dna

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DNA-Interactive Agents 45 The drug has a unique mechanism of action that involves covalent binding to the N2-position of guanine within the minor groove of DNA, which causes the double helix to bend toward the major groove. This is a unique feature distinguishing ET-743 from all currently available DNA-binding agents, which usually perturb DNA by bending it toward their site of interaction rather than away from it. The ET-743 structure consists of three fused tetrahydroisoquinoline ring systems, two of which (subunits A and B) provide the framework for covalent interaction within the minor groove. The carbinolamine unit [-NH-CH(OH)-] formed from the nitrogen of the B subunit and the adjacent secondary alcohol is thought to be the electrophilic moiety responsible for alkylating the N2 of guanine, a mechanism identical to that used by the pyrrolobenzodiazepines (PBDs) (see below). The third tetrahydroisoquinoline system (subunit C) protrudes from the DNA duplex and interacts with adjacent nuclear proteins, contributing to the molecule’s activity. At a biochemical level, the cytotoxicity of ET-743 appears to be associated with the DNA repair pathways of cells. Both inhibition of cell cycle progression (leading to p53-independent apoptosis) and inhibition of transcription- coupled nucleotide excision repair (TC-NER) pathways have been demonstrated in in vitro studies. The TC-NER pathway involves recognition of DNA damage and recruitment of various nucleases at the site of DNA damage. At micromolar concentrations, ET-743 has been shown to trap these nucleases in a malfunctioning nuclease- (ET-743)-DNA adduct complex, thereby inducing irreparable single-strand breaks in the DNA. This process is supported by the fact that mammalian cell lines deficient in TC-NER show resistance to ET-743. In vitro exposure of human colon carcinoma cells to clinically relevant (i.e., low nanomolar) concentrations of ET- 743 induces a strong perturbation of the cell cycle. Cell cycle arrest in G2 phase (resulting in p53-independent apoptosis) occurs after an initial delay of cell progression from G1 to G2 phase, and inhibition of DNA synthesis also occurs. Furthermore, there is evidence that nanomolar concentrations of ET-743 cause

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DNA-Interactive Agents45The drug has a unique mechanism of action that involves covalent binding tothe N2-position of guanine within the minor groove of DNA, which causes thedouble helix to bend toward the major groove. This is a unique feature distinguishingET-743 from all currently available DNA-binding agents, which usually perturbDNA by bending it toward their site of interaction rather than away from it. TheET-743 structure consists of three fused tetrahydroisoquinoline ring systems, two ofwhich (subunits A and B) provide the framework for covalent interaction within theminor groove. The carbinolamine unit [-NH-CH(OH)-] formed from the nitrogen ofthe B subunit and the adjacent secondary alcohol is thought to be the electrophilicmoiety responsible for alkylating the N2 of guanine, a mechanism identical to thatused by the pyrrolobenzodiazepines (PBDs) (see below). The third tetrahydroisoquinolinesystem (subunit C) protrudes from the DNA duplex and interacts withadjacent nuclear proteins, contributing to the molecules activity.At a biochemical level, the cytotoxicity of ET-743 appears to be associatedwith the DNA repair pathways of cells. Both inhibition of cell cycle progression(leading to p53-independent apoptosis) and inhibition of transcription-couplednucleotide excision repair (TC-NER) pathways have been demonstrated inin vitrostudies. The TC-NER pathway involves recognition of DNA damage and recruitmentof various nucleases at the site of DNA damage. At micromolar concentrations,ET-743 has been shown to trap these nucleases in a malfunctioning nuclease-(ET-743)-DNA adduct complex, thereby inducing irreparable single-strand breaksin the DNA. This process is supported by the fact that mammalian cell linesdeficient in TC-NER show resistance to ET-743.In vitroexposure of human coloncarcinoma cells to clinically relevant (i.e., low nanomolar) concentrations of ET-743 induces a strong perturbation of the cell cycle. Cell cycle arrest in G2 phase(resulting in p53-independent apoptosis) occurs after an initial delay of cell progressionfrom G1 to G2 phase, and inhibition of DNA synthesis also occurs.Furthermore, there is evidence that nanomolar concentrations of ET-743 causeinhibition of the expression of genes involved in cellular proliferation (e.g.,c-jun,c-fos) through promoter-specific interactions and interference with transcriptionalactivation. Finally, unlike other DNA-damaging drugs (e.g., doxorubicin) that causerapid induction of expression of the multidrug resistance gene (MDR1) in humansarcoma cells, this agent selectively blocks transcriptional activation of MDR1 inthese cellsin vitro.ET-743 is generally well tolerated by patients, with the most frequently reportedside effects being noncumulative hematological and hepatic toxicities. Reversibleand transient elevation of hepatic transaminases, nausea, vomiting, and asthenia arecommon but are seldom severe or treatment-limiting. Other side effects commonlyassociated with cytotoxic agents, such as mucositis, alopecia, cardiotoxicity, andneurotoxicities, are not observed.3.2.3 PYRROLOBENZODIAZEPINE(PBD) MONOMERSThe pyrrolo[2,1-c][1,4]benzodiazepine (PBD) family of antitumor agents is basedon the natural product anthramycin, which was the first member to be isolated fromStreptomyces refuineusvar.thermotoleransin the early 1960s (Structure 3.4). Other

