DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 358 713 FL 021 256

TITLE The Social and Economic Impact of ELT in Development.Dunford House Seminar Report (England, UnitedKingdom, July 22-27, 1991).

INSTITUTION British Council, London (England).PUB DATE 92NOTE 63p.; For other Dunford House Semi.ar proceedings,

see FL 021 247-257.AVAILABLE FROM English Language Division, The British Council,

Medlock Street, Manchester M15 4AA, England, UnitedKingdom.

PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC03 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Case Studies; Communication Skills; Developing

Nations; *Economic Development; *Economic Impact;Elementary Secondary Education; *English (SecondLanguage); Foreign Countries; InstructionalEffectiveness; International Cooperation; *LanguageRole; Program Effectiveness; Second LanguageInstruction; Second Language Programs; *SocialInfluences; Technical Assistance

IDENTIFIERS Cameroon; Ivory Coast; Kenya; Malaysia; Peru; SriLanka; Uganda; *United Kingdom: Yemen

ABSTRACTProceedings of a seminar on the developmental

justification for British investment in English language teaching(ELT) as part of its overseas technical assistance program arepresented in the form of papers presented, summaries ofpresentations, and case studies. The keynote address, "The EconomicBenefits of English Language Teaching" (Roger Iredale) is presentedin its entirety. Topics of the sessions summarized include: a studyevaluating the effects of ELT programs; the role of communicationskills projects in economic development; socioeconomic aspects of ELTfor development; perceptions of the social and economic impact of ELTin development; and linguistic imperialism. Case studies are forYemen, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Uganda, Peru, Malaysia, Cameroon, and SriLanka. Appended materials include results of a survey of ELT teachersand teacher-trainers; a summary of four case studies relating to thesession on perceptions of program impact; and a seminar schedule andlist of participants. (MSE)

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Dunford Seminar Report 1991

The social and economic impact of ELT in development

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The British Council promotes Britain abroad. Itprovides access to British ideas, talents andexperience in education and training, books andperiodicals, the English language, the arts, thesciences and technology.

All enquiries to

English Language DivisionThe British CouncilMed lock StreetManchesterM15 4PR

Engraving of Dunford House, near Midhurst, WestSussex, where the seminar has generally been heldsince 1979, by Sue Scullard

Published byThe British Council 1992

® The British Council 1992

Cover printed in Britain byTWP Services Ltd

The Dunford House Seminar

This is an annual residential seminar run by theEnglish Language Division of the British Council. Itfocuses on ODA-funded ELT projects and serves as aforum for the exchange of ideas and experience throughthe participation of ELT professionals involved invarious areas of project delivery. These includeBritish Council career officers, British Councilcontract, ODA-funded, English Language TeachingOfficers (ELTOs), UK Higher Education ELT specialistsand representatives from private sector institutions.The seminar functions as a think-tank on the design,implementation and evaluation of ELT projects. Thereport is distributed to a wide readership in theprofession in the UK and throughout the developingworld.

Previous seminar topics

1978 ESP course design

1979 ELT course design

1980 Communicative methodology

1981 Design, evaluation and testing in Englishlanguage projects

1982 Teacher training and the curriculum

1983 Design and implementation of teacher-trainingprogrammes

1984 Curriculum and syllabus design in ELT

1985 Communication skills training in bilateral aidprojects

1986 Appropriate methodology

1987 ELT and development: the place of Englishlanguage teaching in aid programmes

1988 ELT in development aid: defining aims andmeasuring results

1989 Managing ELT aid projects for sustainability

1990 Training for sustainability of ELT aid projects

Acknowledgements

The English Language Division of the British Councilwould like to thank the staff of Dunford House and itsPrincipal, Dr Denis Pain, for their continuedassistance and co-operation which ensured the smoothrunning of this year's seminar and the comfort of theparticipants.

