discussion paper report - world bankdocuments.worldbank.org/curated/en/... · survey such...
TRANSCRIPT
DISCUSSION PAPER
Report No. UDD-99
THE COSTS OF LAND INFORMATION SYSTEMS
by
Janis D. Bernstein
April 1986
Water Supply and Urban Development DepartmentOperations Policy Staff
The World Bank
The views presented herein are -,hose of the -uthor(s), and they should not beinterpreted as reflecting those of t'e World Bank.
Pub
lic D
iscl
osur
e A
utho
rized
Pub
lic D
iscl
osur
e A
utho
rized
Pub
lic D
iscl
osur
e A
utho
rized
Pub
lic D
iscl
osur
e A
utho
rized
Pub
lic D
iscl
osur
e A
utho
rized
Pub
lic D
iscl
osur
e A
utho
rized
Pub
lic D
iscl
osur
e A
utho
rized
Pub
lic D
iscl
osur
e A
utho
rized
Janis Bernstein is a consultant to the Water Supplyand Urban Development Department, where she has worked onurban land management issues. This paper was presented atthe World Bank Seminar on Land Information Systems,March 19-22, 1985.
ABSTRACT
This paper presents an overview of the costs of parcel-based land information systems. It addresses researchmethodologies directed at analyzing and comparing costs on aninternational basis; approaches for reducing costs; andillustrative programs in Brazil, the Philippines and Canada.
CONTENTS
page
I. Introduction ................................................... 1
II. Some General Observatiorns About Costs .......................... 4
III. The Multipurpose Cadastre ..................................... 12
IV. Illustrative Programs ......................................... 39
V. Current Research on Cost Methodologies ........................ 60
References. ...................................................71
Annex I: Papers Addressing Cost Aspectsof Land Information Systems .......................... 73
I. Introduction
In most developing countries, the inadequacy of land
information poses a severe co-,traint on land transactions, land
consolidation, property taxation and public planning of all kinds. Due
to intensifying pressures on land for development as well as the need to
mobilize increased revenues from the property tax, governments are
investing in programs to clarify land ownership and boundaries, value
property, and in some cases, establish computerized multipurpose land
data banks. Unfortunately, thc2 investments are often not appropriate to
the limited resources available on a continuing basis and not consistent
with prevailing levels of expertise, instituitional capacity and economic
development. In manv cases, foreign consultants have recommended
advanced systems requiring high front end capital costs and extensive
external assistance. Very often these new systems have failed within a
few years because of the lack of adequate capacity to maintain equipment
and properly use and update the data outputs.
Although tnere is no international agreement on what
constitutes appropriate technologv in this field, past experience has
demonstrated that new systems should be planned so as to be efficiently
operated with existing resources plus a minimum of foreign input. The
system must also be easily understood and accepted by landowners and
users, continuously updated and cost-effective. This latter criterion,
however, is a difficult one to gauge - one of the most elusive asDects
of a land information system is a reliable estimation of cost.
-2-
Currently, there is no consensus among the professionals and
government officials on the costs to be anticipated in collecting land-
related data, producing maps, and introducing and maintaining the
various systems that process, store and administer them. Most of the
component costs vary according to such factors as the level of accuracy
required, the nature of the terrain to be surveyed, the density and
complexity of ownership, as well as the availability of pre-existing
information, equipment, and expertise. Each situation is-different and
it is clearly dangerous to generalize on costs from one country to
another. Conditions may vary considerably even within a country.
To make matters worse, governments rarely have accurate
figures on the total costs or unit costs associated with each element of
a particular system. The responsibilities for land information are
usually assigned to a number of agencies which do not disaggregate rosts
for land data from their total operating budgets. The agencies that do
have cost figures usually maintain records on the direct costs for
production rather than on the overall costs which account for updating,
maintenance and overhead, including training. Moreover, the available
cost figures are usually not in a form which can be meaningfully
compared to those in other countries. Research and analyses of unit
costs for specific types of land information products are almost non-
existent.
Despite the above deficiencies, reliable cost data remain
critical inputs into the planning and decisionmaking related to the
development of new or improved parcel-based land information systems.
There are many technologies, instruments and approaches through which
project planners and policy officials can build these systems, yet they
-3-
have limited knowledge about how to apply them in the post cost-
effective manner to meet various objectives. Decisionmakers should be
able to determine what kind of investment in land information will
produce an acceptable product with maximum benefit. According to some
experts, 90 percent of the objectives can often be achieved for a
fraction of the cost of achieving 100 percent. Program officials need
to know what are the cut-oft points, and given a very limited financial
base, what kind of an investment makes sense to initiate as a first
step.
With so many unknowns regarding the actual unit costs of land
information, it would probably require several years of research and
program monitoring to ascertain the real costs Ocr developing and
maintaining a land information system under a variety of local
conditions to establish norms. The purpose of this paper is to document
what little we currently do know about the costs of land information
systems and to suggest methodologies for improving this situation.
For convenience, the report focuses primarily on the multi-
purpose cadastre, the type of land information system which facilitates
land transactions, property taxation, land administration and various
kinds of public planning and development control. Clearly not all the
components will be relevant or appropriate to local conditions, needs
and resources in difterent places at different times. Moreover, the
costs are no more than illustrative. They represent estimated or actual
costs of programs serving the particular purposes of individual
couuntries and the particular conditions prevailing. They cannot be
readily applied to the calculation of costs for programs elsewhere.
-4-
The paper consists of five chapters. It begins with some
general observations about the costs of building a multipurpose
cadastral system, including approaches to cost reduction, and
suggew.tions for further research. Chapter three discusses the unit
costs associated with the geodetic network, base mapping, cadastral
surveys, land values and other parcel data, the land data bank and
system maintenance and updating. Chapter four presents a discussion of
tine costs of four illustrative programs. Chapter five briefly notes
curcent research on costs and methodologies for analyzing or estimating
unit costs. An annex of selected reports for further research related
to costs has also been prepared. This paper is an initial effort to
survey such information as is readily available. If it stimulates
further discussion and work in this field, it will have achiLVed its
principal purpose.
II. Some General Observations About Costs
In most developing countries, the authorities responsible for
various Kinds of land information, e.g. land ownership, spatial data,
and land values, are located in different ministries which maintain
separate, yet often similar types of land records. To reduce
duplication of effort, there has been a Lrend in recent years toward
integrating these data bases through the development of multipurpose
cadastres. The modern multipurpose cadastre is a form of land
information system which contains data on the legal, physical, fiscal,
economic and other aspects of land parcels. The building of such a
system involves the design and implementation of a series of
interrelated legal, administrative, and technical operations necessary
for data acquisition, processing, storage, administration and system
maintenance and updating.
As previously noted, it is impossible to predict accurately on
the basis of existing information how much a multipurpose cadastre will
cust. The cost of any particular project will always depend not only on
the land area covered and number of parcels, but also on the extent of
existing data, staff resources, expertise, equipment, and local land
conditions, i.e., density, terrain, complexity of land ownership. OL;aer
influences on cost include the nature of the existing land institutions,
the legal tramework and public attitudes toward land and title
registration. The range of costs of the projects reviewed has been from
several million to tens of millions of dollars. A review of the
literature and illustrative programs as well as discussions with experts
in the field suggest that one can expect the unit cost for a modern
multipurpose cadastre to range from about $5 to $25 per hectare for
ruraL land and from about $60 to as high as $9,000 per hectare for urban
land.
The $9,000 per hectare cost is the highest price encountered
in tnis investigation. It was derived from the cost calculations
prepared by Francois Brun of the Institut Geographique National (France)
for a hypothetical multipurpose (legal, technical, fiscal) cadastre
project using state of the art technologies. The costs below are those
which would apply in an industrial country. They account for all
necessary operations from project appraisal through project
completion. The man-month rates include overhead, administrative costs,
equipment, office accommodation, etc. For professional services, the
-6-
cost is $8000/month. The cost for a technician (survey,
administrative/legal and fiscal) is $6000/month and for a laborer,
$1000/month. The project area is about 1000 hectares and assumes 23
plots per hectare. There are pre-existing formal rights (titles and
deeds) and customary rights. The table is included here to illustrate
the types of activities and costs associated with the establishment of a
modern land information system. This particular system covers: the
densification of the geodetic network, base mapping, land adjudication,
cadast' ;l survey and mapping, collection of fiscal data, and the
building of a land data bank. The total cost of the project is $8.9
million; the unit cost per hectare is $8,950 or $390 per plot.
-7-
Breakdown of Project Costs for HypotheticalMultipurpose (Legal, Technical, Fiscal) Cadastre
Staff DurationProject Stase Reauirements (Months) Cost
1. Project Appraisal 1 Expert 3 324,000Analysifof Existing -
Conditions, Definitionof Major ProjectComponents
2. Preoaration of ProjectImplementation Plan 3 Experts 3 S72,000Definition of Insti-tional, Legal, Fiscaland Admin. Framework;Prepare Terms of Referencefor Project Execution
3. St T'' Training 3 ExDerts 3 S612,000Trainiing in Tooo/Cart, 9 TechniciansAdmin./Fin./Law, and (3 Survey, 3Taxacion for Existing Admin./Legal,Technic-ans in & 3 Fiscal)Cadascral Depts.
4. Preliminarv Publicitv 550,000Media Presentacion andAdvertising on ProjectScope, Phases, and PublicRights and Obligations
:. Suoolementary informationbv Town Ouarters 1 Professional S20,000Dissemination of 2 Technicians ($2,000/ha)information Through (Survey, Admin.'Direct Contact Legal)
6. Preliminarv rnformationF;athering I Professional 58 $1,160,000Identification of 0wners, 2 Technicians ($1,160/ha)Houses and Rights (Survey, Admin./
Leeal)
7. Base YapoineAir Photo at 1:5000 S30,000Densification ofGeodatic Network andLevel $38,000Digital Mapoing at1:500 Incl. Stereoplotting,Field Completion andVerification S240,000
S 308,000($308/ha)
3. Cadastral Surve_yAdjudication, MonumentatronEvaluation 1 Professional 92 $6,152,000Rate of 6 Plots/Day :for 29 months)
3 Technicians(Admin. /Legal,Survey, Fiscal)2 Laborers
3. Preoarat:on nf CadastralMaos and Revisters 1 Professional 96 S1,968,000integration of Cadastral (for 30 months)Field Survey into Digital 3 TechniciansAir Mapping, Building (Survey, FiscalFiles of Owners and Admin.iLegalProperties, IncludingLegal and Fiscal AsDects-xecuced at Rate of12 Plots/Day
;0. Verification AeainstOfficial Documentation 1 Professional 53 $396,000axecuted at Rate or (for 6 months)' Fi'es/Day I rechnician(Assumes thac 10% cfthe plots have t4tlesor leeds with recoenizedleeal value and thatfi'ing system is ofvery poor quality)
U. Litigation Sertlement 15 $180,000A Comoecent CourtSectles . Disputes/DayAssumes that the claimand JisDute oercentage-s .)
-8-
A system such as that Jpst described would be highly
inappropriate in mcost parts of the world (given the low economic and
individual levels as well ar', the need to accommodate the unprecedented
growti' rates. in the urban areas of developing countries. Governments
cannot afford to invest in systems that require sophisticated equipment
which cannot be operated and maintained by existing staff, nor can they
afford to pay excessive costs for surveying the land of households in
whicL. the per capita income averages $270, as is the case for about half
of the world's ponulation.
To ensure that the development of new systems are more
appropriate to local conditions in developing countries, project
planners should design systems in whic!t the cost of surveying, mapping
and documenting a parcel is closely related to the value of the land.
One rule of thumb is that costs should be about 2 percent of the value
of tne land. AS a maximum, the cost should not exceed five percent.
Any system costing more than 5 percent of the land value is almost
certainly excessive and should be modified through various cost
reduction approaches, such as the ones briefly cutlined below.