well-known members of the family include tomaymycin, sibiromycin, and neothramycin.The PBD structure consists of three fused rings (A, B, and C) with a chiralcenter at the C11a-position that provides the molecule with a three-dimensionalshape perfectly matched for a snug fit within the DNA minor groove spanning threeDNA base pairs. The molecules also contain an electrophilic carbinolamine moietyat the N10-C11 position (which can also exist in the equivalent methyl ether orimine forms); once in the minor groove, this alkylates the C2-amino group of aguanine through formation of an aminal linkage to C11 of the PBD (Scheme 3.5).Due to the snug fit of the PBD in the minor groove, very little distortion of the DNAhelix occurs, as is the case with other alkylating agents (e.g., ET-743) and crosslinkingagents (e.g., Cisplatin and the nitrogen mustards). For this reason, PBDDNAadducts do not appear to attract the attention of the DNA repair proteins, whichcould be a significant clinical advantage in that the development of resistance throughDNA repair may be avoided or delayed. Crucially, interaction of the PBD moleculeswith DNA is sequence-selective, with a preference for purine-guanine-purinesequences (with the central guanine covalently bound). This sequence preferencecan be explained by the length of the molecule and hydrogen bonding interactions

between parts of the PBD molecule and other DNA bases. For example, the N3-position of one flanking adenine forms a hydrogen bond to the N10-proton of thePBD. Most importantly, the PBD-DNA adducts are sufficiently robust to blockendonuclease enzymes and also transcription, both in a sequence-dependent manner.A number of PBD monomers were evaluated in the clinicin the 1960s and1970s. Anthramycin itself was demonstrated to have antitumor activity but couldnot be developed due to a serious dose-limiting cardiotoxicity. This was later shownto be caused by the phenolic hydroxyl group at C9, which was being converted toquinone species that produced free radicals capable of damaging heart muscle. Otherside effects included bone-marrow suppression and tissue necrosis at the injectionsite.Synthetic routes became available in the 1990s that allowed relatively largequantities of PBD analogs to be produced without a C9-hydroxyl group, thus avoidingthe cardiotoxicity problem. These developments allowed extensive structureactivity relationship (SAR) studies to be carried out, and it is now known that C2-C3-unsaturation, along with the presence of unsaturated (and preferably conjugated)substituents at the C2-position, are important for maximizing potency. One suchPBD monomer lacking a C9-hydroxyl but containing an optimized C2-substituentis presently being developed for clinical evaluation.A related family of PBD compounds known as thePBD dimers,in which twoPBD monomeric units are joined together through their A-rings to produce DNAinterstrand cross-linking agents, has also been developed. One example SJG-136 is described elsewhere in this chapter.