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Contents

Overview

Keynote SpeechRoger Ireda le

Page

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8

Evaluating the effects of ELT 11Desmond Nuttall

Communication skills projects in development 15Maggie Jo St John/David Clarke

Socio-economic roles and their implications 19John Burke/Rod Bo litho

Perceptions of impact 22Hywel Coleman

Linguistic imperialism 27Robert Phillipson

ELT and development 29Roger Bowers

Case Study - Yemen 34Claudia Cooper/Veronica Daly

Case Study - Cote d'Ivoire 39Gerry Greenall

Case Study - Kenya 43Andrew Thomas

Case Study - Uganda 44Barry Sesnan

Case Study - Peru 46Isobel Rainey

Case Study - Malaysia 48Ray Brown

Case Study - Cameroon 50Colin Davies/Patrick Samba

Case Study - Sri Lanka 51Richard Webber

Appendices 52

Overview

The social and economic impact ofELT in development

The 1991 Dunford House Seminar attempted to investigatethe developmental justification for investing inEnglish language teaching (ELT). Discerning theeconomic benefits of ELT is not a straightforward taskparticularly in view of the fact that there is littleavailable in the way of hard data. Anecdotal evidenceexists but there has unfortunately been little if anyrigorous research into the role played by ELT in socialand economic development. In order to promote debatein this challenging area, English Language Division(ELD) of the British Council commissioned the LondonSchool of Economics (LSE) to research the developmentaleffects of ELT. A summary of the study is to be foundon page 11. The conclusions arrived at point out theneed for further research and data collection in orderto be able to demonstrate the cost-effectiveness of ELTaid.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of usingEnglish as a medium of instruction at school and/orhigher education level? Another question to add is"what are the economic and developmental costs of usingEnglish as a medium when resources are insufficient toallow for it to be used effectively as a medium ofinstruction or study?".

The paper by Dr Desmond Nuttall, Director of the Centrefor Educational Research, LSE investigates theeducational effects of investing in ELT and considersthe use of indicators in evaluation. As he rightlypoints out the first requirement is to specifyobjectives with greater precision and this willfacilitate the design or selection of appropriateindicators of achievement. It is likely that generaleducation indicators will have to be taken intoconsideration as well as those which are specific toELT. More research is required and researchcapability in developing country educationalinstitutions needs to be upgraded.

Research into the vital role of communication skillsin development would be particularly valuable. Thereis anecdotal evidence to suggest that it is difficult.to determine with confidence the developmental impactof education projects in ELT. There exists a problem,I believe, in basic project design. It seems to methat project frameworks written for ELT seldom captureadequately the wider context in which the projectoperates. There is a noticeable tendency toconcentrate on the immediate objectives which are moreaccessible to the ELT profession and are more easilymonitored by project managers. The question of widerobjectives is one that I consider is central toproject design because it is here that the widerdevelopmental objectives can be spelled out and meansof evaluating them identified.

The developmental benefits of investing in ELT arediscussed in the papers given by Dr Roger Iredale,Chief Education Adviser of the ODA. In his wideranging paper many key issues are raised. Thequestion "what is the economic cost to a country ofdeciding to adopt English as a medium when English isnot the mother tongues is asked together with the

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related question "is there an economic cost in decidingnot to do so when multilateral and bilateral projectssuffer from inefficiencies in transfer of skills fromadviser or specialist to host country trainee throughinadequate availability of language skills particularlyin English where it serves as a medium of internationalcommunication?". This is one reason why communicationskills projects are so important and it is my guessthat in the future, when targeting of scarce resourcesto education and ELT is considered, ESP/communicationskills capacity building will be considered a priorityfor donor assistance. The article by Maggie Jo St Johnexplores some of the key issues in the implementationof such projects which necessarily have implicationsfor other stages in the project cycle.

The importance of these concerns is apparent to all whowork in donor financed ELT. Is language a crosscutting issue? Is access to a language ofinternational communication a means of development ordependency? What are the gender implications ofinvesting in ELT and how does such assistance affectthe poor, minorities or rural communities? There isstill much to be discussed. This Seminar must beconsidered the first step on a long but fascinatingjourney. One that will necessitate the ELTprofessional taking a wider view of the world andacquiring a broader range of skills in the area ofeducation and development.

Further information can be obtained from Director, ELD,The British Council.

David J ClarkeCourse Director

Keynote speech

The economic benefits of English languageteaching

Roger Iredale, Overseas DevelopmentAdministration

I am glad that the conference organizers have chosen atheme that bears on the question of the value ofEnglish language teaching since it reflects the broaderissue of the economic return which various kinds andlevels of education can deliver. Among economists,educational planners and donor agencies there is now abroad consensus that education represents an importantand major investment in any country's development - atheme which in Britain is reflected currently instatements by both the Government and the Opposition aswell as by many professional, industrial andeducational bodies with an interest in improvingBritain's productive capacity. A recent paper from theRoyal Society, "Beyond the GCSE", emphasizes theimportance of investment in education and the highreturn which this investment will bring in terms ofproductivity, as do scores of other current books,speeches and papers.

As we all know, substantial amounts of time andresearch have been dedicated by the World Bank andmany other organizations to an assessment of therelative economic value of supporting education atvarious levels, both in terms of individuals andsocieties at large. The current fashionable view isthat investment at the primary level produces a higherrate of social return - that is, return to society -than investment at higher levels.

But we have to be careful of this kind of assertionfor two reasons: firstly, because it is easy to be ledinto believing that because investment across theboard at primary level produces higher economicreturns, resources should be concentrated at thatlevel to the detriment of the secondary and tertiarylevels (which is patently an absurd proposition);secondly, because the means by which economistsmeasure rates of return are not always particularlycomprehensive or therefore representative c.:1' reality.On the first point, it is clear that the World Bankare already developing compensatory interests ineducation at the tertiary level as if tocounterbalance the unequivocal thrust into primaryeducation.