One traditional approach to cutting costs is to reduce the
inputs into a system in order to produce a less expensive product.
Thus, accuracy requirements c? n be reduced and the use of less
sophisticated instruments and techniques should be promnoted as long as
the result is sufficient for legal purposes. For example, where
appropriate, rectified photomaps are less costly alternatives to
orthophotomaps. In certain situations, the unrectified aerial
photograph itself may be sufficient for titling purposes. The
emnployment of non-professional surveyors without expert supervision to
-9-
perform various types of cadastral surveys should also be considered.
In the boundary demarcation process, considerable savings in time and
money can be accomplished through the reduction of the number of
boundary markers needed for each parcel. It is not always necessary to
implant new boundary monuments in each corner of a parcel when existing
markers such as fences, trails, trees are already accepted. In one
country, the cost for concrete monuments at the corners of outside
perimeters increased the overall cost of surveying and mapping by nearly
100 percent. In addition, project officials might solicit the
cooperation of private landowners for the clearing of bushes and shrubs
in anticipation of boundary demarcation. They might also ask landowners
to agree among themselves on parcel boundaries before the land
adjudication takes place.
Anothei approach to cost reduction is to introduce measures to
improve production. For large-scale programs, the use of new
technologies such as inertial surveys and GPS may be appropriate.
Photogrammetric techniques have already proven their cost efficiency for
a number of applications, particularly base mapping. However, in order
to use these technologies to the best advantage for cost reduction and
greater speed in executing the surveying and mapping operations, a
country must demonstrate sufficient in-house expertise, staff resources
and continuing commitment to the program.
Where conditions are rigtit, e.g. reliable supplies of
electricicy, availability of repair services, training etc., the
introduction of computers can substantially increase the cost efficiency
of new systems, particularly when new data can be directly fed into the
computer and there is a minimum amount of existing data to be converted
into machine readable form. Although the costs of digitized mapping may
be excessive for many developing countries, the use tf micro-computers
for processing, storing and updating non-graphic legal and fiscal data
can provide significant savings in many situations.
Another approach to cost savings is to target special areas
for surveying and mapping programs. When financial resources are
scarce, policy makers should select areas where these programs can bring
the most beneficial results. For example, a land registration program
facilitating potentially high revenue--producing development will be more
economically beneficial than a similar program carried out in squatter
areas. For the latter, it may be more appropriate to document the land
through less accurate low-cost aerial surveys as needed for project
purposes.
Lastly, considerable savings can be achieved when new survey
and mapping programs are planned so as to be compatible with the
requirements of a maximum amount of users. In the planning of new
systems, program planners and policy officials should ensure that all
agencies involved in large-scale mapping and cadastral surveys for legal
and fiscal purposes are involved in the determination of scale and data
requirements. For maximum cost-efficiency, they should consider the
development of a multipurpose cadastre whicht relates all parcel-related
data in a jurisdiction, and wherever possible, is linked to or
compatible with other land data bases within the larger region or state.
To develop cost-effective systems appropriate to developing
country conditions, project designers and policy officials need to
consider costs and benefits of alternative approaches and standards ot
accturacy. To accomplish this satisfactorily, however, requires more
information than is presently available on the costs of difterent
technologies and procedures, as well as the economic benefits of the
different kinds of systems and approaches. With such information, they
would be better equipped to deal with the various cost trade-offs
encountered in the design of new systems. More importantly, they would
be better able to: build optimum systems suited to the needs and
available financial and technical resources in each situation; assess
the cost-effectiveness of new procedures and technological advancements;
make more accurate estimates of project costs; compare program costs to
those in other countries; and monitor actual implementation.
In conclusion, there is a great need for coordinated research
among international organizations and training institutions focusing on
the economics of land information systems. As a start, efforts should
be directed at the establishment of standard methodologies for analyzing
and estimating the costs of all aspects of land information systems
which can be compared on an international basis. For the developing
countries, where tne need for low-cost solutions is critical, research
and experimentation should be directed at the development of inexpensive
replicable approaches to identifying the minimum data requirements for
meeting the most essential user needs, and utilizing technologies and
procedures which can be operated and maintained with limited
resources. The initiation of pilot programs will provide the best means
for determining costs and standards under different local conditions.
Lastly, the agencies and individuals involved should establish a network
through which the research findings and other developments in the field
can be disseminated and incorporated into future work.
- 12 -
III. The Piultipurpose Cadastre
The basic elements of a modern multipurpose cadastre are a
geodetic reterence frameworkc, a series of large-scale maps (1:500 -
1:25,000) showing major man-made and natural features, a cadastral map
or overlay delineating property boundaries, a unique identifier assigned
to each parcel, and a register or series of registers containing parce-'
based information about the ownership, value, land use and other
actributes of the land in a jurisdiction. This chapter addresses the
cost considerations for the principal elements of a multipurpose
cadastre in which the legal register is the most important component.
They include the geodetic reterence framnework, base mapping, caaastral
surveys and mapping, land valuation, the land data bank and system
maintenance and updating.
Geodetic Reference Framework
The geodetic reference framework is the spatial foundation for
the multipurpose cadastre. It consists of monumented points whose
horizontal and vertical positions and interrelationships have been
accurately determined by field, photogrammetic or other techniques.
Typically, the distance between monumented points ranges from .2 to .5
miles (.3 - .8 km) between monuments in urban areas and I to 2 miles
(1.6 - 3.2 km) in rural areas.1/
The establishment of a control inetwork is an expensive
process. In order of the least capital cost, the following are
1/ National Academy of Sciences. Procedures and Standards for aMultipurpose Cadastre, 1983, pp.23-24.
- 13 -
alternative techniques for ground control: (1) triangulation,
trilateration or traversing using theodolite and electromagnetic
distance meters (EDM); (2) photogrammetric densification; (3) inertial
surveying techniques; (4) Satellite Doppler surveys; and the (5) Global
Positioning System.A/ which is expected to be fully operational by about
1989. Using a conventional field method (e.g. triangulation and
traversing with theodolite and EDM), the cost ranges between about $500
to $1,500 per point according to thie required accuracy.2/ In general,
the cost for control surveys by field techniques account for one quarter
to one third the cosc of the finished naps. The costs of the newer,
more sophisticated methods are discussed separately below.
Inertial Survey., Inertial surveying (ISS) is a means for
densifying control within an existing geodetic network. Using cars or
helicopters for the determination of x, y and z coordinates, the method
can achieve an accuracy ot 1:20,000 or 5 cm. over 1 kilometer. Although
tnere will be slight variations in cost under different conditions, the
followiuig estimates show cost comparisons between inertial and
conventional surveying (ground traversing with theodolite) for the
densitication of a primary geodetic network in developing countries.-/
1/ holstein, Lynni. The University of New South Wales, New SouthWales, Australia, March 1985.
2/ Kulick, Gary. Nortech Surveys. Arlington, Virginia, February1985.
3/ Kulick, Gary. Nortech Surveys. Arlington, Virginia, February1985. Based on experience in Egypt, Ethiopia, Nigeria,Philippines, Tanzania, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe, among othercountries.
- 14 4
Costs Per Point
Inertial Conventional
Second Order fIl $750 - 1,000 $1,000 - 1,500
Third Order I2/ 400 - 650 600 - 1,000
II3/ 350 - 500 500 - 750
(Note: Air freight and transportation costs are not included in the
above estimates).
Developing country governments generally do not purchase the
very costly equipment required. Instead, a toreign contractor wouid
provide the equipment and at Least two highly trained and experienced
technicians to train indigenous personnel and provide project
guidance. Project duration and locations influence personnel
requirements. In general, however, about six to twelve people are hired
and trained for a project. A typical project lasts for one to two
months during which time about 800 to 1,000 points are established.
The required training time differs according to prior survey
or electronics experience of the individuals concerned. For example, an
individual with a fundamental knowle%dge of these fields will require
approximately two weeks of supervised training for a cost of about
61,000 - 1,500. An individual with no prior experience will require
1/ horizontal accuracy of 1/20,000 and vertical accuracy 1.3 mm.
2/ Horizontal accuracy of 1/10,000 and vertical accuracy of 2 mm.
3/ horizontal accuracy of 1/5,000 and vertical accuracy of 2 mm.
- 15 -
approximately four to eight weeks of supervised training to be able to
generate i:e'.able field data. The estimated cost for this training is
$2,700.1/
Satellite Doppler Positioning System. In terms of cost,
accuracy and timeliness, the Satellite Doppler Positioning System
competes with conventional surveying for the establishment of the
primary geodetic network. Using the most advanced observational
procedures and precise methods of data reduction, the system can produce
accuracies on the order of 10 to 20 cm. (0.33 to .66 ft.) for relative
positioning ot stations separated by up to 100 km. (about 60 miles). To
achieve these accuracies, the system requires substantial capital
investment in technology. For example, to establishi a primary geodetic
network of 18 stations within a typical countrywide area at accuracies
on the order of 10 cm. (.33 ft.), the following would be required: a
pair of base stations established at convenient points with*in the
existing primary net; two mobile units, each occupying a designated
station tor a period of 4-5 days; and the field work, which would be
completed within a month. When stations are separated by 10 km. (about
16 miles), the system can produce proportional accuracies of
1/100,000. For stations separated by 50 km. (approx. 30 miles)
proportional accuracies can oe 1/500,000. The cost of this type of
survey can be about $75,000 or about $4,000 per station. Approximately
$50,000 would be allocated to field work and $25,000 would he allocated
1/ Kulick, Gary. Nortech Surveys, Arlington, Virginia. February1985.
- 16 -
to data reduction, which could be completed within 60 days after the
field work.l/
Global Positioning System. The Global Positioning System
(GPS), when fully operational, is expected to determine relative
positions with 1 to 2 cm. accuracies in all-weather conditions over 100
km. or less within a few hours. The system will increase productivity,
reduce costs, and produce accuracies equal to or greater thian those of
conventional surveying. As of 1983, a receiver costs $100,000. This
price, however, will decrease as equipment comes into more widespread
use.2/ In late 1985, the cost is expected 'to be about $50,000.3/The
costs are generally in the range of $1,500 - $2,000 per point for first
order accuracy.-4/
Photogrammetric triangulation or aerotriangulationi. Aerotri-
angulation is an alternative to or used to supplement conventional tield
surveying when there is an existing primary geodetic network. It is the
process by which horizontal and/or vertical control is extended over an
ares by overlapping (at least 60 percent along strips and 20 percent
across) pairs of photographs. A small number of points previously
surveyed on the ground serve as a framework within which all other
points on the photographs are established through an interpolative
1/ NAS, Procedures and Standards for a Multipurpose Cadastre,1983, pl. 32-33.
2/ National Academy of Science, Procedures and Standards for alultipurpose Cadastre, 1983, pp.33-34.
3/ Holstein, Lynn. The University of New South WVales, New SouthWales, Australia, March 1985.
4/ Kulick, Gary. Nortech Surveys. Arlington, Virginia, February1985.
- 17 -
process based on measurements or the coordinates of film images. When
projects require a moderately high density of points, aerotriangulation
is a cost-effective alternative to ground surveys, including ISS The
process can produce almost any desired accuracy and can provide as much
as a 3-to-I cost advantage over first order ground traversing.-
Photogrammetric triangulation as well as the satellite
positioning systems, inertial surveying, and GPS, are costly, capital-
intensive techniques. Once introduced, however, they can save an
enormous amount of field work, time and money, and produce large volumes
of data in a shorter period of time than conventional field
techniques. Ettective implementation requires statt with extensive
relevant experience and training to run them. To introduce the advanced
systems in a developing country, factors such as the purchase price for
hardware, required skilled manpower, and the loss of jobs for less-
skilled personnel who would otherwise be involved must be considered.
Whatever method is used, the control surveys should be undertaken
systematically and planned so as to benefit a maximum number of users.