Agen DNA-Interaktif45Obat ini memiliki mekanisme unik tindakan yang melibatkan mengikat kovalen ke N2-posisi guanin dalam alur kecil DNA, yang menyebabkan ganda helix menekuk ke arah alur utama. Ini adalah fitur unik yang membedakan ET-743 dari semua yang tersedia saat agen DNA-binding, yang biasanya mengacaukan DNA dengan menekuk ke arah situs mereka interaksi daripada jauh dari itu. Itu ET-743 Struktur terdiri dari tiga sistem cincin menyatu tetrahydroisoquinoline, dua yang (subunit A dan B) menyediakan kerangka untuk interaksi kovalen dalamalur kecil. Unit carbinolamine [-NH-CH (OH) -] terbentuk dari nitrogensubunit B dan alkohol sekunder yang berdekatan dianggap elektrofilikbagian yang bertanggung jawab untuk alkylating N2 guanin, mekanisme identik dengandigunakan oleh pyrrolobenzodiazepines (PBDs) (lihat di bawah). Ketiga tetrahydroisoquinolinesistem (subunit C) menonjol dari duplex DNA dan berinteraksi denganprotein nuklir yang berdekatan, memberikan kontribusi untuk aktivitas molekul.Pada tingkat biokimia, sitotoksisitas ET-743 tampak terkaitdengan jalur perbaikan DNA sel. Kedua penghambatan perkembangan siklus sel(Mengarah ke apoptosis p53-independen) dan penghambatan transkripsi-coupledperbaikan eksisi nukleotida (TC-APM) jalur telah dibuktikan dalamin vitrostudi. TC-APM jalur melibatkan pengakuan kerusakan DNA dan rekrutmenberbagai nucleases di lokasi kerusakan DNA. Pada konsentrasi mikromolar,ET-743 telah terbukti menjebak nucleases ini dalam rusak nuklease-(ET-743) DNA-aduk kompleks, sehingga mendorong diperbaiki istirahat untai tunggaldalam DNA. Proses ini didukung oleh fakta bahwa jalur sel mamaliakekurangan TC-NER menunjukkan resistensi terhadap ET-743.In vitropemaparan usus besar manusiasel karsinoma untuk klinis yang relevan (yaitu, rendah nanomolar) konsentrasi ET-743 menginduksi gangguan kuat dari siklus sel. Penangkapan siklus sel pada fase G2(Mengakibatkan apoptosis p53-independen) terjadi setelah penundaan awal perkembangan seldari G1 ke fase G2, dan penghambatan sintesis DNA juga terjadi.Selain itu, ada bukti bahwa konsentrasi nanomolar ET-743 penyebabpenghambatan ekspresi gen yang terlibat dalam proliferasi sel (misalnya,c-Juni,c-fosInteraksi dan interferensi dengan transkripsi) melalui promotor khususaktivasi. Akhirnya, tidak seperti obat yang merusak DNA lainnya (misalnya, doxorubicin) yang menyebabkaninduksi cepat ekspresi gen resistensi multidrug (MDR1) pada manusiasel sarkoma, agen ini selektif menghambat aktivasi transkripsional MDR1 disel-selin vitro.ET-743 pada umumnya ditoleransi dengan baik oleh pasien, dengan yang paling sering dilaporkanEfek samping yang toksisitas hematologi dan hati noncumulative. Reversibledan elevasi sementara transaminase hati, mual, muntah, dan asthenia yangumum tetapi jarang parah atau membatasi pengobatan. Efek samping lain yang umumterkait dengan agen sitotoksik, seperti mucositis, alopecia, kardiotoksisitas, danneurotoxicities, tidak diamati.3.2.3 PYRROLOBENZODIAZEPINE(PBD) MONOMERSThe pyrrolo [2,1 -c] [1,4] benzodiazepine (PBD) keluarga agen antitumor didasarkanpada anthramycin produk alami, yang merupakan anggota pertama yang diisolasi dariStreptomyces refuineusvar.thermotoleranspada awal tahun 1960 (Struktur 3.4). Lain