The standard method of measuring the social returnthat results from educational provision is to look atthe salary achieved by people with differing levels ofeducation; the problem with this kind of analysis isthat subsequent labour market developments may devalueor put a premium on certain levels of education andlead to measurements that were not necessarilyappropriate or applicable at the time as which theinvestment was made and the education took place; inaddition, the measurement of social value by income isan inaccurate method of examining the value of theeducation of, for example, women who have married andceased employment. For an economist, the value of anyparticular level of education to a woman who is childrearing is probably rated at zero, while in effect weknow that it is of inestimable value in shaping her

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attitudes to her children's education whichconsequently will have a substantial impact on thelength of time that they are to remain atschool. Furthermore, this all ignores the importanceof providing education for its own sake so that womencan act as important role models for their peers andfor younger women.

What nobody has before asked, as far as I know, is thequestion: "What is the economic value of Englishlanguage teaching?". In a sense, and on an entirelyrule-of-thumb basis, education advisers and geo-graphical desk officers at the ODA have asked thequestion many times over in the past, since they havehad to make difficult and important choices betweeneducational projects and other forms of investment.You, as largely field practitioners of education,arrive after a project has been selected for funding,after all the appraisal has taken place, and after thegeographical department in the ODA has made the crucialand important decision to fund this particular projectrather than one in rural health or the development ofcooperatives, or some other2aaportant grassrootsinitiative.

Yet in order to make the decision to fund a project ineducation, that kind of comparison has to be made,whether consciously or unconsciously. In other words,people have been assigning an economic value toELT for many years now, though not in a very systematicway. They have to compare the economic justificationfor an educational project with that of manyalternative areas of possible investment, and try toweigh up the likely return.

You will notice that this is my first reference to ELTas such, rather than to the word education withwhich I have so far been concerned. The reason forthis is that while I recognize that ELT is a disciplinewith certain unique features, it is, from aneducationist's point of view, no different from anyother aspect of education in general. The ODA supportseducational projects in developing countries, andincreasingly supports them where they are combined withinitiatives in other disciplines such as health arpopulation education. ELT is simply a sub-set ofeducation, albeit a distinctive one and one in whichBritain has rather more to offer than most donors.. Wesee ELT as merely one element within the development ofan educational initiative rather than something inisolation. Increasingly, we see projects that aim todevelop a range of key subjects and techniques withinechool and college classrooms across a range ofsubjects, especially mathematics, science andtechnology. Our largest projects focus specifically onlevels of education, such as the Andra PradeshPrimary Education Project or the Jordan SecondaryEducation Project. In Jamaica, we pursue our aimsthrough the provision of books to secondary schoolclassrooms, again without any particular or specificsubject emphasis; the same was true of the importantSierra Leone Textbook Project of the mid-1980s.

This is the direction in which we were moving in theearly 1980s when we abolished the KELT scheme as afunctionally funded part of the aid programme. Many ofus were at that time not happy that ELT occupied a

separate and earmarked place of the aid programme; byintegreing the funding of ELT into the funding of allother technical cooperation programmes, we ensured thatit was subjected to the same scrutiny for priorities asall other aid, and we were able to ensure that, bycompeting for the same funds, it became increasingly anintegral part of wider projects, and took place onlywhere it genuinely represented a priority use of scarcefunds.

Even more recently, by getting rid of the former AidAdministration Grant which the ODA paid to the BritishCouncil, we have abolished the system by which theadministrative costs of running ELT were keptseparate from the rest of the aid programme thusbringing the administrative cost of ELT into line withthe ways in which we pay the Council to undertake otheractivities on our behalf. As you will know,educational projects will increasingly be subjected tocompetitive tendering so that others as well as theCouncil may be able to offer to manage educational (andparticularly ELT) projects on our behalf. This removesfrom the ELT element in educational aid that "special"element that set it apart and safeguarded it from theprocess of being ranked alongside other possibleprojects for allocation of available funds. This willmean that it will be ever more important to be able tojustify educational projects with an ELT element inthem in terms of their economic productivity. In aidterms the teaching of English is simply not an end initself.

So what are the economic benefits of Englishlanguage teaching, in so far as we can separate themfrom the economic benefits of education in general?The answer to this conundrum presents us with exactlythe same problem as would the question, "what is theeconomic value of mathematics teaching or of historyteaching?" The answer is accordingly not an easy oneto establish. There is certainly a general view withinthe ODA and outside of it that there is a highereconomic benefit to be ascribed to mathematics teachingthan to history teaching, but only in the veryrestricted sense that most industrial societies atpresent lack mathematicians while they are notparticularly short of competent historians. Hence,there is a temporary and slightly artificial premium onthe economic return from mathematics or scienceteaching which arises from a supply and demandsituation. Nobody would deny that historians are in anabsolute sense just as important to society as aremathematicians - and in the current Eastern Europeprobably even more so! But the point to make is thatascribing a specific economic value to the teaching ofa particular subject is not going to be easy.

