distance learners 1 running head: barriers and challenges of distance...
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Distance Learners 1
Running head: Barriers and Challenges of Distance Learners
The Barriers and Challenges of
Adult Distance Learners
Kärin Renner
University of South Dakota
Distance Learners 2
The Barriers and Challenges of Adult Distance Learners
Statement of Purpose
This research proposal is based on the understanding that male and female distance
learners bring different ideas, expectations and experiences to a distance education class.
Researchers continue to focus on the learning styles, motivations, obstacles and other
characteristics of distance education students to determine who is more likely to succeed and
how best to meet their needs. But a growing awareness of the role that gender plays in an online
environment is becoming an important research topic. Much of the research conducted in this
field involves students in mixed-gender classes. However, not as much research has been done
on issues relating specifically to women’s experiences with distance education. The purpose of
this research is to determine whether the barriers and challenges perceived by women in an
online masters program are different or similar to those perceived by men.
Research question
The intent of this study is to answer the following question: Are the barriers and
challenges identified by women in distance education different than or similar to those of men?
Importance of knowledge to be gained
Post-secondary distance education courses and enrollment in them continues to grow
exponentially. A 1995 report by Lewis, Alexander & Farris (1997) found that one-third of
higher education institutions provided distance education. By 2000-2001, 56% of two and four-
year institutions offered distance learning (Waits & Lewis, 2003).
Enrollment in distance courses in the United States grew from 1.3 million in 1997-98 to
2.9 million in 2001-2002 (Loughlin, 2004, ¶ 5). For the time period 1997-98 to 2000-01, the
American Council on Education reported a 38% increase in distance course offerings and an
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85% increase in enrollment. The ACE study also cited 3.1 million students enrolled in 2000-01
(ACE, 2004, ¶ 8).
More recent research supports the apparent proliferation of distance education. A Sloan
Foundation study, Growing by Degrees: Online Education in the United States, 2005, reports
that 65% of higher education institutions that offer face-to-face graduate programs now also
offer online graduate programs; 63% also offer undergraduate work online (Allen & Seaman,
2005, ¶ 4). The Sloan Foundation’s 2004 study reported an increase from 1.6 to 1.98 million
students taking online courses (a 22.9% increase), while the 2005 report indicates growth from
1.98 million to 2.35 million in 2004, or an increase of 18.2% (Allen & Seaman, 2005, ¶ 17-20).
A report published in March 2005 by the National Center for Education Statistics was the
first to provide statistics on distance education offerings and enrollment in US elementary and
secondary schools based on the 2002-03 academic year. The study found that 36% of public
school districts had students enrolled in distance education courses (Setzer & Lewis, 2005, p. 4).
That percentage represented an enrollment of approximately 328,000 (Setzer & Lewis, 2005, p.
7). Because distance education is now expanding to include elementary and secondary students,
it will become increasingly important for researchers to understand how gender influences
success or lack of it in an online environment. It will also mean that educators, who are
predominantly women, will need to keep abreast of the impact of technology in their classrooms.
Literature Review
Statistics on Women in Distance Education
The National Center for Education Statistics’ 1999-2000 profile on distance education
reported that students both male and female with greater work and family responsibilities
participated in distance education at higher rates than those males and females with few work
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and family responsibilities (Sikora, 2003, par. 6). Richardson (2000) cites studies that establish a
composite of individuals most likely to participate in distance education. The individuals are
largely highly motivated middle class well-educated women between the ages of 25-45, whose
participation in distance education is mostly related to employment issues (Grill, 1999; Hanna,
2000; Moore, 1998; Thompson, 1998; Young, 2000; as cited in Brown, 2002, p. 64).