anggota terkenal dari keluarga termasuk tomaymycin, sibiromycin, dan neothramycin.Struktur PBD terdiri dari tiga cincin menyatu (A, B, dan C) dengan kiralpusat di C11a-posisi yang menyediakan molekul dengan tiga dimensiBentuk sangat cocok untuk cocok nyaman dalam alur kecil DNA mencakup tigaPasangan basa DNA. Molekul-molekul juga mengandung gugus elektrofilik carbinolaminepada posisi N10-C11 (yang juga bisa eksis dalam metil eter setara ataubentuk imin), satu kali di alur kecil, ini alkylates kelompok C2-amino dariguanin melalui pembentukan hubungan aminal untuk C11 dari PBD (Skema 3.5).Karena cocok nyaman dari PBD dalam alur kecil, sangat sedikit distorsi DNAhelix terjadi, seperti halnya dengan agen alkilasi lain (misalnya, ET-743) dan silangagen (misalnya, Cisplatin dan mustard nitrogen). Untuk alasan ini, PBDDNAaduk tidak muncul untuk menarik perhatian dari protein perbaikan DNA, yangbisa menjadi keuntungan klinis yang signifikan dalam perkembangan resistensi melaluiPerbaikan DNA dapat dihindari atau ditunda. Krusial, interaksi molekul PBDdengan DNA urutan-selektif, dengan preferensi untuk purin-guanin-purinurutan (dengan guanin pusat kovalen terikat). Urutan ini preferensidapat dijelaskan oleh panjang molekul dan interaksi ikatan hidrogen

antara bagian dari molekul PBD dan basa DNA lainnya. Misalnya, N3-posisi satu mengapit bentuk adenin ikatan hidrogen pada N10-proton dariPBD. Paling penting, aduk PBD-DNA cukup kuat untuk memblokirenzim endonuklease dan juga transkripsi, baik secara berurutan tergantung.Sejumlah monomer PBD dievaluasi di klinikpada tahun 1960 dan1970. Anthramycin sendiri menunjukkan memiliki aktivitas antitumor tapi tidak bisatidak dikembangkan karena kardiotoksisitas dosis yang membatasi serius. Ini kemudian ditampilkandisebabkan oleh gugus hidroksil fenolik di C9, yang diubah menjadispesies kuinon yang menghasilkan radikal bebas yang mampu merusak otot jantung. LainEfek samping termasuk penekanan sumsum tulang dan nekrosis jaringan pada injeksisitus.Rute sintetik menjadi tersedia pada 1990-an yang memungkinkan relatif besarkuantitas analog PBD yang akan diproduksi tanpa kelompok C9-hidroksil, sehingga menghindarimasalah kardiotoksisitas. Perkembangan ini memungkinkan struktur yang luasaktivitas hubungan (SAR) penelitian yang akan dilaksanakan, dan sekarang diketahui bahwa C2-C3-jenuh, bersama dengan kehadiran tak jenuh (dan sebaiknya terkonjugasi)substituen di C2-posisi, penting untuk memaksimalkan potensi. Salah satu sepertiMonomer PBD kurang C9-hidroksil tetapi mengandung dioptimalkan C2-substituensaat ini sedang dikembangkan untuk evaluasi klinis.Sebuah keluarga yang terkait senyawa PBD dikenal sebagaiDimer PBD,di mana duaUnit monomer PBD bergabung bersama melalui A-cincin mereka untuk menghasilkan DNAinterstrand silang agen, juga telah dikembangkan. Salah satu contoh - SJG-136- Dijelaskan di bagian lain dalam bab ini.