Nevertheless, the question has to be asked. I lived inAlgeria between 1970 and 1972 when PresidentBoumeddienne constantly reminded the Algerian people oftheir economic dependence upon Prance and Frenchcommercial contacts. He believed that Algeria neededto diversify its international contacts in order tobreak away from the commercial stranglehold of Frenchcompanies and commercial links; he established anambitious and aggressive ELT programme which bore fruitwithin a decade in the form of a generation of schoolchildren who became quickly quite competent in our

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language and were ready to work in English bothpolitically and commercially in international fora.While nobody could have measured the economic benefitof this policy, it was clearly advantageous to Algeria,just as the learning of English among science studentsas far apart as China and Latin America will haveimportant benefits for those whose studies go toasufficiently high level to require them to cope withtextbooks and research papers written in English. Thequestion, as far as I know is unanswered if we ask "buthow advantageous?" How far has this skillenabled Algeria to diversify its industrial investmentprogrammes? Has it broken out of the constraints of"la Prancophonie" in ways that have benefited itspeople?

This raises the interesting question "who exactlyshould be taught English and at what specific levelswithin the school system?" There are presumablyoptimum levels for, say, the introduction of English asa medium of instruction, and the question inevitablyarises as to how decision-makers decide at what levelto introduce it. But behind this question is a muchgreater one: what is the economic cost to a country ofdeciding to adopt English as a medium of instruction inthe first place? Because such decisions are politicalrather than administrative or economic decisions, wetend to ignore them or take them as given. When SriLanka and Tanzania in the early 1980s decided that theywould switch increasingly to indigenous languages asthe media for instruction and communication, thedecision was a political rather than an economic one.Nevertheless, it must have had economicconsequences.I am confident that children learning in their mothertongue, whether Singhalese or Swahili, did so far moreefficiently than they do when they are attempting thesame exercise in a foreign language which they haveonly recently begun to acquire possibly at the hands ofteachers who are not particularly well trained oraccomplished practitioners in ELT.

At the lower levels of education, where the indigenouslanguage can be adapted to the efficient teaching ofmathematics or science, there must be substantialeducational benefits for pupils and teachers inacquiring difficult skills in a medium with which theyare all comfortable. Hence, perhaps the first questionwhich should be asked is, "what is the economic cost toa country of deciding to adopt English as a medium whenEnglish is not the mother tongue?" and, "is there aneconomic cost in deciding not to do so in favour ofretaining the indigenous language?".

The most striking current example is Namibia, where themajority of the population speak an indigenous mothertongue and a lingua franca which is Afrikaans.The Government's decision to convert to English as themedium of instruction is an entirely logical one inpolitical and international terms - who could possiblyjustify using Afrikaans as a medium of instruction andcommunication in a newly liberated country? - but as apolitical decision it must carry very substantial costimplications. These costs will be both economic andpersonal, and it is difficult to measure which is thegreater. A more logical approach, setting aside theall-important political considerations, might have beento adopt Afrikaans as the medium of instruction for all

but those studying at the highest levels of education,ie at university postgraduate levels, since Afrikaansis perfectly well adapted to the teaching and learningof all subjects on the curriculum from arts through tosciences.

But as I said earlier, this is politicallyinconceivable and unacceptable, and the countrytherefore has to face the inevitable economic cost ofits decision. The question of the economic benefit toa Namibian of teaching him or her English and throughEnglish is therefore a secondary question that is onlyrelevant once you have considered the first.

I hope, therefore, that in your conference you willconsider the economic benefits of teaching Englishwithin the much broader contexts of the economicbenefits of education generally and the cost to non-ELTcountries of adopting English as a medium. I hope youwill consider very carefully the levels at which it isappropriate for English to be introduced as a subject,as a medium, and taught as a means by which people canacquire other skills. It will therefore be relevant toask questions about the separate economic value ofteaching English to science students at universitylevel, to public administrators at senior managementlevels, to primary school children who are expected tocontinue their secondary education in English, and topeople who wish to visit an English-speaking countrysuch as Britain for further training. You may also liketo consider how, after a project is complete, you canmeasure the effectiveness of the project in even thenarrowest terms of how much better people teach andlearn English.