Thus the points would be used for cadastral, topographic and engineering
purposes. All surveys would be tied to these marks.
Base Mapping
Within the context of a multipurpose cadastre, the large-scale
base map constitutes the graphic framework within which the locations of
cadastral parcels, political boundaries, and important natural and man-
made features can be related to the geodetic reference network. It also
1/ National Academy of Science. Procedures and Standards for theKultipurpose Cadastre, 1983, p.29.
- 18 -
provides a means by which all land-related information may be tied
graphically to cadastral parcels. In many countries, photogrammetric
techniques provide a quicker and more cost-effective approach to base
mapping than conventional ground compilation methods.
Photogrammetry is the method by which measurements of land are
made on photographs. The basic stages are the flying of the aerial
photography, provision of ground control, stereoplotting and
cartographic processing. In order of the most simple and inexpensive to
the most elaborate and expensive, the final map products include the
enlarged unrectified air plhotographs, rectified photomaps,
orthophotomaps and line maps. With respect to the orthophotomap and
line map, there is a cost ratio of about one to three-I/ Rectified
photomaps are less expensive than orthophotomaps, but they can only be
used when the terrain is relatively flat. Photogrammetry is most cost-
eftective when the number of points to be measured are great, the detail
to be plotted or digitized is dense and the area to be surveyed is large
and covered systemmatically. The greater the required precision,
however, the higher the cost since larger-scaled photographs are
required and thus a larger number or photographs are needed to cover an
area.
Aerial photography. The most important factors influencing
the cost or acquiring the aerial photography are the flying height,
terrain, distaLnce to nearest airport, availability of gasoline, local
weather conditions affecting flying time and the type of aircraft
1/ brun, Francois. Institut Geographique Nationale, December1984.
- 19 -
used. Jerie and Holland list the full range of factors influencing
production rates for aerial photography and che acquiisition of other
primary lanid data.i/
Aerial Photography Acquisition
Factors influencing production rates.
A. Factors appertaining to the PRODUCT SPECIFICATION
A 1 Size and shape of project area2 Photo scale3 Flying and navigation specification and tolerances4 Image quality specification and tolerances5 orientation Data / Auxiliary Data specification and tolerances
B. Factors appertaining to the PROCESS SPECIFICATION
B 1 Type of survey aircraft2 Type of aerial survey camera3 Type of navigation sysi:em4 Flying height5 Flying pattern (inc. coastal and cross strips)6 Ground control and signalisation7 Processing of aerial film (local facilities, method and equipment)8 Type of auxiliary equipment9 Method of processing orientation Data / Auxiliary Data
C/D ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS:
C. Factors appertaining to the PROJECT AREA
C 1 Geographic position: absolute position of local base with respectto executing organizations home airfield
2 Position of target area with respect to local base3 Meteorological and climatic conditions4 Topographic characteristics5 Communications situation6 Air traffic control situation7 Fuel situation8 Security situation9 Maintenance situation
10 Local political/administrative situation
D. Factors appertaining to the EXECUTING ORGANIZATION
D 1 Skill, motivation and productivity of staff (inc. efficiency ofmanagement)
2 Experience in operational conditions.
I/ Jerie, H.G. and Holland, E.W. Cost Models for PhotogrammetricProcesses. Invited Paper for Auto Carto 5/ISPRS Commission IVSymposium, Crystal City, Virginia. August 1982, p.10.
- 20 -
In general, the aerial photography is a relatively inexpensive
part of the process of surveying and mapping. It may account for
between five to fifteen percent of the cost of the photogrammetric
operations. It is import ant, however, that the photography is timely,
flown during the most favorable season by skilled operators, and
produced at the precise scale selected. For most purposes, the scale of
the aerial photograph acquired is three to five times smaller than the
scale ot the maps to be produced. The following compares costs of
aerial photography tor an area of 34,225 km2 (185 km x 105 km) at
different scales.-L/ As indicated, the cost for greater accuracy
iaicreases by about the same factor as the increase in scaleQ.
1;25,000 1:50,UOO 1:100,000
No. of strips 41 + 1 (42) 21 + 1 (22) 11 + 1 (12)No. ot photos/strip 81 + 4 (85) 41 + 4 (45) 21 + 4 (25)No. of photos 3570 990 300No. of flight kms 7770 4070 2220
Photographic costs2/(at $5 per photo) $17,850 $4,950 $1,500
3/Flying costs-/(at $25 per line km) $194,250 $101,750 $55,500
Total costs $212,100 $106,700 $57,000
Cost (per km2) $6.2 $3.1 $1.7
1/ Kure, J., ITC, Enschede, The Netherlands, September 1984.
2/ Assumes only paper print required tor photo-interpretationpurposes.
3/ Flying costs per line km vary according to type of aircraft(range, speed), location of project area from air base andespecially wearher conditions.
- 21 -
Stereoplotting. Based on the research of Jerie and Holland
for the ITC/OEEPE Cost Modelling project, production rates for
conventional stereoplotting vary widely among the production
organizations which were asked to provide cost data for different
terLrain standards. According to their findings, there can be a factor
of 20 in production estimates (contouring rates) depending on whether
the terrain is open or dense; the average variation is about 10 times.
Moreover, the different private and public organizations estimating
rates for the same terrain sample can vary by a factor of 60; the
average variation is nearer to 20 to 30 times.l/ The following lists
the factors influencing production rates.2/
1/ Holland, Eric. ITC. Enschede. The Netherlands, December1984.
2/ Jerie, H.G. and Holland, E.W. Cost Models for PhotogrammetricProcesses, 1982, p.9.
- 22 -
STEREO PLOTTING: INFLUENCING FACTORS
Factors influencing production rates.
A. Factors appertaining to the PRODUCT SPECIFICATION
A 1 Size of project area2 Map scale3 Sheet size, lay out, no. of separate traces, projection4 Map content, symbols, generalization5 % completion required6 Planimetric accuracy7 Amcunt of annotation required8 Contouz. VI, Spot heiyht/DGM/Profile spacing9 Height accuracy
B. Factors appertaining to the PROCESS SPECIFICATIONB 1 Type and distrihution of ground control (inc. signalization)
2 Amount of minor control/auxiliary data3 Type of aerial photography4 Photo scale(s)5 Model scale (relative to photo scale)6 Manuscript scale (relative to model scale)7 Pype of stereo plotting equipmentS Type of computer hardward and peripherals9 Type of computer software
10 Amount of photo interpretation at stereo plotter11 Method of plotting and type of output (graphical)12 Method of digital plotting and type of output13 Method of DGM data capture14 Method of relative orientation
C/D ENVJIRONM.ENTAL FACTORS
C. Factors appertaining to the PROJECT AREA
C 1 C,uant tazive aspectsa. topographic (height diffs, steepness/slopes)b. density of natural featuresc. density of cultural features
C 2 Qualitative aspectsa. terrain roughnessb. surface characteristics (swamps, deserts, etc.)c. vegetation coverage (trees, grass, crops)
D. Factors appertaining to the EXECUTING ORGANIZATIOND 1 Skill, mot:ivation and productivity of staff (inc. efficiency ofmanagement and oraanization)
E . DERIVED FACTORS
E 1 Quality of ground control2 Quality of aerial photography3 Quality of aerial triangulationi4 Quality of map sheet preparation5 Quality of pre-plotting interpolation6 Quality of plotting
- 23 -
Illustrative Base Mapping Program. An extensive urban mapping
program is currently being carried out in Indonesia. The program is
designed to produce large-scale photogrammetric base maps covering about
100 large (10,000 hectares), medium (3,000 hectares), and small size
(1,500 hectares) cities to support the government's national programs to
expand basic urban services. The aerial photography is being flown at
750 meters above the ground using 153 mm cameras to produce 1:5000 scale
aerial photos and subsequently 1:1000 scale photomaps with superimposed
one meter contours and vertical accuracy to 0.2 meters on spot
elevations_./ The program will also produce a 1:250,000 scale map of
L,ie island of Java, based on color edge-enhanced Landsat imagery and
corrected to a UTH grid. The latter would provide base data for the
planning and acquisition of urban aerial photography. The following is
the cost breakdown for the $9.5 million mapping program-2/
US$ Million
TMonumenting .13Vertical aerial photography 1.86Mappinga. Ground control 1.42b. Aerial trianguLation .92c. Ortho photo scanning .48d. Rectification .28e. Contouring/spot heights 1.17f. Cartography .50g. Automated cartography .05h. LANSAR base map-Java .04
Project management 1.00File .06Price contingencies 1.00
1/ Orthophotomaps, rectified photomaps or even line maps will beproduced depending on the terrain. The contour sheet will notalways be produced, especially where the terrain is flat.
2/ Staff Appraisal Report, Fourth Indonesia Urban DevelopmentProject, March 16, 1981, (Report No. 31232A-IND) p.68.
- 24 -
In addition, the project includes 80 man-months (US$1 million) ot
foreign consulting services, eighteen man months of which would be
allocated to the national agency responsi.ble for matching the needs of
individual agencies to available mapping capacities and integrating the
urban mapping work with other government mapping projects.
The Indonesian government appointed approved Indonesian
companies to carry out the surveying and mapping operations. The
following chartsl/ show the estimated timing for the photomapping of the
large, medium and small size cities.
1/ hunting Surveys & Consultants, Ltd. Urban IV Mapping AdvisoryTeam Inception Report, June 1982.
ESTIMATED TIMING FOR THE MAPPING OF A LARGE CITY.ORTHOPHiOTO
Weeks 10 20 30 - 40 5;
Photo./Surv.fMapPig Q'TY .2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.0..2.3.4.5.67.8.9.01.2.3.4.5.6.7..9.01.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.0..2.3.4-5.67.8.9.. 2
Aerial photography 260 '_______________***_____e____**_____t1______________________.Delivery of 'hotos rt-
Rec. Monumnent n * 3 0 a I a a a | * * * * * * * , * * g a a * | * * 5 ' 5 5 s a a 5
r ve S ng 65 __ _ __ _ _ __ _ _
L e e l n 1 2 0 ' '_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Co .~ Documenet'n U _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Photo Preparation a , * * , ,
Triaonguation L Adj. 250
Con~touring 240 ______
Orthophoto 450
Rectifi^atior. -Cartogr aphy 450 .___ ._._. ._._--_.__._._.________________ ____________________
Reproduction 1450_._*_._*_*_._*_._ _*_._._._._,_._._._. . . . . . . . .____,
Quantity unit for aerial photography and surveying is in line Km.
preparation, aerial triangulation, contouring and orthophoto is in Models.
5 ' "rectification, cartography and reproduction is in no. of sheets.
1 Traversin.g team ( Surveyor + Ass. )/ contract 9 weeks/team.
1 Levelling team 12
2 Survey calculator " " u6
1 Point transfer device. working 1 shift/day/inst. 7. weeks/inst.
1 Precision plotter 4 recorder. " 1 8.3 or, 1 Precision plotter + recorder.
1 First order plotter. 2 r U U 19. W Jorking 3 shifts for 16 veeks
- Rectifier. -- U U U
1 Orthophoto. 3 25.
2 cartographic team (3 draftsmen each) U 40 hours/week/pers 19. weeks/team.
2 Laboratory (1 laboratorian + 1 ass. each). 40 U U U 1 U
1 Operator for general preparation. 40 U u U 25. U U
ESTIMATED TIMING FOR THE MAPPING OF A MEDIUM CITY.
Weeks 10 20 30 40 50
Photo./Surv./Mapping Y1.2.3.4.5.6.78.9.0.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.0.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.0.1.2.3.4'.5.6.7.8.9.0.1.2.3.4.5.6.7.B.9.0.1.2.