The bulk of the research on distance learners in higher education in the United States
indicates that more women than men are enrolled. Hezel and Dirr’s research (1991) indicated
that 61% of their students were women; Gibson and Graff (1992) reported that 60% of their
distance education subjects were women; and in a study by Franks (1996), three-fourths of the
distance education students in rural Alaska were female (Thompson, 1998, as cited in Campbell
Gibson, 1998, p. 11). For the 1999-2000 academic year, the National Center for Education
Statistics reported that 55.8% of US undergraduate distance learners were female (Horn, L,
Peter, K, & Rooney, K, 2002). More women than men are enrolled in distance courses and the
percentage of women who complete higher ed distance courses is increasing at a higher rate than
men (Thompson, 1998, p. 11).
What About the Men?
Some research supports the notion that men are better with technology and thus are better
suited for distance learning. The field of technology has been male-dominated since its inception,
and the whole computer culture has been controlled by men. Males use the Internet more than
females, play more games and use more cutting edge online technology (Morahan-Martin, 1998,
par. 3). “To be male is to be technological; to be female is to be ‘technophonic’” (Morahan-
Martin, 1998, par. 6).
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Years of research studies, including a report issued by the American Association of
University Women (2000), reveal that among high school students, boys and girls rate computers
as more masculine and say that computer games are a better match for boys’ learning and
communication styles, so boys learn computer savvy skills that girls do not (AAUW, 2000, p.
ix). A higher percentage of boys than girls use home computers. The study also cited statistics
that show that the computer world is dominated by males at a 5:1 ratio. As female college
students perceived themselves as less equipped to deal with computer technology, the percentage
of women’s undergraduate degrees in computer science was decreasing, and women made up
only 20% of information technology professionals (AAUW, 2000, p. 58). One in four Americans
currently believe that “men do a better job with creating and developing new technology, using
technology, managing other people, and leading groups” (Women are still treated differently in
the workplace, 2006, ¶ 6). In another AAUW study, Kramarae (2001) reported that “women are
the primary users of on-line education yet they are dramatically underrepresented in the high-
tech sectors charged with producing technological solutions and designing technological delivery
systems, software, and educational packages. They are also underrepresented among college and
university faculty and administrators currently shaping distance education” (Kramarae, 2001, p.
5).
While all of these facts and statistics might lead one to conclude that men would
outperform women in the distance education classroom, male domination of the computer
technology field has not translated into success in distance education.
Barriers for Women in Distance Education
Distance education now offers women numerous opportunities to enhance their lives and
increase their earning potential. Unfortunately, women also face significantly more challenges to
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learning in a distance education setting than men do. These challenges relate to technology,
learning styles, communication styles, work and family responsibilities.
The Challenge of Technology. The technology required to participate in distance education
can be a substantial barrier for female students. Blum (1998) cites a body of research that
suggests that females have higher technical barriers. In her own study of computer mediated
communication by Blum (1998) found that females asked more technical questions than men
(66% of technical questions were asked by women). The messages expressed concern with the
course software, locating information on the Web, general computer related concerns, and the
fast pace of online courses (¶ 22).
The Challenge of Addressing Learning Styles. In additional to the technology divide, men
and women also have very distinct methods of learning and knowing. Research has shown that
many online environments hinder a woman’s way of learning. Some authors believe that women
benefit more than men from interaction in a learning situation and that this factor puts them at a
disadvantage in distance education (Potter, 1998, p. 61). This need for connectedness in their
learning is an indication of a woman’s different learning style that emphasizes relationships,
empathy, listening, collaboration and cooperation instead of competition. Results of a study by
Burge and Lenksyj (1990) confirmed that “female distance students have specific learning needs
that are most effectively met by woman-centered as well as learner-centered approaches” (¶ 52).
Dr. Cheyenne Bonnell, one among a growing number of scholars examining feminist
pedagogy as it relates to distance education, believes that men and women’s learning styles are
very different and that women react better to certain teaching approaches because they have been
socialized to speak less often than men in class and because they grew up learning to avoid
showing that they are smart. Dr. Bonnell believes that “women tend to learn better in classes
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where they are asked to participate more actively” (Blumenstyk, 1997, ¶ 6). Blum (1999)
argues that since a body of research supports the claim that in traditional classroom settings,
females exhibit a learning style that favors group consensus and connectedness while men tend
to learn through argument and individual activity, “it cannot be assumed that online education
provides an equitable learning environment when traditional higher education has been well
documented to have inequitable characteristics for female students” (as cited in Monteith, 2002,
p. 27). Women will struggle in distance education classes where the characteristics of their
learning styles are not taken into consideration.