This last question touches upon my own policy review oftraining, which I am currently undertaking for ODA'sPermanent Secretary, Tim Lankester. In considering theallocation of aid money tc the training of key peoplefor important future jobs, we have to keep constantlyin mind the question whether it is better to train themin-country or to bring them to Britain. To take theAndhra Pradesh Primary Education Project, for example,it is clearly necessary to bring the most senior staffto the University of London Institute of Education fortheir three-month courses, and to enable them to lookat some of the best practice within British primaryeducation. But we have similarly taken a consciousdecision to undertake training further down the cascadewithin India and in the local language. Similarly, weneed to consider very carefully whether it is reallynecessary to bring somebody to Britain for training,especially when this involves spending a relativelylong time on teaching them a foreign language to alevel that will enable them to understand quitesophisticated and complex ideas, when it might bebetter to provide them with the same basic trainingwithin their own country, if possible.

In many cases, we do regard it as worthwhile, and onthe Sino British Friendship Scholarship Scheme theChinese side of the consortium provides six or moremonths of training to very senior academic staff inorder to enable them to visit Britain, simply becauseit is considered essential that people at that levelshould have direct experience of British universityresearch techniques and contact with senior British

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academics. But there must be many other levels oftraining where one has to ask whether it is reallyessential, or whether it would be better to find ameans by which training can be provided eitherin-country or in a neighbouring country, makingconsiderable cost savings on otherwise expensive EAPtraining.

I think the burden of my introductory speech has beenthat as practitioners of ELT you do not operate inisolation; you are part of a much greater effortinvolving complex decisions about relative prioritiesand about alternative ways of tackling problems. As Ihave shown, you work frequently within the context ofpolitical rather than economic decisions, but thissimply means that the ensuing decision-making processhas to be even more precise and analytical if it is tolead to the efficient use of resources. And perhapsthis is the appropriate place to end: on the concept ofresources. The World Conference on Education for Allin Jomtien last year pointed out the enormous shortfallof the resources needed to improve primary educationqualitatively and quantitatively to a satisfactorylevel in developing countries. At this momentgovernments are wrestling with the massive problems ofresource allocation in contexts where there is less andless money to spend on more and more priorities. Thisreally does mean that every penny counts, that therecan be no room for luxuries, and that educationaldecisions reflect a conscious analysis of what isabsolutely necessary rather than simply what isdesirable.

As senior practitioners of education many of you willbe called upon to advise ministers and permanentsecretaries on their strategies. I hope that thisconference will help you to align your thinking withthat of the planners who have to carry through thefindings of the Jomtien conference, and that it willhelp you to clarify in your own minds the differencebetween what is necessary, or simply desirable. By allmeans give the best that you can professionally, buttemper it with a continuing consciousness of thebalance between what is necessary and essential, anddesirable but perhaps a little extravagant.

Evaluating the effects of ELT

Desmond L Nuttall, London School of Economics

Background

The British Council and the Overseas DevelopmentAdministration invest very substantial sums of money insupporting English language teaching. They do not dothis simply as an act of charity or simply for culturalreasons; they do it in the belief that ELT investmentwill contribute to economic and human development, forexample, by giving university students access totechnical literature, and possibly to make it morelikely that countries will wish to trade with the UK,or send its students to the UK, rather than, say, toFrance. Of course, the UK is by no means the onlyEnglish-language speaking country in the world, soothers like the USA, Canada and Australia might benefitfrom the aid efforts of the UK (and vice versa).

The British Council asked the London School ofEconomics to prepare a report into the relationshipbetween ELT aid and educational, social and economicdevelopment. This report was also to propose amodel/frariework for analyzing the relationship betweenELT and development, identifying key indicators andpotential means of evaluation. The report was also tosummarize its findings in relation to a justificationfor ELT aid. The chain of links between young peoplestudying English in the classroom and later economicand human development that can be uniquely andunequivocally attributed to those English lessons isfragile. To demonstrate that ELT investment "pay) off'one has to eliminate other possible reasons for acountry's economic and human development. The aim ofthe present study was to explore that issue in moredetail, to establish whether or not the issue would beamenable to more elaborate research.

In the first part of the study an analysis was carriedout of the wider objectives of ODA-funded BritishCouncil ELT projects, the indicators of achievement andthe proposed methods of evaluation, from projectdescriptions in the standard form. Some widerobjectives pointed to the broader aims of ELT asmentioned above, and can be termed "strategic". Forexample

to raise the level of proficiency in English so thatEnglish can be more effectively used as a tool ofnational development in the fields of agriculture,technology, tourism and health

to improve the level of skill in English language ofthose who have left school and need English forfurther training or employment, including futureteachers of English language

There are many other objectives noted down, often asthe principal objectives. These fall into three broadcategories. The first category addresses staffdevelopment and INSET for English language teachers.For example

to improve the competence of English teachers atschool and university level, of teacher trainers, and

of secondary school students

to increase the number of English lecturers in PRESETand INSET

Objectives of this type might be described as thetactics for achieving the highest, strategic,objectives. These are often underpinned by objectivesconcerned with the manner in which the tacticalobjectives can be given support. For example

to train the trainers providing INSET

to enable English teachers in the region to provide aprofessional ELT facility for adults

to revise English language examination systems

These objectives in their turn are often underpinned byobjectives concerning the creation of material.For example

to devise materials for teaching and learning

to develop distance teaching materials

to assist in the design, writing, editing andproduction of a four-year ELT textbook for secondaryschools