Aerial photography 85 .___ . .__ . ,.___* .___* *___. *___._._____. * __._____* .__* ..__
Delivery of photos # * a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a o a a a a a a e r a a a a a e a a a S S a i S a a a
Rec. L Monument'n 16 a , , , , , .' a a a a a a . a a a a a a a a a a .... a t a e a a a a a a a a a
Traversing 30 a|a_a_A_ _ _|_._|_,, ,||
L-evelling 60 aaa aaaaa
Comp. L Document'n a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a ' ' a a a * a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
Photo Preparation a a a a a a a a . a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
Triangulation 6 Adj. 8o a a * a a * a a a a a a a a . a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
Contouring 75 a 0
_ _
Orthophoto 140 a
Rectification 140 a ..
Cartography 140 . * . .-* *
Reproduction 140 . . . . . - ' '_*.___..* .. .
Quantity unit for aerial photography and surveying is in line Km.
S 4 preparation, aerial triangulation, contouring and orthophoto is in models.
. " "rectification, cartography and reproduction is in no. of sheets.
1 Traversing team ( Surveyor + Ass. U/ contract 5 weeks/team.
1 Levelling tearm a, 6
2 Survey calculator a' n 4 'a
1 Point transfer device. working 1 shift/day/inst. 2.2 weeks/inst.
1 Precision plotter t recorder. 1 " n 2.6 or, I Precision plotter + recorder.
1 First order plotter. 2 a ' a. 6.2 Working 3 shifts for 5 weeks.
1 Rectifier. " 2 " 5.8
1 Orthophoto. ' 3 7 .as 7 U U
2 Cartographic team (3 draftsmen each) ' 40 hours/week/pers. 5.8 weeks/team.
2 Laboratory a (1 labo':atorian + 1 ass. each). ' 40 ' ' 4.E s -
1 Operator for general preparation. n 40 S a 8 . '
ESTIMATED TIMING FOR THE MAPPING OF A SHALL CITY.
Weeks 10 20 .30 ;40 50Photo./Surv./Mapping Q'TYWek 02.3405| ilpotrpy|4 1. 2;3.4. 5.6. 7.8.'9 01. 2* 3. 4. 5.6.7.h8.9. 0.l.2. 3. 45.6. 7.8.9.0. 1.-2. 3. 4.5.6.7.B. 9.0l.1.2. 3.4.5.6.7.9.9.0j.1.2.
Aerial photography 48 aaaaa aaaaa.*aaaaaaaaa 6
IJelive of h tos ga aa a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
Rec. & Monument'n 10 * t a a | a a aTraversing 20_________
Levelling 30 _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _
Comnp. & Documnent'n- -- aa aa__
Photo Preparation S 3 a * a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a aaTriangulation S Adj. 60 | * S * * a a a a X a a a a a ' a a * * * a a a a a a * S S * * * S a a a a a *Contouring 45Orthophoto 75Rectification 75 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
Cartography |75:
Re roduction 7
Quantity unit for aerial photography and surveying is in line Km."i " preparation, aerial triangulation, contouring and orthophoto is in models.
" " rectification, cartography and reproduction is in no. of sheets.
1 Traversing team ( Surveyor + Ass. )/ contract 4 weeks/team.1 Levelling team n4 m
2 Survey calculator a a " 3 n
1 Point transfer device. working 1 shift/day/inst. 1.6 weeks/inst.1 Precision plotter + recorder. a 1 ' ' 2 or, 1 Precision plotter + recorder.1 First order plotter. h 2 3.7 " W Working 3 shifts for 3.2weeks.1 Rectifier. n 2 3.11 Orthophoto. - 3 " n n 4.12 Cartographic team (3 draftsmen each) n 40 hours/week/pers. 3.1 weeks/team.2 Laboratory 0 (1 laboratorian + 1 ass. each). n 40 U U U 2.5 "
1 Operator for general preparation. 4 a as 5,
- 28 -
Cadastral Survey
A cadastral survey consists of three interrelated operations:
land adjudication, demarcation, and the survey and recording or the
parcel boundaries. For a comprehensive cadastral survey program, per
parcel costs vary according to such factors as the complexity of
ownership, size of parcels, quality of base maps, quality of previous
local surveys and records and the accuracies required. Typical
accuracies are 1-2 feet for rural areas and .1 foot for urban areas.
For the Cadastral Survey and Registration Project in the Caribbean, the
average unit cost was L30 (about US$75 in 1974). The percentage
breakdown of costs for this project is presented below.- /
Estimated Percentage Costs 1972/1973
Operation
Administrative overheads (includes training and
supervision of staff 12
Demarcation 28
RPecording 14
Survey 40
Adjudication of Disputes/Petitions 6
100
1/ The average unit cost of L30 per parcel included preliminaryclerical and field work to process claims for an averageparcel, investigation of title, and display period foradjudication records and index maps. Howell, L.J. TheCadastral Survey and Registration Project in the Caribbean,Chartered Surveyor, Land Hydrographic and Minerals Quarterly,1974 Vol. 1, No. 4, p. 57.
- 29 -
Land Adjudication. Land adjudication is the official
determination of the rights and boundaries of a land parcel. Generally,
this ascertainment of rights in a land parcel is not an expensive part
of the entire process of compiling a register. According to Lawrance,
the procedures should cost no more than 15 to 20% of the total cost,
although there will be variation between countries. Moreover,
systematic adjudication is quicker and cheaper per parcel registered
tthan sporadic.adjudication.1/ For sporadic adjudication, an individual
parcel is usually surveyed by expensive ground methods. In the process
of adjudicating one parcel, the rights of the adjoining parcels are also
ascertained but not necessarily registered. At a later time, however,
wheni the adjoining parcels require documentation, a survey team will
have to return to the same area to resurvey the parcels. Thus, for
maximum cost-effectiveness, among other reasons, systematic adjudication
should be the preferred method under most conditions.
Boundary Demarcation. According to Dale, the single most
important aspect of cadastral survey for title purposes is the boundary
demarcation. The process of marking a boundary is always undertaken on
the ground and corresponds to the results of the adjudication
exercise. Monuments may be a concrete peg, fence post, mark on a wall,
or be an actual physical boundary marker such as the river bank or the
fence itself. In the course of development, however, many of these
marks are lost or destroyed, causing survey costs to double as the whole
survey has to be repeated when the markers are lost.
1/ Lawrance, Jeremy. Land Adjudication, 1985.
- 30 -
Survey. A survey of boundaries for description purposes
involves conventional ground survey methods, photogrammetric methods, or
a combination of both. The principal advantage of conventional methods
is that the investment in instruments is relatively low and the process
of transforming field observations into maps and plans does not require
extensive investment. One of the main disadvantages is that a detailed
survey may require the establishment of a relatively dense network of
geodetic points which is time-consuming and expensive. Another
disadvantage is that field procedures are labor intensive; the survey
can last a long period of time or require a large number of skilled
personnel to complete the work in a shorter time period.
Photogrammetric methods, on the other hand, require initial aerial
phtotography, supporting ground control and high investments in expensive
instruments. The advantage of photogrammetry, however, is its utility
in providing maps or map substitutes in a variety of costs, speeds and
accuracies. In addition, the time and manpower requirements can be
considerably less than those needed for conventional field techniques.
Costs. In many countries, the costs of cadastral surveying
approach or even exceed the capital value of the land surveyed. In less
affluent countries, even under favorable conditions, the costs of the
survey normally amount to a significant percentage of the land value.
In Malaysia, for example, the average cost for surveys has been reported
to be 5-10% of land values. In Kenya, the average cost is reported to
be about 5% and in South Africa, 10% of underdeveloped land value.i' In
Malaysia, the cost for sLrveying is reported to reach as high as five
1/ Dale, P.F. Cadastral Surveys in the Commonwealth, 1976.
- 31 -
times the value of the land. Based on the 1983 tariff rates set by the
Land Survey Act, the following costs (in Kwacha) are for the sporadic
I/surveying of land in tMalawi.o
Plot Area Capital Survey Fee as %(hectares) value (K) fee (K) of value
1. Blantyre, prime commercial 0.15 48,000 247 0.52. Blantyre, medium-density residential 0.15 700 255 36.53. Mzuzu, industrial 0.15 1,100 251 22.84. Mzuzu, medium-density residential 0.15 550 251 45.25. Mchinji, commercial 0.15 200 503 251.56. Mchinji, medium-density residential 0.15 100 503 503.07. Narnwera, tobacco estate 100.00 10,000 1,122 11.28. Chikwawa, pastoral estate 100.00 2,500 813 32.1
The principal cause of variation in survey fees between
identical plots in different areas is the transport charge from Mzuzu,
Lilongwe or Blantyre, where the surveyors are based. Another factor
contributing to the high cost of some surveys is that they were under-
taken on a sporadic basis. According to Green, the inclusion of any of
the examples 1 to 6 above in a single survey exercise of 10 similar plot
would have reduced the survey fee by about K135 in each case. Thus, for
examples 1 to 4, there would be a cost reduction by about half; for
examples 5 and 6, the cost wou'ld be reduced by about 30 percent.
As mentioned above, a systematic approach to a cadastral
survey is more cost-effective than sporadic surveying. According to
uale, the systematic approachi can lead to savings by as much as 85 to 95
1/ Green, J. W. Reducing the Cost of Cadastral Surveys, 1984.
- 32 -
percent when 40 to 5t contiguous land parcels are surveyed. Nonetheless,
there is no significant economy of scale when dealing with more than 50
contiguous parcels in one survey. Moreover, the cost per plot in the
survey of fewer than 50 parcels at one time increases steadily as the
number of plots decreases.l/
Photogrammetry is another cost savings device for carrying out
cadastral surveys. A photogrammetric cadastral survey involves the pre-
marking of boundary beacons or control points, ground survey for control
and checking, aerial photography, photogrammetric operations, checking
of survey data and field survey of boundaries not visible in the
stereoplotters, and the production of cadastral data in standard maps
which, as mentioned earlier, can take the form of unrectified air
photographs, rectified photomaps, orthophotomaps or line maps. These
processes are capital intensive; considerable sums are required for the
equipment, photography and training of personnel. Under the right
conditions, however - i.e. when boundaries are air visible, and large
areas of land are covered systematically - photograminetry can reduce the
cost of producing cadastral maps by about one third the cost of a
conventional survey. Even in Switzerland, for example, where high
standards ot accuracy are maintained, comparisons between different
survey methods showed that photogrammetric methods reduced the cost of
conventional ground survey methods by as much as 25 percent.2/
1/ Dale, P.F. Cadastral Surveys in the Commonwealth, 1976,p. 161.
2/ Dale, P.F. Cadastral Surveys in the Commonwealth, 1976, p.116.
- 33 -
A principal cost determinant of a cadastral survey is the
degree of accuracy required to carry it out. Nonetheless, there has
been no economic analysis comparing the relative costs and benefits or
different levels of precision. According to Dale,
'there is no quantifiable evidence to indicate a relationshipbetween land disputes and the level of precision of cadastralsurveys. Disputes generally occur either over land,regardless of its value, or over the ownership of featuresnear a boundary. Although there is some evidence to suggestthat disputes increase in geometrical proportion with thenumber of boundaries that have to be respected, there is noevidence that a higher precision of survey has a significanteffect on reducitig the incidence of dispute rather thanadjudication and better monumentation.'l/
Land Valuation and Collection ot Other Land Data
Land Valuation. Intormation about land vaLues is a principal
element of a multipurpose cadastre. Ideally, the land valuation occurs
at the same time as the collection of other parce. data such as legal
ownership and boundaries. Thus, when a cadastral survey is currently
underway or recently completed, land valuation for property tax purposes
can be fast and inexpensive. It represents a marginal cost that could
be turther reduced when undertaken as part of a multipurpose land
information system. In the Philippines, for example, the cost for tax
mapping at difterent scales in 272 municipalities was about $4.2 per
hectare since the initiation of a tax mapping project in 1972.2/ Under
a proposed integrated land intormation system, the cost tor land
valuation will be considerably less than $3 per hectare.