The Challenge of Communication Styles. There are also important differences in
communication styles between men and women in distance education environments that can be
disadvantageous to women. Men in distance education settings are aggressive and want to be in
control while women are more focused on cooperation and positive interaction and are more
supportive of their colleagues (Morahan-Martin, 1998, ¶ 18). Many studies of online discussion
forums found that males monopolize online conversations both in length and frequency of their
postings and that they ignore or trivialize females and are more confrontational (Kramarae, 2001,
p. 40)
Through years of gathering and analyzing data on communication behaviors of men and
women from scores of discussion lists, Herring (1994) found that 68% of men’s messages were
adversarial; they criticized or ridiculed the other participants while promoting their own
importance. Herring observed women apologizing, asking questions, interacting with and
supporting others. Men took over women-centered discussion boards of women-centered topics
and when women tried to participate in male-dominated groups, “they were ignored, trivialized
or criticized by men” (Herring, 1994, ¶ 4-5). Women are also often subject to flaming or “the
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expression of strong negative emotion, use of derogatory, obscene or inappropriate language, and
personal insults” (Herring, 1994, ¶ 17).
In her study of graduate and undergraduate students attending a large US distance
education institution, Blum (1999) found that the frequency of male responses to questions and
the large number of postings suggested that males controlled the online environment, almost to
the point of “silencing female students” (¶ 21, 22, 57). Her study also found that male messages
were often arrogant and did not use polite words to reduce negative reaction. Men often abused
women with negative comments related to their technical skills and even forced women to either
stop using the discussion board or quit the class (¶ 23). Other studies report that men sometimes
write angry messages either challenging the structure of the class, questioning the purpose of
assignments or responding to feedback.
However, because men and women have very different communication ethics and
behaviors, while women might think that all of these behaviors are rude, men do not. Neither do
they value the supportive behaviors of women (Herring, 1994, ¶ 18).
The Challenges of Work, Family and Support. The biggest barriers women face to learning
in a distance education setting deal with the other commitments in their already busy lives.
While distance learning provides convenient opportunities for women to learn, it also creates a
“third shift,” a phrase coined by the AAUW’s Cheris Kramarae (2001). When women are done
for the day juggling the demands of being a spouse, a mother, and an employee, they squeeze in
another layer of distance education responsibilities during the “third shift” either very early in the
morning or late at night. At the same time that distance education decreases the barriers related
to distance and time, it also puts an added burden on women. Economic demands require many
women to work outside the home. To elevate their status and/or their pay, they seek higher
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education during the “third shift,” which allows them to continue their education without having
to give up other responsibilities. Jacqueline Woods, AAUW’s Executive Director said,
“Technology does not create more hours in a day, but leaves women—who shoulder most of the
family and household responsibilities—improvising to squeeze in education” (The third shift,
2006, ¶ 3). Some studies have even noted that the very elements that attract women to distance
education—convenience and the ability to care for their families—are the same factors that
interfere with the completion of a program.
Compared to their male counterparts, professional women have additional stress to cope
with. Quite often women, in addition to being the primary caretakers, are also full-time
professionals. In fact, women in the 25-45 year age range have the most demanding child care
responsibilities. Cuthbertson, Lauder, Steele, Cleary & Bradshaw (2004) cited financial
difficulties, child and elder care as being the top concerns for distance education students (as
cited in Cragg, Andrusyszyn, Fraser, 2005, ¶ 10).