Finally, there is a small category of objectivesconcerning research and monitoring

Many projects have two or three such objectives, oftenspanning the range illustrated above. Beside theobjectives, indicators of achievement are proposed bywhich the success of the project in meeting its aimswill be judged. These indicators of achievement, ortargets, are usually written in far more specific termsthan the objectives. For example

by June 1988 the first cohort of 45 students have asufficient level of competence in English to begintheir postgraduate studies in Britain with not morethan two months' pre-sessional English

The attainment of this target is much more easilymeasured than the achievement of the strategicobjectives mentioned above. Is it identical, however?The answer must surely be that it is not. While it maybe a necessary condition for benefiting fromfurther study and, by implication, human development,it is most unlikely to be a sufficient condition. Itis at this point, then, that we begin to notice thefragility of the chain linking ELT investment withhuman, economic and social development

The example of an indicator of achievement quoted aboveis, however, unusual in its specificity. It is muchmore common to see indicators in the following type ofform

more effective functioning in English by Angolancadres who need English to work

negotiation and communication (when they take place)are conducted without language being a constraint

better classroom performance by teachers andchildren

What is really meant by some of these indicators can begleaned from a study of the evaluation instrumentsdesigned to investigate whether or not the target hasbeen reached.

These include examination and test results, classroomobservation, surveys (e.g. of former students), thenumber of and the attendance at workshops and courses,reports from project leaders, feedback from students,monitoring visits and reports from British Councilofficers or from v:7-iting ELT consultants. All thesecan make valuable contributions to the evaluation ofattainment of targets, provided, of course, that theyare validly and reliably conducted (which is not alwayseasily achieved for, say, classroom observation). Itwould be useful to see reports of such evaluations tocheck how dispassionately the evidence from differentsources has been weighed up. This is not to suggestthat evaluations must be objective, but that theyattempt to minimize subjectivity and recognize itsexistence.

It must be concluded that, by and large, the attainmentof strategic objectives is not evaluated, butonly the objectives at the level of tactics, support,materials and research. How might such an evaluationbe carried out? Indicators could be specified, but inmany cases the evidence would have to be collectedseveral years later to establish fairly whether thosewho studied English had indeed benefited at work, inscience and technology and in other ways (e.g. ineducation). It is a still further step to examine theeffectiveness of ELT as "a tool of national develop-ment", or as "the language of manpower development ineducation, training and the market place".

If it is effective, one would expect to see acorrelation between ELT aid and social and economicdevelopment. Social development is multi-faceted, andappropriate indicators would have to be developed.1Economic development is more regularly measured;appropriate indicators are available, and later partsof this paper address their use. It must be stressed,however, that, while the absence of any correlation

-1-,een ELT aid investment and economic developmentwou' ,tiggest no link between them, a positiveeorre.A.fion does not prove that they are causallyii ,iced only that they are associated, perhaps as aresult of a third factor or another source ofedwational aid. Alternative hypotheses about thefactors that might have contributed to economicdevelopment have to be tested, and the effects of yetother factors (for example, ELT aid from othercountries) have to be eliminated (which is oftenpossible using appropriate statistical techniques).

Evaluation using indicators

Partly as a result of calls for accountability, theregular publication of indicators (such as examination

I There is much work in this area. For example, seeSocial Measurement and Social Indicators, by M Carley(London: George Allen & Unwin, 1981).

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results) by institution, LEA and nation is beingrequired thrc.ue,:out the developed world andincreasingly in the less developed world. Unesco is onthe point of publishing World Education Indicatorsassembled from their database and is calling forindicator development work to measure progress towardsthe achievement of the goals agreed at Jomtien.

The international body making the pace is, however, theOECD which has been working on the issue for over threeyears. It did not want to rely solely on statistics,because these tended to be entirely about inputs to thesystem or enrolments in it, saying little about thequality of the process or its outcomes. The OECDproceeded to develop a framework to describe nationaleducation systems and to consider, initially within theperiod of compulsory education, what indicators shouldbe developed. The three figures that appear at theend of this paper show, first, within a classificationof "Background", "Processes" and "Outcomes", the broadareas of education that the OECD InternationalEducation Indicators (INES) Project consider should becovered? The second figure shows more specificindicator topics, while the third figure (in a slightlydifferent graphical presentation) shows the actualindicator topics that the Project will be presenting atthe end of its second phase. This reveals many gaps,especially in the field of expectations, opinions andattitudes. The three indicators shown under "Learningand Other Results" will not, however, show any datasince the Project feels that the studies measuringattainment in different countries, using the same testin each country (translated as necessary) do not meetthe standards of quality established by the Project.Measuring student attainment is notoriously difficult;objective tests and written examinations can measureonly a limited set of skills, often the least importantones. The development of new, more realistic,assessment tasks is being pursued in all the AnglophoneOECD nations but, as everyone has discovered, atconsiderable expense both in cash terms and inteachers time. Nevertheless, without some directmeasure of student achievement, the indicator systemwill be significantly less useful to the policy-maker(be that at the national or the school level).