1/ Dale, P.F. Cadastral Surveys in the Comamonwealth, 1976, pp.274-5.
2/ Falloux, Francois and Cremont, Daniel. The Philippines LandSettlement Development II Project, The Land Component WorkingPaper. April 1983, p. 20.
- 34 -
Collection of Other Land Data. During a cadastral survev or
land tenure identification process, the additional cost for obtaining
such information as land use and services is usually negligible. With
respect to these types of land data, the cost for putting them into the
computer and then updating them on a regular basis is the more
significant cost consideration.
Land Data Bank
The establishment of the land data bank requires that all
parcels are assigned a unique identifier so that all records can be
linked to others containing information on the same parcel. The actual
recording and storage of graphic and non-graphic land information mav be
in hard copy or digital form. The most common system involves the
digitizing of non-graphic land data which is 1inked to the non-digitized
maps and graphic data. Inexpensive microcomputers can usually handle
this kind of data base for a relatively small jurisdiction. The
building of modern multinurpose cadastre, however, involves the
digitizing of graphic as well as non-graphic data.
The typical hardware required for a land data bank include
computers, digitizing tables, tracing tables, auitomatic drafters,
interactive consoles, and a storage system. The development of software
and the digitizing process are the more expensive and time-consuming
components in the building of a computerized land data bank. According
to one souirce, the development of software may require up to 200 or more
man years at an estimated cost of $60-70 per hour.1/ The following are
illustrative costs for acquiring the hardware and software for computer
1/ Boew. ITC, Enschede, The Netherlands, December 1984
- 35 -
assisted mapping and land records systems in the United States and Canada.l/
Total cost Cost per parcel, excluding(in thousands of S) hardware and software tS)
Lower Upper Lower Upperthird Mean third third Mean third
Package price from vendor, including all hardware.software & training cost 35'i! 645 1000Software improvemmnts 5 20 48Training 6 17 26 0.06 0.10 0.14Other purchase costs
Feasibility 3 22 34 0.02 0.06 0.11Purchase 3 9 12 0.01 0.03 0.08Pilot 4 12 140 0.06 0.25 0.60
Special facilities 3 6 16 0,02 0.04 0.08Sub-total, training & services 19 66 228 0.20 0.40 1.10Total purchase cost 375 730 1275
The cost of digitizing the data for input into the computer is
influenced by the complexity of data and the number of errors or source
documents. According to Tomlinson, the total cost of editing, error
correction and subsequent re-formating ranges from $.24-$1.60 per line
centimeter or $.60-$4.00 per inch. Using 1979/80 prices for North
Anerican and European Labor, the cost of converting mapped data into
machine-readable form ranges from approximately $.12-$.40 per line
1/ hansen, Daniel, HN. An Overview of the Organization Costs andBenefits of Computer Assisted Mapping and Records ActivitySystems (CAMRAS), p. 185. These data are based on a survey of35 organizations which have the capacity to map at the parcellevel and have one base map for all land informationoraanizations in the same geographical area. Eachorganization is responsible for its own special purposeoverlays.
- 36 -
centimeter or $.30-$1.00 per inch.1/ The following aata illustrate
costs in man hours for digitizing utility data.2/
Utility Cost/Km in Man Hours
Gas 5.3
Water 4e2
Local Telephone 8.5
Long Dis':ance Telephone 9.9
Electricity Low Voltage 4.6
Electricity High Voltage 8.2
The accuracy requirement for the data base is usually the
single most important factor atfecting the total cost ot establishing a
digitized land data bank. The figure below shows how costs for
computer-assisted mapping of property boundaries rise in relation to an
increase in the accuracy level. 3/ For a program in The Netherlands,
50
'0
c 30
. 20
10
0
0 I0 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Positional accuracy in feet
Tomlinson, R.F. The Handling of Data for Natural ResourcesDevelopment, 1980, p. 74, Proceedings of the WorkshopInformation Requirements for Development Planning inDeveloping Countries, ITC, Enschede, The Netherlands, February18-23, 19b0.
2/ Bogaerts, Theo. Rotterdam, The Netherlands, December 1984.
3/ Hansen, Daniel M. An Overview of the Organization Costs andBenefits of Computer Assisted Mapping and Records ActivitySystems (CAC4RAS) p. 184.
- 37 -
however, the estimated costs for the conversion of topographic maps into
a digital system show a more irregular pattern. Although the test area
was relatively small and the number of points per hectare were not
always the same, the costs presented below illustrate the differences in
unit costs for achieving various accuracies using five different methods.l/
COSTS FOR DIGITIZING TOPOGRAPHIC BASE MAP
ALTERNATIVE METHODS FOR BUILDING FILE PER HECTARE COSTS, f 1980
1 2 3 4 5Digitize Digitize Use Original GroundExisting Existing Field New NewCad. Map Top Map Measurements Surveying Photogrammetry
Total ha 70 12.5 70 70 12.5Ooeration
Preparation 3 5 19 19
ClosedTraverse 140
Demarcation 115
DetailedMeasurement 330
Ph'otogrammetricPoint Determination
211
Flights 5
Aerotriangulation/Block Adjustment 19
Coding 179 131 104
ComputerCalculation 213 139 158
Digitizing 54 60
Digital 75PhotogrammetricMappingChecking 75
Checking andProcessing 51
57 65 411 289 847 436Tctal f/Ha 57 65 350 847 436Accuracy 19c 2.1c 2 .2c .3c 22c
The exchange rate in 1980 was approximately f2 = US$l
1/ Bogaerts, Theo. Rotterdam, The Netherlands. December 1984.
- 38 -
System Maintenance and Updating
The maintenance and updating of any land information system is
critical to its success. Thus, a budget tor these activities must be
built into the cost calculation for every project. As a rule of thumb,
one should allocate about ten percent of the initial cost of the entire
program to its annual update and maintenance. Average costs have ranged
from five to twenty percent.-/
In the Netherlands, it cost $9 million in 1984 to maintain the
niational multipurpose cadastre, covering 6 million parcels, 3.5 million
owners, 30,000 square kilometers and 30,000 maps, which are updated
every two years. 2/ The charge to notaries and private citizens who buy
maps or register deeds contributes to the financial support of the
system.
For the city of Rotterdam, the cost of maintaining a digitized
land data bank for one year was about M2 million and about $170,000 to
keep it operating. The system covers 120,000 parcels, 60,000 owners and
400,000 objects. The charge to users finances the system; in 1983, the
system made a profit of about $6U,000.3/
1/ hamilton, Angus. University of New Brunswick, December 1984.
2/ Hennsen, J.L.G. The Cadastral Information System in theNetherlands, 1984, and Koen, Jr., L.A., Dienst van netKadaster en de Openbare Registers, Apeldoorn, The Netherlands,December 1984.
3/ van Alphen, L. Stafafdeling BasisinFormatie, Rotterdam, TheNetherlands, December 1984.
- 39 -
IV. Illustrative Programs
The cost of land information programs in Brazil, the
Philippines and Canada are discussed briefly below to illustrate the
range of costs that one might expect in the planning of comparable
programs in different countries. These particular programs were
selected because each involve typical activities leading up to the
development of a multipurpose cadastre: aerial photography, ground
contral, land adjudication and titling, cadastral survey, property
valuation, and the setting up of a computerized land data bank.
Brazil: The Northeast Region Land Tenure Improvement Project
A proposed project in Brazil will extend the benefits of
secure land ownership to up to 700,000 small farmers in the Northeast
region and improve the gQvernment's ability to formulate land policies
and administer land resources. The project will be implemented in ten
rural states having varied climatic and geographic features. It will
cover about one fifth of the northeast region or 1.5 million square
kilometers. The main features of the project include the following:
1. Aerial photography of some 56 million hectares of which
6.5 million hectares will be photographed at a scale of
1:60,000, about 45 million hectares at a scale of
1:30,000, and the remaining more densely occupied land at
a scale of 1:15,000 (The photographic outputs will be
negatives, diapositives and contact prints);
2. Ground control, aerial triangulation and mapping for the
production of orthophotomaps or line maps for all
photographed areas at scales of 1:5,000 and 1:10,000.
- 40 -
Ground control will be carried out using conventional
field methods, an airborne inertial system, a Doppler
Transit satellite system or a Global positioning system.
Aerial triangulation will be carried out using automatic
coordinate recording devices and bundle block adjustment
programs;
3. Land tenure identification covering 31 million hectares
including production of microfilms of all land registry
documents, notification of governments intention to review
and regularize o-nership rights in areas selected for land
adjudication, field surveys to delimit parcels,
identification of all tenants and occupiers to evaluate
claims, and first estimate of potential and value of land;
4. Digitizing ot geographic and literal intormation for
computer storage and processing and the production of
about 600,000 to I million title documents for rural
properties;
5. Technical and economic studies to support the selection of
some 3.2 million hectares to be acquired by the government
and physical planning, temporary administration,
delimination, demarcation and titling of those areas;
6. Institutional strengthening, including buildings,
equipment, staff training, technical assistance;
7. Project administration;
8. Institutional, legal and socioeconomic studies to improve
efficiency of land operations; and the
9. Evaluation of the performance and progress of the program
by independent consultants.
- 41 -
The total cost of this project is $250.5 million (including
pnysical and price contingencies); the unit cost is about $7.7 per
hectare. In the northeast region, the average land parcel size is 30
hectare.l/ Thus, the per parcel cost would be approximately $220.
Detailed lists of cadastre components as well as overall and unit costs
are presented below.
1/ These figures and the following cost tables are based on theappraisal costs for a World Bank loan. See the StaffAppraisal Report Brazil Northeast Region Land TenureImprovement Project February 11, 1985 for lists of requiredpersonnel.
- 42 -
Components of the Cadastre
1. Basic Cartographic Data
- Copies of original aerial photographs;- aerial photographic maps, at different scales;- graphic planimetric line maps;- magnetic tapes containing planimetric data from line maps;- lists of coordinates of geodetic points, of stereo preparation
points, of aerial triangulation points and densification pointsof the cadastral system;
- identification charts for preceding points;- contour level maps on transparent films; and- magnetic tapes of contour lines and elevation points of all maps.
2. Craphic Data Resulting from Land Identification and Titling
- Coordinates of all cadastral grid points (lot boundaries) withtheir sequential numbers;
- cadastral grid vectors (all the straight lines made up of pointswith sequential numbers) and the codification for different typesof markers (wooden fence, wire fence, ditch, wall and so forth);
- cadastral grid parcels constituted by the preceding vectors andtheir numbers (tie to the tapes containing literal data);
- coordination of all the points of the topographic - planimetricsystem, with their sequential numbers (points that may also be onthe cadastral grid);
- topographic - planimetric system, with their sequential numbers(points that may also be on the cadastral grid);
- topographic - planimetric grid vectors, with sequential numberand codification of type of marker in the field;
- objects on topographic - planimetric system (roads, forests,fields and so forth), which may also be objects in the cadastralgrid;
- coordinates of all the points of the system for soil usepurposes; and
- the corresponding objects (zones of classes).
3. Systematically Gathered Literal Data
(To be defined by INCRA)(Names of villages, places, rivers and so forth)
4. Additional Agro-Economic Literal and Graphic -Data
(To be defined by INCRA)
- 43 -
5. Additional Physical, Literal and Graphic Data
- Boundary points of zones (coordinates) of classes of soils and/orzo-nes of classification of water resources and/or ... , etc, withtheir sequential numbers;
- vectors of the corresponding physical grids, with theirsequential numbers (pointers);
- corresponding zones, with codification of each type.
