; formed with HAVE + VERB-ed eg: "I have worked there", "John has broken his leg", "How long have you been in Canada?"

present perfect continuous

tense used to describe an action that has recently stopped or an action continuing up to now; formed with HAVE + BEEN + VERB-ingeg: "I'm tired because I've been running", "He has been living in Canada for two years"

progressive another term for continuous

pronoun

word that replaces a noun or noun phrase; there are several types including personal pronouns, relative pronouns and indefinite pronounseg: you, he, him; who, which; somebody, anything

proper nounnoun that is capitalized at all times and is the name of a person, place or thingeg: Shakespeare, Tokyo, EnglishClub.com

punctuationstandard marks such as commas, periods and question marks within a sentenceeg: , . ? ! - ; :

quantifier determiner or pronoun that indicates quantityeg: some, many, all

question tag final part of a tag question; mini-question at end of a

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tag questioneg: "Snow isn't black, is it?"

question word another term for WH-word

reciprocal pronoun

pronoun that indicates that two or more subjects are acting mutually; there are two in English - each other, one anothereg: "John and Mary were shouting at each other", "The students accused one another of cheating"

reduced relative clause(also called "participial relative clause")

construction similar to a relative clause, but containing a participle instead of a finite verb; this construction is possible only under certain circumstances eg: "The woman sitting on the bench is my sister", "The people arrested by the police have been released"

reflexive pronoun

pronoun ending in -self or -selves, used when the subject and object are the same, or when the subject needs emphasiseg: "She drove herself", "I'll phone her myself"

regular verbsee regular verbs list

verb that has "-ed" as the ending for past tense and past participle forms; see also irregular verbeg: work, worked, worked

relative adverb adverb that introduces a relative clause; there are four in English: where, when, wherever, whenever; see also relative pronoun

relative clause

dependent clause that usually starts with a relative pronoun such as who or which, or relative adverb such as whereeg: "The person who finishes first can leave early" (defining), "Texas, where my brother lives, is big" (non-defining)

relative pronounpronoun that starts a relative clause; there are five in English: who, whom, whose, which, that; see also relative adverb

reported speech another term for indirect speech

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restrictive relative clause another term for defining relative clause

second conditional"if-then" conditional structure used to talk about an unlikely possibility in the futureeg: "If we won the lottery we would buy a car"

sentence

largest grammatical unit; a sentence must always include a subject (except for imperatives) and predicate; a written sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a full stop/period (.), question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!); a sentence contains a complete thought such as a statement, question, request or commandeg: "Stop!", "Do you like coffee?", "I work."

serieslist of items in a sentenceeg: "The children ate popsicles, popcorn and chips"

singular

of a noun or form indicating exactly one person or thing; singular nouns are usually the simplest form of the noun (as found in a dictionary); see also plural, number eg: banana, spoon, tree

split infinitive

situation where a word or phrase comes between the particle "to" and the verb in an infinitive; considered poor construction by some eg: "He promised to never lie again"

Standard English (S.E.) "normal" spelling, pronunciation and grammar that is used by educated native speakers of English

structure word

word that has no real meaning in a sentence, such as a pronoun or auxiliary verb (as opposed to a content word, such as verb or noun); structure words are not normally stressed in speecheg: "Could you BRING my GLASSES because I've LEFT them at HOME"

subject

one of the two main parts (subject and predicate) of a sentence; the subject is the part that is not the predicate; typically, the subject is the first noun phrase in a sentence and is what the rest of the sentence "is about"

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eg: "The rain water was dirty", "Mary is beautiful", "Who saw you?"

subjective casealso called "nominative"

case form of a pronoun indicating a subjecteg: Did she tell you about her?

subjunctive

fairly rare verb form typically used to talk about events that are not certain to happen, usually something that someone wants, hopes or imagines will happen; formed with BARE INFINITIVE (except past of "be")eg: "The President requests that John attend the meeting"

subordinate clause another term for dependent clause

suffix affix that occurs after the root or stem of a wordeg: happiness, quickly

superlative, superlative adjective adjective or adverb that describes the extreme degree of somethingeg: happiest, most quickly

SVO

subject-verb-object; a common word order where the subject is followed by the verb and then the objecteg: "The man crossed the street"

syntax sentence structure; the rules about sentence structure

tag question

special construction with statement that ends in a mini-question; the whole sentence is a tag question; the mini-question is a question tag; usually used to obtain confirmationeg: "The Earth is round, isn't it?", "You don't eat meat, do you?"

tense

form of a verb that shows us when the action or state happens (past, present or future). Note that the name of a tense is not always a guide to when the action happens. The "present continuous tense", for example, can be used to talk about the present or the future.

third conditional "if-then" conditional structure used to talk about a

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possible event in the past that did not happen (and is therefore now impossible)eg: "If we had won the lottery we would have bought a car"

transitive verb

action verb that has a direct object (receiver of the action); see also intransitive verbeg: "The kids always eat a snack while they watch TV"

uncountable nouns(also called "mass nouns" or "non-count")

thing that you cannot count, such as substances or concepts; see also countable nouns eg: water, furniture, music

usage way in which words and constructions are normally used in any particular language

V1, V2, V3

referring to Verb 1, Verb 2, Verb 3 - being the base, past and past participle that students typically learn for irregular verbs eg: speak, spoke, spoken

verb

word that describes the subject's action or state and that we can change or conjugate based on tense and person eg: (to) work, (to) love, (to) begin

voiceform of a verb that shows the relation of the subject to the action; there are two voices in English: active, passive

WH-question

question using a WH-word and expecting an answer that is not "yes" or "no"; WH-questions are "open" questions; see also yes-no question eg: Where are you going?

WH-word(also called "question word")

word that asks a WH-question; there are 7 WH-words: who, what, where, when, which, why, how

word order order or sequence in which words occur within a sentence; basic word order for English is subject-verb-object or SVO

yes-no question question to which the answer is yes or no; yes-no questions are "closed" questions; see also WH-

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questioneg: "Do you like coffee?"

zero conditional"if-then" conditional structure used when the result of the condition is always true (based on fact)eg: "If you dial O, the operator comes on"

* note that technically English does not have a real future tense** some authorities consider the base form of the verb without "to

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