One important point to note is that the proposedindicator system is regarded as a frameworkrather than a model. This is because the term"model" usually implies :.,,ausal connections betweenvariables and this notion was not sustainable in thecontext of existing research findings andunderstandings of the education process. The linksbetween some pairs of variables are well-established,but causal links within the framework as a whole arenot adequately established. The use of the indicatorsystem must therefore be cautious, and the systemshould be regarded like the dashboard of a car:providing useful information to the driver, but not aworking model of the vehicle.

A framework of this kind is likely to be necessary ifwe are to look for a way of assessing the strategic

2 See full LSE study a copy of which is available onrequest from Director ELD, The British Council.

13

objectives of most ELT projects. Background andprocess indicators (which would include ELT investment)would have to be specified, to allow the chain of linksbetween ELT investment and the broader outcomes to betraced. It would require substantial time and effortto devise such a framework that would be accepted asvalid.

The narrower objectives lend themselves more readily toevaluation, and the enhancement of the capability tospeak, write and understand English can be looked atover a shorter time span. This should not, however, beregarded as straightforward, and relying on tests orexaminations is unlikely to be adequate (for thereasons discussed above). More explicit and narrowerobjectives are necessary for valid assessments

Samples from Australia (Pathways of LanguageDevelopment, ACER, 1990) and from the NationalCurriculum in England and Wales illustrate this

Australia

adjusts concepts to integrate new learninguses a range of language formsshows sensitivity to style and tone

England and Wales (level 4 writing - typical11-year-old)

produce pieces of writing in which there is arudimentary attempt to present simple subject matterin a structured way, e.g. by means of a title andparagraphs or verses; in which sentence punctuation(capital letters, full stops, question marks andexclamation marks) is generally accurately used; andin which there is some evidence of an ability to setout and punctuate any direct speech in a way thatmakes meaning clear to the reader

write stories which have an opening, a setting,characters, a series of events and a resolution;produce other kinds of chronologically organizedwriting, such as instructions and accounts

organize non-chronological writing in orderly ways

show some competence in the structures of writtenStandard English and begin to use some sentencestructures different from those which arecharacteriatic of speech, e.g. a wider range ofsubordinate clauses, expanded noun phrases etc

attempt independent redrafting and revision of theirown writing and talk about changes they have made

Although these statements about language use are quitespecific, more work has to be done if we are todetermine whether or not a student has displayedacquisition of, and competence in, the behaviourdescribed in each objective, by designing appropriatemethods of measurement. The methods do not have to beby way of a written test; the judgement could be madeby observation of classroom behaviour, or of written ororal work done in the normal course of classroom life,by the teacher; if however, we are aggregating

13

information from a number of classrooms, the differentteachers all have to be trained to use the samecriteria and standards for judgement. Similarly,inspectors and consultants would need to be trained sothat they applied comparable standards.

In practice, it is more appropriate to look at changeover tints rather than at a static position (indeed, theOECD expects to publish indicators each year so thatcomparisons over time become possible in addition tocomparisons between countries). Relationships betweenthe amount of ELT aid invested and the improvements innational development, with other factors held constant,(e.g. discovery of natural resources), could beinvestigated, similar studies could be carried out fornarrower objectives, like the increase in the number ofstudents going to study at the tertiary level inEnglish-speaking countries (and therefore deemedcompetent in English).

The first requirement is greater precision inspecifying objectives, which will lead to greaterclarity in designing appropriate indicators ofachievement, and ways of assessing them. After this isachieved, what is needed is the creation of a model orframework of indicators that shows the link between ELTand desired outcomes in the context of other factorsthat may have also contributed to the desired outcomes.Alongside the indicators there need to be definitionsof how these indicators are to be measured or assessed.To achieve these proposals will inevitably require timeand resources.

Executive summary of LSE study

1 Arguments which suggest that, in the aided country,ELT aid is fungible, freeing up domestic funds(that would otherwise have gone to ELT) forinvestment in less aidworthy projects, andtherefore should be cut, appear very dubious, bothon theoretical and empirical grounds.

In particular, there is very little evidence tosuggest, on either theoretical or empiricalgrounds, that private returns to tertiaryeducation, and by extension, to ELT are signifi-cantly higher than social returns, nor that returnsto education are significantly higher than returnsto the economy at large. It is therefore possibleto conclude that educational aid is needed.