6. Data Produced by Processing
- Descriptive memorandum of each parcel;- individual plat of each parcel;- general cadastral plat (on standard forms, by area,
municipality, and so forth), at different scales;- lists of parcels for each municipality, each area, with
sequential number for reference, its geographical location(centroid), area, soil classes, all improvements, buildings andname and code of the owner, etc;
- lists of owners in each municipality with reference number, andproperties (number, area, soil types, assessment for taxpurposes);
- various maps at different scales resulting.from combinations ofthe basic data (land grid, topography, soil classes, waterresources, assessment for tax purposes, vegetal cover and soforth); and
- lists, tables, diagrams, and maps showing the results ofstatistical surveys.
- 44 -
BRAZIL
NORTHEAST REGION LAND TENURE IMPROVEMENT PROJECT
Total Project Costs(US$ '000)
TotalBaseline
Project Component Total Cost
Aerial Photogrammetry
Aerial photography 10,100 5Ground control, aerial 67,300 33
triangulation and mapping
Land Tenure Identification 59,300 29
Cadastre Impleientationand Titling 12,400 6
Support for LandRestructuring 19,300 9
Institutional Strengthening
Buildings 4,800 2Data processing equipment 5,700 3Other equip. and furniture 11,600 6Staff training and
technical assistance 4,200 2
Project Administration 8,700 4
Studies 1,400 1
Total Baseline Cost 204,800 100
Physical contingencies 24,600 12.0Price contingencies 21,100 10.3
Total Project Cost 250,500
- 45 -
UNIT COSTS PER HECTARE US$ January 1985
Unit CostOperation per Hectare Details
Presignalization .05 1 point/km2
Aerial Photography .20 1:30,000
Complementary Geodetic Network .05
Ground Control .03 1:30,000 cost would beusing inertial system
Aerial Triangulation .05 1:30,000
Contour digitalization .35 1:30,000 5m intervals
Profiles Computation .05(by Data Processing)
Orthoprojection (Produiction of .05 1:10,000initial orthonegatives)
Production of Orthophotomaps .25 1:10,000
Production of Contour Maps .05 1:10,000 80% overlap
Photogrammetric Operations, Sub Total 1.40
Land Tenure Identification .30
Field Collection of Literal .15Data
Administrative Process .15
Field Investigation of Sampling and photo-Soil Classes .05 interpretation
Land Adjudication, sub total .65
Boundary Digitizing .02 1:10,000
Digitizing of Littoral Data .01
Digitizing of Topographic Features .01 1:10,000
Data Bank Processing .05
Production of Individual Titles .04
Production of Cadastral Maps .03
Production of Castral Listings .02
Data Processing, Map and TitleProduction, Sub Total .18
- 46 -
EQUIPMENT LIST AND COSTS(US$)
1. Cars:
- light cars (berline) 80 x 4,500 360,000four wheel drive cars 450 x 8,000 3,600,000
Sub total 3,960,000rounded to 4,000,000
2. Topographic Equipment:
- theodolites (type Wild T 1 /T 2 ) with accessories(2 in each central unit, 1 in each microregionalunit) ---- 127 x 5,000 635,000
- distance meters (type Wild DI20/35) withaccessories (2 in each central unit, 1 in eachmicroregional unit) 127 x 10,000 1,270,000
- plane-tables with accessories (tripod, compass,open sight alidade etc.): 400 x 1800 720,000
- mirror stereoscope 60 x 1000 60,000- pocket stereoscope 460 x 60 27,600- pocket computer (type HP25) 460 x 50 23,000- measuring tape (50 m) 460 x 50 23,000- planimeter (4 in each central unit, 1 in each
mnicroregiional unit) 147 x 400 58,800- binoculars 6 x 30 (1 for each topographer) 400 x 400 160,000
Sub total 2,977,400rounded to 3,000,000
3. Draw:Lng Equipment
- lighting tables 80 x 400 32,000- accessories 80 x 100 8,000
Sub total 40,000rounded to 50,000
4. Microfilm Equipment
- reading/recording machine (2 in each control unit,1 in each microregional unit) 127 x 4,000 508,000
rounded to 550,000
- 47 -
5. Data Processlng EquJpment
- mJnicomputer type VAX c/2m bytes 101,422- disk Wlnchester 160 m bytes 15,603
- pack dJsk 300 m bytes 57,21216 assynchron lines 5,852floating mark 650
- plotter (Ao) 32,507- graphic station 72,816- printing unit 12,000- 8 alphanumerical terminals 20,000
Base unit cost 318,062
- 10 basic units 3,180,620- 12 extra graphic stations 873,792
1 extra plotter 32,507- freight and insurance 70,000- additional software 30,000- maintenance and training 1,471,290
Sub total 5 5,658,209rounded to 5,700,000
6. Furniture
- 1600 sets x 2500 4,000,000
RECAPITULATION
1. Cars 4,000,0002. Topographical equipment 3,000,0003. Drawing equipment 50,0004. Microfilm equipment 550,0005. Data processing equipment 5,700,0006. Furniture 4,000,000
Total 17,300,000
- 48 -
The following are illustrative unit cost calculations for the
aerial pilotography at different scales.l/ The estimates show that costs
increase proportionately to the increase in scale. As scale decreases,
however, the disparity in unit costs at 60 and 80 percent overlaps also
decreases.
Unit Costs for Aerial Photography at Different Scales
Patterns
1:15,00 photographs, minimum area: 5,000 km2 (90 x 55 kin)
1:30,000 photographs, minimum area: 20,000 km2 (18(jCx 110 kim)
1:60,000 photographs, minimum area: 50,000 kim2 (275 x 180 km)
or:
1,500 photographs in 22 strips with 60% overlap where photographs are onthe scale of 1:15,000 or 1:30,000.
3,000 photographs in 22 strips with 80% overlap where the scale is1:15,000 or 1:3U,000.
maximum speed corresponding to r5216 km/h where photoscale is 1:15,000432 km/h where photoscale is 1:30,000
1:15,000 photographs; mean unit cost:
OVERLAP 80Z 60i
mobilization/demobilization 24,000 24,000standby: 20 x $900 18,000 18,000flight: $22 (1920 + 2000) + $600 x 22) 99,440 99,440negatives: $7.5 x 3,000 or 1,500 22,500 11,250contact-prints '3 x 4,500 13,500 13,500diapositives $5 x 3,000 or 1,500 15,000 7,500photo-indexes $350 x 1U (sheets) 3,500 3,500
Total US$195,940 177,120
Unit cost per ha US$ 0.40 C.35
1:30,000 photographs; mean unit cost:
OVERLAP 80% bOZ
mobilization/demobilization 24,000 24,0U0standby (20 days) 18,00U 18,000tlight $22 (2,800 + 8,0UU) + $600 x 22) 250,80U 250,800negatives: $7.5 x 3,000 or 1,5UU 22,500 11,250contact-prints 13,500 13,500diapositivesa 15,000 15,000photo-indexes 3,500 3,500
Total US$347,300 328,550
Unit cost per ha US$ 0.18 0.17
1:60,000 Phocographs: mean unit cost: US$0.10/hectare
1/ The tollowing cost data were provided by Daniel Cremont,Consultant.
- 49 -
The unit costs for alternative methods of ground control are
presented below. Using a conventional method, the mean unit cost would
be $.60 per hectare, the maximum unit cost of using inertial surveying
would be $.19, about 70 percent less.
1. Basic Patternphoto scale 1:30,000block size 180 x 110 kmarea 20,000 km2
number of strips of photographs: 22total number of photographs 1500on an average of 68 photographswithin each East-West strip.
bridging distance: 5 stereoinodels or 14 km2 traverses along main sides (total 360 km) with one pointevery 3 bases (8 km)
14 traverses, 110 km each with one point every 5.4 km (2 basesat right angLe.
total: 1900 km with 350 points
2. Conventional MethodAssuming that all points would be determined in x, y, z, using
theodolites and distance meters, costs, based on international tariff,could be established as follows:
preparation US$ 4,500mobilization/demobilization (8 teams) 18,000monumentation: $225 x 350 78,750clearing $210 x 1,900 399,000stations $2,000 x 350 700,000computation $55 x 350 19,250
Total US$1,219,500Mean unit cost per ha US$ 0.60
3. Inertial System
mobilization/demo bilization(1 year + helicopter) US$ 20,000clearing and monumentation 140,000doubie run traversing US$110 x 1,900 209,000computation: US$50 x 356 17,500
Total US$386,500MvIaximum unit cost per ha US$ 0.19
- 50 -
The costs for the production of maps are as follows: for a
map at a scale of 1:5,000 the cost is $4.5 per hectare; For a map at a
scale of 1:10,000, the cost is $1-1.41 hectare; and for a map at a scale
of 1:20,000, the cost will be $.45 hectare. In terms of man months, 750
hectares can be mapped in one month at a scale of 1:5,000. Three
thousand hectares can be mapped in one month at a scale of 1:10,000.
The Philippines: The Land Settlement II Project
The land comrponent of a proposed Land Settlement II Project in
the Philippines aims to: develop a low-cost participatory approach to
surveying in order to correct land occupancy; complete cadastral surveys
and land sub-classification; establish a foundation for improved land
record and information system; streamline and reduce the cost of mapping
activities and develop the related institutional capacity; and
strengthen interagency cooperation. The component would include the
following elements:
1. Preparation for geodetic and aerophotogrammetric works
including the upgrading of the geodetic network for the
entire country, the aerial surveying and ground control of
5.5 million hectares, and the production of photos and
orthophoto maps covering 2.2 million hectares;
2. Inventory survey for soil and land sub-classification of
2.2 million hectares, cadastral surveys and inventory of
land occupancy, using orthophotomaps primarily;
3. Land tenure regularization;
4. Computerized land titling and issuance of stewardship
contracts in public forests;
- 51 -
5. Establishment of land data bank to integrate the legal,
technical, fiscal and economic files; and
6. Training and technical assistance including 111 months of
foreign consultants in geodesy, photogrammetry, surveys,
and data processing.
For the geodetic network, a modern technology like Doppler Transit
Satellite Network could be used to establish 200 points with an average
50 km interval distance. Where possible, points would be located in old
geodetic points to minimize costs- Using the DTSN method would enable
the geodetic network to be upgraded in one year as opposed to at least
10 to 15 years that would otherwise be required for conventional ground
methods. The costs would also be considerably less.
The monumentation and presignalization would establish a
network of points dense enough (average 1 point per 2 Km2) to be
visualized on aerial photos and serve as a secondary control in the
photogrammetric process. The 1:15,000 scale aerial surveys would be
carried out on an area 2.5 times larger than the 2.2 million hectares
which will be covered by the cadastral surveys due to several reasons:
the photos have to be taken in a Ulock of 3,000 km2 wnich includes 4
DTSN points, the settlements are fairly scattered, and unprecise
boundaries require a large margin of security.
Ground control and aerial triangulation would be used to
densify the primary network of DTSN geodetic points in order to
determine the secondary framework necessary tor producing
orthophotomaps. The ground control would be cprried out in a nelicopter
equipped with an inertial system.
- 52 -
Orthophotomaps would be the base map for the cadastral
surveys. They were selected because the cost of their production is
about 20 percent less than that of conventional maps. In addition,
using orthophotomaps significantly reduces the cost and time required
for cadastral surveys, and the computerized process for producing
orthophotomaps provides digitized information (i.e. lines and points)
which can be stored directly in a land data bank. The orthophotomaps
would be produced at a scale of 1:5,000 with a 0.56 x 0.56m standard
formac covering 760 hectare areas with 2m or 5m ina.erval contour lines
depending on topography. Expected productivity is estimated to be about
4 to 6 orthophotos per day covering about 4,000 hectares with three
stiifts of operators.