Being a distance learner requires time and devotion. Kramarae (2001) writes that many
women in her study felt guilty about letting their families down. Many felt their husbands
experienced anxiety because of their perceived lack of neglect of relationships and
responsibilities by their wives in distance education classes. They reported needing to reassure
their families that their studies wouldn’t impact their family life (p. 31-32). Burke (2000) cites
an example of one woman’s experience: “Sometimes I work from home. On these days I usually
put some washing in the machine early on in the day and dry it during coffee breaks or between
tasks. Although my husband is supportive, if he is working from home, then he is WORKING
and would not dream of incorporating domestic tasks in his day” (¶ 43).
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A lack of spousal understanding seems to be a common theme in the literature. Although
it is likely that most men are supportive of their spouse’s education, some women involved in
distance education reported that their husbands “refused to accommodate their need for quiet
study time” and hid or “damaged their study materials and assignments in efforts to sabotage
their educational ambitions” (Cragg, Andrusyszyn, Fraser, 2005, ¶ 12). Burke (2000) found that
“the computer pulls and attracts and a partner can experience anxiety owing to the extent to
which they are alienated from this new technological partner in women's lives (¶ 31). Other
women in Burke’s study shared similar experiences: “Although my husband understood why I
was spending so much time in my room comments started to sneak into the conversation” (¶ 31).
“I feel that my time spent at the computer is grudgingly accepted ... I believe that men still see
this machine as their own and there is deep resentment that a woman should be able to use it let
alone understand it” (¶ 33). “I feel that on the whole my wider family (parents, sisters)
disapprove somewhat of my intense use of such equipment, especially if it means that chores are
not done or dinner is not ready for my husband when he returns from work” (¶ 35).
Despite Barriers, Women Excel
Despite all of these challenges unique to women in distance education, research on
student performance suggests that women do better than men in distance education. A 1996-1997
comprehensive study at Old Dominion University of 16,5000 distance learning students from 25
majors showed that women had higher grade point averages than men. Undergraduate women
earned a 3.16 GPA while men averaged 2.87; among graduate students, women earned 3.68
while men averaged 3.54 (Koch, 1998, ¶ 8).
Johnson (2001) compared learner outcomes in face-to-face and distance sections of an
undergraduate required course. Women in the distance section earned higher grades than men on
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the exams, discussions and written assignments. Female students performed better than males in
all instances and by a half letter grade or more in most cases. While male and female students
entered the class with similar GPA's, the female students averaged a 3.0 GPA in the distance
class while the males averaged 2.6 (¶ 32). The results support the findings of Powell, et al
(1990) that “female students tend to earn higher grades than males in distance education courses”
(as cited in Johnson, 2001, ¶ 32).
In a four-year study with a total of 654 students, Young and McSporran (2001) found
among their distance education male students lower mean scores on the two major assignments
(research project and webpage project), greater non-submission of a whole assignment, greater
non-completion of all parts of each assignment, lower bulletin-board participation, lower course
website page hits or views, and a lower number of weekly quiz attempts. They found that men
are overconfident, they do not follow instructions, they do not fully utilize the learning materials
provided to them, and they tend to leave assignments until the last minute or do not complete all
parts of them. Women in their study, on the other hand, methodically completed all exercises
and read all course notes and all parts of the assignments. The results led the researchers to
conclude that women are more successful than men in distance education (Sections 4, 4.2, and
4.3).
A study by Gunn, McSporran, Macleod and French (2003) concluded that “women will
often outperform men despite observable differences in interaction style during computer
supported learning” (as cited in Lindner, Dooley and Hynes, 2004, p. 3). Women may perform
better because of their strong motivation to succeed, a greater ability to work both
collaboratively and independently and to multi-task. If men want to make it in distance
education, perhaps they should adopt a more feminine approach to learning.
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Since research supports the fact that women outperform men in distance education, one
can not conclude that distance education operates to a woman’s disadvantage.
Because it is clear that gender plays a role in distance learners’ performance, institutions must
find ways to better address the unique challenges of technology, learning styles, communication
styles and work and family obligations that women face. Since women are now the primary
users of distance education, women administrators, teachers and students should be involved in
the design and policy decisions for distance education courses (Kramarae, 2001, p. 57).