The land data bank would store graphic and non-graphic data
linked by a parcel identifying code. The initial outputs would include:
a) administrative maps with boundaries of regions, provinces,
municipalities, barangays and sections at different scales
in accordance with the needs, standard formats and the
size of the different zones;
b) soil, slope and land suitability maps;
c) cadastral and tax maps at large scale (1:500 to 1:5,000)
according to the density of parcels and natural features,
either in standard sheets or by sections:
d) indexes of owners classified in alphabetical order by code
number and giving the list of parcels owned by each of
them; and
- 53 -
e) indexes of parcels classified sequentially by sections and
giving the name of owner and other various parameters
(area, value, etc.).
Another essential output would be the automatic issuance of titles and
stewardship contracts by extracting raw data from the files and
processing them into the suitable form of output (i.e. the Torrens
title). Special programs would be prepared for that purpose.
The total cost of the five-year program is an estimated $27.4
million (including physical but not price contingencies) with capital
costs representing the largest pr, -nrtion (70%) of the total. The unit
cost for the cadastral survey is -, --i<-mately $7 per hectare. The
individual unit cost estimates are presented on the following pages.
The approximate percentage breakdown of these costs are as follows:
aerial photography (22%), soil suitability surveys (18%), cadastral and
parcel surveys (15%), tgeodetic network upgrading (14%), photogrammetric
laboratory (11%), ground control (6%), building (6%), equipment for data
banL (3%), and field survey equipment, vehicles and miscellaneous
(5%). Four percent of the total project cost is allocated to training
and technical assistance; 26 percent is for operational purposes.
- 54 -
THE PHILIPPINES
LAND SETTLEMENT II PROJECT/LAND COMPONENT
Cost Estimate for Cadastral Survey(US$/ha 1982)1/
Approx.Items Cost/ha
Geodetic Network .09
Aerial Surveys .74Ground Control .20Production of Orthophotos Equipment Authorization .25
Maintenance .31
Supplies .28
Salaries .35
Technical Assistance .17
Training .02
Total 1.38Inventory & Complementary Surveys 3.00
Land Tenure Regularization 1.60
Titling Data Bank .02
Supply .05
Maintenance .17
Salaries .06 .31Base Line (Rounded) 5.75
With Land Regularization 7.32
1/ Converted into 1982 US dollars using rate of P 9.42=$l
- 55 -
THE PHILIPPINES
LAND SETTLEMENT II PROJECTS
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE AND TRAINING
Detailed Cost Estimates(US$000, 1982)
I. Technical Assistance
Nb Monthly TotalMonths Cost Cost
Assistant to Component Coordinator 60 9 540
Expert in Photogrammetry 36 6 216
Expert in Cadastral Survey 12 6 72
Consultancy for Land Data Bank l/ 3 22 66
Consultancy for ICB's 3 11 33
Total 114 927
I. Training
Aerial Triangulation 6 22
Stereoplotting 6 22
Orthoprojection 6 22
Photo Processing 6 22
Data Processing 12 55
Total 143
- 56 -
Canada: The Land Registration and Information Service LRIS Program
The LRIS program was established in 1973 to resolve a number
of problems related to land information management in the Maritime
provinces of Canada.l/ The program consisted of the following:
1. Densification of the primary geodetic framework;
2. Base mapping including 1:10,000 scale orthophoto maps and
1:1,000 line maps for cities and 1:2,000 line maps for
towns and built-up areas;
3. Property mapping consisting of map overlays (orthophotos
in rural areas and line maps elsewhere) on which all
parcel boundaries are delineated and assigned a property
identification number (PID);
4. When requested, assistance in the conversion of the
existing land registry systems in the three provinces to a
computerized guarantee of title systems, and
5. Investigation of alternative land data storage and
retrieval systems.
In the early 1980's, the extension of second order control was completed
for all developed areas of the Maritimes. Between 1973 and 1981, when
initial placement was completed, LRIS spent $9.7million (Can. 1983) for
1/ The Maritime provinces includes New Brunswick, Nova Scotia,and Prince Edward Island, covering 130,000 square kilometers.
- 57 -
19,545 monuments or $500 per monument. The annual maintenance costs are
now abouLt $1.2 million (1985) or $26 per monument per year. The
production by LRIS of 4112 urban maps and 3913 medium-scale maps cost
p29.7 million (1983). The total investment in property mapping, when
the program is completed will be about $26 million (1983).1/
Illustrative costs for the program durina 1980/81 are
presented below:-/
1980/81 COSTS FOR T,RIS
% of1981 Canadian Total
($000)
Control 941 17Aerial Photography 141 3Base Mapping 1,592 30Propertv Mapping 1,345 25Parcel Index 145 3Legal 203 4Projects 447 8Administrative Overhead 608 11
5,422
As indicated in the above hudget, the costs for the ground control,
aerial photography and base mapping account for about 50 percent of the
project. Most of the remaining costs are associated with the property
napping, parcel index and related legal and project work.
The property mapping program begins after the control and base
mapping operations are complete. The program is implemented in four stages:
planning, preparation, initial lift, and maintenance. The following table
summarizes the activities, time, staff, and person-hours per parcel for
I/ Simpson, R.L. LRIS. The Basis Lor Land Information Systems.LRIS, Council of Maritime Premiers, New Brunswick, Canada.
2/ November 1981 Planning Document, LRIS.
- 58 -
the first three stages of the program undertaken on a county-by-county
basis. The maintenance stage begins as soon as the initial lift is
completed in an area. Each year approximately 10% of all properties
have a change in status. Thus, the updating mechanism operates while
the initial lift activities are being completed.
An analysis of costs for the program in New Brunswick showed
that for the period 1973 to 1983, the per parcel cost ranged from 1981
Canadian $19.82 to $50.32 for the initial lift and update, including
administration costs (e.g. personnel management, financial management,
administrators and executives are included). The land parcels in New
Brunswick range in size from approximately .1 hectare in the towns to
more than 100 hectares in the rural areas; the average parcel size is
9 hectares. Thus, the average per hectare costs ranged from about
@2.20 to $5.60.
The lower costs occurred during the last three years of the
program due to a combination of factors including the efficiency of the
more experienced and competent management and staff, negligible changes
in standards and procedures, andl the impact of economic recession on the
cost of work contracted to the private sector. Costs were higher in the
early years of the program due largely to the required development work,
increased computer use and related costs, shortage of qualified staff,
low productivity while new staff were developing skills, and the
planning of contractor mapping. Based on 1981-83 figures for
Northumberland County, it took approximately two hours per parcel to
accomplish the property mapping exercise initially. After management
expertise and production skills improved, it took approximately one
hour. (See Chapter V for a discussion of the methodology used for
calculating these unit costs.)
- 59 -
RESPONSIBILITY ACTIVITIES I ELAPSED CUMULATIVEI PERCENTAGESTAGE I TIME ELAPSED OF TOTAL
TIME PERSON-HOURS}I PER PARCEL
I I a-------------------------------------------------- ------------- -- - -- ---- ---------- --------- ------- ----- .- -
I It I- Assemble resources i
! - Identify requirements j ,
,Property -Ensure production of base amaps before initial lift a a a
a 0 Mapping begins I2 months j12 onths a 2 :'Planning : a a a a
a Advisor a--------------------- t --
a a a - Produce county property a a aa a a mapping plan a 3 months 15 mon ths
a a - -- --------- ---------- a-r- - -a- a
aanager project areas a 3 months a a onths
- -- - - -- - ---------------------------------------------------
a a I a a
§ ! ff- Organise regional office ' j
- Orent and tran stafRegional a - P a p
t t | ~- MSicrofilml anti codeM anager registry data
:Preparation: Liaise with assessmenta nd reityofcs 83 months 21 months j 6 2:
aI II
- --------------------- ------------------------ I
a a a - OPrepare local property a aSenior mapping plan r t a
Technician -Assemble resources into .preparation packages 3 months 2 4 months
,------------ ---------- - - ---------------------------- --- --------- ,--- ------- ------
X g s - Familiarize propertyaRegional mapper ith resourcesSurveyor and procedures
z t | ~------ -- -- -- -- -- -- - --- -J
j j § - ~Verify fieldl card dataa nin registry office search a
Property -Plot plan data on field mrlp |I
:Initial M tapper -Condtict fieldri nterviewsrpnd rnvesigntnon
Correct faeld mAa anda a complege field cfrdi e 18 months 42 months a
Check faeld rk and map
t 2 t - Cross-check map And cards ,
Senior j- Draft finAtl map 1 9 z
Technician - updlate computer data batse |
Check the fnal map and
' listings from data base 1'6 months 48 months
------------.--------------- 1------------------------------ ------------ ----------- 1 -----------
- 60 -
V. Current Research on Cost Methodologies
Research on the costs of land information systems as well as
the methodologies for analyzing or estimating unit costs is an
undeveloped field. There are very few efforts directed at this issue;
two in particular are noteworthy.
Unit Cost Methodology
At the University of New Brunswick in Canada, Professor Angus
Hamilton has proposed a methodology by which the unit costs of the
production of any land information system product can be derived and
compared on an international basis. The inethod is based on four
principles:
1. For each product, two unit costs are essential, the cost
for initial production and the cost for maintenance;
2. An inflation factor must be used to convert each annual
unit cost in the currency of one clearly defined base
year;
3. To allow for wide fluctuations in exchange rates and
widely varying salary schedules, unit costs should be
converted into person-hours; and
4. All person hours should be normalized with the skill level
of the norm clearly stated.
Given the above principles, the formula for deriving the unit cost for a
product from an analyses of time per unit (UCT) can be expressed as
UCT = (NHS x OUF) x NTU, where NHS is the average hourly wage for the
- 61 -
normalized person-hours, OHF is the overhead factor and NTU is the
normalized time per unit. Then, UCT UCF where UCF is the unit cost
derived from an analysis of financial statements.
There is no consensus on overhead figures for public agencies
comparable to that for private sector operations which may range from
1.5 to 2.5. In some cases, however, an overhead factor (OHF) of 1.7 has
been citied. Until a better figure is derived, the 1.7 figure can be
used.
The above methodology has been tested successfully on the unit
costs for the LRIS property ongoing LRIS program in New Brunswick
discussed earlier. Professor Hamilton contends that the methodology can
also be used for arnalyzing the unit costs for production and maintenance
of all LIS products.1/ In an attempt to classify these products, he has
proposed the Land Information Matrix (see Figure) in which all costs for
production and maintenance for different kinds of maps at different
states can be inserted. The products are grouped according to the
sequence that they are encountered. Starting from barren, treeless
uninhabited territory through sparse forest to productive inhabited land
and lastly, to the central business district of a megalopolis. To
define the regions in which the above products and costs can be
compared, Professor Hamilton suggests that there are three major steps
in the sequence that can serve as natural boundaries: the occurrence of
a soil/climate combination capable of supporting significant useful
vegetative growth, the existence of human settlement on bounded land
1/ Professor Hamilton and his students are currently working oncosts for topographic mapping.
- 62 -
parcels, and the existence of underground utilities. The second figure
presents the resulting "regionalization" of land information products.
It shows the regional distinctions as well as the products which are
normally required for each type of land. This regional framework can be
superimposed over the L.I. matrix for an analysis of costs.
UNIT-COS'T LAND lINFOW-1ATIOII tAThI X FAMILY
TypQ of Tcrraln Vundral Wiarginal Morcianiitabl Forcstry and flurals Vllag3s Cltics Ccntral Business
uninlhabited, forcut and foreat liglct intenaivo and touno (low-riso DisLtrct
un(oreoted rango land agriculture. a.jiculturo buildings) (higch-risc
and buildingjs)unincorporatedcoruivunitioz
vcry &mall
III 000 000 . P
1: 500 000
,1 1z u 5 ooo2 x ' /V.4
,c ;i 50 000
u~
1; 20 000 p
18 10000
II 50 ooo 1 4I
11 1 000
500
Tho unit-cost, Land Inforilation itrix fa=ily. Thero 1S A difforent unit-cost matrix
for each typu of terrain.
' 1 .3
q~u
Jr
(1;1 000 UUU
1:1 UOU UJ)u ACI;o 1 UnI,hbt1d, no 1t0rt,? O&UII or oah.r .ic ultutra
~~ ~ p oduc i on.I 00 000 p.cl.
I 2 n ouu lb - lotn. AgSlon liii Aural n4 4'(1aetlonl
1: IUU OUO IC h liounCIns Soo;c for.st, poatuft of othcrctop 1l.ld. ocnt-on.l1. So OOU habItatlon. but no ltOnilcaroCJ -holdinie Icit thirn 1000hc 116 £06
I; i ouoOliII:
tilht o StICa1t... bboJn.te, dots.p.c, toi.
1: J ODO
1: 2 Uu IVA, la-na.(.n. 1
via1oa -Ith u/1 uIltto.).
I: 1 ouo Poion IV; U:bae ItVs Lsj,t -wn,. -ou11 clls a*t .ci. *ubu.tb.
1: S IVC: ivctcpolltan c1n11. buolne .h. 4 rttlc-
Regionalizatio n for laidcl info irmatio n prodticts
- 65 -
OEEPE Cost Modelling Research Project
The OEEPE (European Organization for Experimental
Photogrammetric Research) cost modelling research project is directed at
obtaining information on the costs of photogrammetric processes in the
surveying and mapping field. As part of this project, Hans G. Jerie and
Eric W. Filland of the International Institute for Aerial Survey and
Earch Sciences (ITC) at Enschede, The Netherlands are developing cost
models tor photogrammetric operations and a system by which the density
of natural and cultural features can be classified for the evaluation of
costs tor all stages of photogrammetric processes.
Cost Models for Photogrammetric Processes
The cost models represent the functional relationships between
the cost per production unit of any of the sub-processes of a total
production process (e.g., cost per line km. of aerial photography, cost
of aerial triangulation per model, cost of stereoplotting per km2) and
to various factors that influence production. Each model is a function
of basic cost standards and production standards. The basic cost
standards depend on factors related to the executing organization, which
include personnel costs per time unit, equipment costs per time unit and
material costs per time unit. Production standards include required
personnel times per production unit, required equipment times per
production unit, and required material, per production unit. These
standards are significantly influenced by factors related to the project
area (e.g., density, area) product specifications (e.g., accuracy
requirements, details to be plotted), process parameters (e.g., scale of
photography, merhods and equipment used) and the executing
- 66 -
organization. The density and complexity of an area, however, appears
to be the most important factors influencing costs; as the density or
complexity of an area increases, costs increase proportionately.
When completed, the cost modelling system will be able to
receive statistical cost information from public and private mapping
organizations. To deal with the tremendous amount of data that will be
generated, the mapping process has been divided into its basic phases:
stereo plotting (conventional and digital), primary data acquisition
(aerial photography and auxiliary data for mapping purposes) aerial
triangulation, field survey (ground control, including signalization,
field identification, completion and verification) photomap production
(orthophoto and conventional rectification) and cartography (including
reprographics and printing). For each phase, functional production
processes will be identitied with all cost generating sub-processes for
the various technical alternatives. At the same time, the factors which
influence production rates are identified. The latter may be classified
into three general categories:
1. According to the origin of the influencing factor and here there arefour, possibly five, sub-divisions:A. factors originating from the Product specificationB. factors originating from the Process specificationC/D environmental factors:C. appertaining to the Project AreaD. appertaining to the Executing organizationE. derived factors (originating from outside the particular
mapping system being considered)
2. According to the tunctional description of the influencing factorA factors which can be chosen and manipulatedB factors which can be predicted but not manipulatedY factors which can not be predicted nor manipulated
- 67 -
3. According to the effect on production rates3.1 Strong direct influence, i.e. a factor which results in a
variation in production rates of greater than 100%( r max > 2 )(r min )
3.2 Medium direct influence, i.e. a factor which results in avariation in production rates of between 30% and 100%
( r max between 1.3 and 2)(r min )
3.3 Weak direct influence, i.e. a factor which results in avariation in production rates of between 10% and 30%
( r max between 1.1 and 1.3)(r min )where r max and r min are the maximum and minimum productionrates respectively.
The ITC has already prepared initial lists of production processes and
sub-processes and lists of factors which influence production rates.
Feature Density Classification System
The feature density classification system is being developed
to quantify the density of natural and cultural fractures as they appear
in the different projects used in the cost modelling analysis. The
classification is based on visual inspection using a series of
scandards. The system will ultimately consist of the following
elements:
1. Six categories of planimetric features including
buildings, communications, water features, vegetation and
area symbols, boundaries and borders, and point and symbol
features;
2. One category of height feature, contours;
3. Five density classes, including dense, medium dense,
medium, medium open and open;
4. A contour sheet having three degrees of difficulty,
(irregular, average and smooth);
- 68 -
5. Feature density classification sheets for six mapping
scales: 1:1000, 1:2,500, 1:5,000, 1:20,000, 1:25,000 and
1:50,000; each will have two sheets containing three
planimetric features; and
6. A final document having 12 planimetric sheets and one
contour sheet.
The figures on the following page illustrate a sample layout of the
planimetric sheets and the 1:25,000 pilot sheet showing elements of
buildings, communications, and water features at different densities.
The feature density classification system and the
establishment of standards are intended to improve the cost estimating
pertormance of organizations in the mapping field. Using established
scandards would be particularly useful for investigations into the
costing of new procedures as well as the resulting publications which
describe them. The standards would also be used in scientific reports
and in contract specifications which must describe precisely the nature
of the terrain to be mapped.
- 69 -ITC Journal 1983-2
1:25000 COMMUNICATIONSBUILDINGS
FEATURE DENSITY CLASSIFICATION WATER FEATURES
communications open medium open -_rnedium medium dense dense
buildings open medium open medium mnedium dense dense
1 r1 1 I
water features open medium open medium rredium dense dense
Planimetric feature density classification sheet
medium buildings rnedium dense dense
~'7 JI.,
F v -~~0 - - --t-z\'i
Feature d o.. .~J.
medium water features medium dense dense ___
Feature density classificaton sheet detail
'11
II
N,
rv
I II
- 71 -
References
Angus, Leppan, P.V. and Holstein, L.C. Aerophotogrammetric Techniquesfor Demarcation and Measuring of Rural Lands and Use of DataProcessing in Titling Proceedings of the International Workshop onLand Tenure Administration, Salvador, Brazil, August 20-24, 1984.
Balata, Kenard da Silva. Cadaster and Land Registries in Brazil.Proceedings of the International Workshop on Land TenureAdministration, Salvador, Brazil, August 20-24, 1984.
Dale, P.F. Cadastral Surveys within the Commonwealth. Overseas ResearchPublication Number 23 London: H.M.S.O. 1976.
Falloux, Francois and Cremont, Daniel. The Philippines Land SettlementDevelopment II Project, The Land Component liorking Paper. The WorldBank, April 1983.
Green, J.W. Reducing the Cost of Cadastral Surveys. The Development ofAfrican Lanid Rebources with Particular Reference to Central andSouthern Africa. Report of the proceedings of CASLE regional seminarheld in Harare, 5-9 September 1983, London: Commonwealth Associationof Surveying and Land Economy, 1984.
Hamilton, Angus C. Land Information Economics: A Challenge for FIGCommission 3, FIG XVIII InternationaL Congress, Sofia, Bulgaria, June19-28, 1983.
Hamilton, Angus, Palmer, David, and Gaudet, Roger. Procedures and UnitCosts ror Property Mapping. Paper prepared for the Second South EastAsia Survey Congress. Hong Kong 5-9 December, 1983.
Hamilton, Angus, Palmaer, David and Gaudet, Roger. Unit Cost Principlesand their Application to Property Mapping in New Brunswick. Paperprepared for publication in The Canadian Surveyor.
Hansen, Daniel 14. An Overview of the Organization, Costs and Benefitsof Computer Assisted Mapping and Records Activity Systems (CAMRAS),Computers, Environment and Urban Systems. Pergamon Press, Volume 9,Number 2/3, 1984.
Jerie, H.G. and holland, E.W. Cost Models for PhotogrammetricProcesses. Invited paper for Auto-Carto 5/ISPRS Commission IV.Symposium, Crystal City, Va., August 1982.
- 72 -
Jerie, Hans G. and Holland, Eric W. Cost Model Project forPhotogrammetric Processes: A progress Report. ITC Journal 1983-2.
Jerie, H.G. and Holland E.W. Establishment of a Feature DensityClassification System. Presented paper for Auto-Carto 5/ISPRSCommission IV Symposium. Crystal City, Va., August 1982.
National Research Council. Procedures and Standards for a Multi-PurposeCadastre. Washington, D.C. National Academy Press 1983.
The University of New Brunswick Department of Surveying Engineering.Abbreviated Proceedings of Land Information Systems 1990-No. 2.February 18-19, 1981.
United Nations Department of Technical Cooperation for Development:Report of the Meeting of the Ad Hoc Group of Experts on CadastralSurveying and Land Information Systems. New York: United Nations1983.
The World Bank Staff Appraisal Report. Brazil National LandAdministration Program, Northeast Region Land Tenure ImprovementProject. Washington, D.C. The World Bank. February 11, 1985.
- 73 -
ANNEX I: Papers Addressing Cost Aspects of Land Information Systems
Beck, W. Production of Cadastral Maps for Rural and Urban Areas. WorldCartography Volume XII. New York: United Nations, 1975.
deBruijn, Cornelis A. MASMAP, Design for a Project-Oriented Geo-Information Program Package for Urban Upgrading Schemes. ITC Journal1984, No. 2.
Forstner, Rudolf. Ideas on the Establishment of Surveying and Mappingin Developing Countries. Frankfurt: Institute for Applied Geodesy,1977.
Gonzalez, G., Jose A. Modern Cadastre in a Developing Country. InProceedings or the North American Conference on Modernization of LandData Systems (A Multi-purpose Approach) lWashington, D.C., April 1975.
Green, J.W. Reducing the Cost of Cadastral Surveys. The Development ofAfrican Land Resources with Particular Reference to Central andSouthern Africa. Report oi the Proceedings of a CASLE regionalseminar held in Harare, 5-9 Septemer 1983. London: CommonwealthAssociation of Surveying and Land Economy, 1984.
Hamilton, Angus, Palmer, David and Gaudet, Roger. Procedures and UnitCosts ror Property Mapping. Paper prepared tor the Second South EastAsia Survey Congress. Hong Kong, 5-9 December, 1983.
Hamilton, Angus, Palmer, David and Gaudet, Roger. Unit Cost Principlesand their Application to Property Mapping in New Brunswick. TheCanadian Surveyor, Volume 39, No. 1, Spring 1985.
Hodgson, A. A Report on the Participation of the Survey Department inthe Lilongwe Land Development Project.
Howells, L.J. The Cadastral Survey and Registration Project in theCaribbean. Chartered Surveyor Supplement, Volume I/1974.
Larsen, Hans and McLaughlin, John D. Economic Criteria for Multi-Purpose Cadastral Systems. XV International Congress of Surveyors,Stockolm, Sweden, June 1977.
- 74 -
Lewis, Judy. The Caribbean Regional Cadastral Survey and LandRegistration Project. (Report obtained from University of CambridgeDepartment of Land Economy).
National Research Council. Procedures and Standards for a MultipurposeCadastre, Washington, D.C. National Academy Press, 1983 CaseStudies: Southeastern Wisconsin Region, Dupage County, Illinois,Jefferson County, Colorado, The Philadelphia Area.
University of New Brunswick. Abbreviated Proceedings of Land InformationSystems No. 2. Workshop Sponsored by Department of Surveying Engineering.February 18-19, 1981.
Zwart, P. Some Suggestions for Improving the Cost Structure of IntegratedSurvey Systems, Australian Journal of Geodesy, Photogrammetrv andSurveying. No. 37, December 1982, pp 79-99.