To address technology barriers that women face, ongoing technical support and computer
training should be provided as part of distance education studies. Since interaction is essential to
women’s learning styles, student interaction should be encouraged through collaborative group
projects. To address barriers to communication in a distance education setting, course design
features should enhance collaboration and cooperation (Care and Udod, 1999, ¶27-30). Palloff
and Pratt (2003) suggest rotating facilitation among male and female students so all voices are
heard, rotating leadership of collaborative groups, communicating privately with male students
who dominate the discussion to help make them aware of how their behavior impacts the women
in their group, and confronting inappropriate use of language or behavior that does not promote
equity (p. 44). To address the burdens of work and family, distance educators must be sensitive
to women’s unique circumstances and help them develop strong support systems. If we want
distance learning to work for people with the time demands of work and family, institutions must
sponsor more research about how distance learning can best address those challenges. Everyone
will benefit from more research and reflection on gender-based learning in distance education
courses.
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Research Methodology
Site
The site of this qualitative research study will be the University of South Dakota, a large
public university in Vermillion, SD, that delivers both graduate and undergraduate classes via
distance education. The study will be begin in August 2006 and conclude in August 2007.
Participants
The participants will be selected from a group of 35 male and female educators earning
their masters degrees in 2007 through the Professional Development Center, a 15-month
program developed to match experienced professionals employed by participating schools with
entry level educators who desire a graduate degree in an education related field and who will be
employed professionals at a PDC school site.
Procedure
The first phase will be recruitment and selection of participants. To maximize diversity of
the study sample, participants will be selected utilizing purposive sampling based on a prescribed
set of criteria including age, years of teaching experience, program of study, geographic location
and comfort with technology. It will be important to acknowledge that the homogeneous sample
is primarily white and middle class. This demographic data will be collected via the consent
form (See Appendix A), which will be mailed to all of the potential participants. The informed
consent form will explain that an equal number of male and female subjects (5 of each to begin)
will be selected based on the demographics. The next phase will involve the development of a
structured interview schedule (see Appendix B) that will be reviewed by 2 USD professors of
Adult Education and Technology in Education to establish content validity. Upon receipt of
informed consent, in-depth audio taped face-to-face interviews with all of the selected
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participants utilizing the structured interview schedule will begin. With this type of instrument, it
is important that the researcher do nothing to bias or influence the answers and that he/she
establish rapport with each respondent before beginning to ask any questions. Initial interviews
will be conducted in July and August 2006 with participants who are just starting the PDC
program. The interviews will be audio taped for transcription so that they can be replayed for
continued study and analysis. Exit interviews utilizing the same interview schedule will be
conducted in July and August 2007 as the subjects are finishing the PDC program.
Data Analysis
Data analysis for this study will be ongoing and inductive. Data collection and analysis
go hand in hand throughout the process. According to Wallen & Fraenkel (2001), qualitative
data analysis “begins when the researcher has accumulated a subset of data, permitting him or
her to look for patterns, themes, overarching ideas, and the like. The salient aspects of the
phenomena, it is hoped, will begin to emerge, which, in turn, will allow the researcher to pursue
relevant individuals, settings, or documents in greater detail” (p. 434).
In a qualitative study, the researcher needs to establish credibility, transferability,
dependability and confirmability. For the purpose of this study, credibility and dependability will
be established by disaggregating the data from males and females and carefully organizing and
analyzing the interview transcripts to look for patterns, multiple instances and recurring themes
that emerge and by grouping similar words and phrases into categories. Additional interviews
could be conducted throughout the course of the year based on these categories and themes. In
addition, member checks or peer review by participants of the study will be utilized to provide
feedback on the findings. In order to assure transferability, sufficient enough detail will be
provided to allow readers to apply the results to other contexts. To ensure validity and reliability
Distance Learners 15
in this study, the subjects will be interviewed twice (or more). Inconsistencies in what the same
individual reports might suggest that he/she is unreliable. The researcher will record her own
thoughts in a journal as she conducts the interviews so that “responses that seem unusual or
incorrect can be noted and checked later against other remarks or observations” (Wallen &
Fraenkel, 2001, p. 477).
The results of the study will be reported by means of a narrative rich in detail.
Since the researcher is an English teacher, the narrative inquiry method will be a good fit. The
researcher will keep extensive field notes, a journal and transcripts of the interviews in an
attempt to identify issues that educators need to be aware of as they develop distance learning
programs with women’s needs in mind.
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APPENDIX A
INFORMED CONSENT FORM
TITLE OF PROJECT: The Barriers and Challenges of Adults in Distance Education
PRINCIPLE INVESTIGATOR: Kärin Renner, 46946 254th St., Crooks, SD 57020, 605)543.6320
1. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: The purpose of this research study is to determine whether the
barriers and challenges identified by women in distance education are different than or
similar to those of men.
2. PROCEDURES TO BE FOLLOWED: You will be asked to participate in two face-to-face audio
taped interviews and respond to a series of questions regarding your experiences with
distance education. The first interview will be held in August 2006 and the second in July or
August 2007.
3. RISKS: There are no risks in participating in this research beyond those experienced in
everyday life. Some of the questions are personal and might cause discomfort.
4. BENEFITS
a. You might learn more about yourself by participating in this study.
b. This research might provide a better understanding of the importance of addressing gender
differences in online learning environments
5. DURATION: It will take approximately two hours of your time.
6. STATEMENT OF CONFIDENTIALITY: The study does not ask for any information that would
identify who the responses belong to. Therefore, your responses are recorded anonymously.
If this research is published, no information that would identify you will be written since
your name is in no way linked to your responses.
7. RIGHT TO ASK QUESTIONS:
The researcher conducting this study is Kärin Renner. You may ask any questions you have
now. If you later have questions, concerns, or complaints about the research, please contact
Kärin Renner at 605.528.6236 during the day and at 605.543.6320.
8. COMPENSATION: There is no compensation provided for participating in this study.
9. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION: You do not have to participate in this research. You can stop
your participation at any time. You may refuse to participate or choose to discontinue
participation at any time without losing any benefits to which you are otherwise entitled.
You do not have to answer any questions you do not want to answer.
Distance Learners 20
10. ALTERNATIVE: The alternative is NOT to participate
You must be 18 years of age older to consent to participate in this research study.
To maximize diversity of the study sample, please provide the following information:
Age______
Circle Male/Female
Years of teaching experience____________
Program of study_____________________
Geographic location of your school/home (rural, urban, suburban, etc.)_____________________
Comfort with technology_________________________________________________________
Thank you for your willingness to participate. Please return this form in the enclosed envelope
and keep the 2nd copy for your records or future reference.
Your participation in the study implies that you have read the information in this form and
consent to participate in the research.
Name of Participant_______________________
Signature of Participant____________________
Date___________________________________
Participant Contact Information:
E-mail address:__________________________
Preference for correspondence:_____________
Distance Learners 21
APPENDIX B
Interview Schedule
Name:________________________________
Age:_________________________________
Years of Experience:____________________
Program of Study:_____________________
Comfort with technology:_______________
1. Talk about your reasons for enrolling in an online masters program.
2. What do you perceive as some of the advantages of online learning?
3. What do you perceive as some of the challenges or disadvantages of online learning?
4. Tell me about the challenges you have personally faced in a distance education setting.
5. Do you think that men and women have similar experiences in online classes? Explain.
6. What makes you participate more or less often in online discussions?
7. If you have felt uncomfortable participating in a distance course, what is the environment
like? What makes you comfortable?
8. What can the instructor do to make students in an online class more comfortable?
9. Tell me about a time when things worked well for you in an online class and why.
10. Talk about a time when things didn’t go so well and tell me why.
11. What do you MOST like and dislike about online classes?
If subjects do not raise the following issues in their responses, questions relating to the
challenges of technology, learning styles, communication styles, other employment/work
commitments and family commitments may be asked.