2 Evidence from Africa suggests that.the use ofEnglish as a medium of instruction allows for thecheaper delivery of education.

Using UN data, a case study is presented comparingeducational attainment in fifty African countries,distinguished on the basis of whether English isused as a medium of instruction or not. It wasfound that when wealth (GDP per capita) andcommitment to education (per capita expenditure oneducation as a proportion of GNP) is taken intoaccount, the use of English as a medium ofinstruction emerges as a significant factor indetermining educational attainment. Countries thatuse English as a medium of instruction were likelyto have a higher degree of educational attainment

than those that did not. This would indicate that,given the resources at their disposal, delivery ofeducation in countries that use English as a mediumof instruction was more efficient than those thatdid not.

3 While the results in 2 above demonstrate theusefulness of ELT, they do not in themselvesdemonstrate the cost-effectiveness of ELT aid.Further research will be required to develop modelsand acquire data which can be used to assesscost-effectiveness in this area.

Conclusions and proposals for further research

This study has reinforced the difficulty ofdemonstrating any causal link between ELT investmentand educational, human, social and economic developmentbecause of the mass of other variables potentiallyinvolved in contributing to development and the timetaken for the improved EL capability to feed through todevelopment. Indeed, it is also not easy todemonstrate a causal link between ELT provision andimproved educational standards where one might expect acloser connection and a shorter causal link.

Council projects are required to specify their aims andobjectives, together with the proposed success criteria(or indicators) and means of measuring them. Theanalysis of these shows that, although broad aims areoften stated (linking ELT aid to development)indicators are almost always tied to shorter-termobjectives, and that the indicators and evaluationmethods are specified in very general terms.

It is difficult to see how ELT aid could fail toachieve its shorter-term objectives and yet contributeto development, but it is necessary to examine thisstatement carefully to see if other mechanisms ofcontributing to development might be present. If not,one can view the attainment of these objectives as anecessary, but not sufficient, condition forcontributing to development.

The second part of the study examines the much broaderissue of the empirical relationship between educationand development and the justification for aid. Itdemonstrates that there is very little evidence tosuggest that private returns to tertiary education,and by extension to ELT, are significantly higher thansocial returns, nor that returns to education aresignificantly higher than returns to the economy atlarge. These findings imply that the less developedcountries, by and large, could not readily afford topay more for their education systems or support theirown ELT programmes.

It also demonstrated that, in Africa, the educationalattainment (as defined by the UNDP) in English-usingcountries is significantly higher than innon-English-using countries for a given financialcommitment to education. This suggests that usingEnglish is en economic and an educational asset, butdoes not demonstrate a causal relationship. It mightbe, for example, that legacies of British rule otherthan using English, such as the continued use of a

14

British educational system, could be the cause (or partof the cause).

Together, the studies have not taken the topic of therelationship between ELT provision and development muchfurther, though encouragement may be taken from therelationship between educational attainment and use ofEnglish in African countries. To make progress,further modelling at the micro-level and themacro-level is needed.

More specifically, the framework used by the OECDInternational Education Indicators Project should beexpanded (and possibly adjusted) to encompass a widerrange of outcomes including impact on development andto introduce ELT expenditure and ELT aid as inputs.This could lead to a regular monitoring of keyindicators (most of which are already available throughthe UNDP and Unesco), the time series would providemore power by allowing the study of the relationshipbetween changes in output and changes in input.

At the micro-level, more attention should be given tothe careful specification of project objectives andindicators, as well as the means to measure them, andto examining the extent to which the objectives areachieved. These exercises might also assist in therefinement of the concept of educational development.

Finally, further research should be undertaken into themore detailed issues put forward in the second part ofthe study. For example, the rates of return to ELTprovision and aid at different levels of the educationsystem should be examined, as should the rates ofreturn for males and females separately.

It is important to determine the investment of otherEnglish-speaking countries in ELT aid, and the divisionof these contributions in each less developed country.This division aid then be related to the numbers ofstudents from the less developed country studying ineach of the donor countries, or to the proportions ofLDC's foreign trade going to each of the donorcountries. Other analyses of ELT and trade couldestablish whether there were more trade opportunitiesfor English-speaking than for non-English-speakingcountries in Africa.

These diverse examples suggest that a first stage offurther work should be to develop a conceptualframework of the possible effects of the differentkinds of development and the links between them, andmacro-indicators of the type described above that woulddetect these effects, together with other possibleexplanations (such as the "free rider" effect ofgaining from another country's investment in ELT aid),some of which might be eliminated or held constant inthe analyses. This framework could be linked to theeducational framework referred to above, the notion ofeducational development being the linking concept,which should therefore be clarified and expanded.This is a substantial programme of work. It mightserve to improve the focus and quality of ELT aid, andmaximize its beneficial effects, but it isover-optimistic to hope that it will be capable ofproviding an unambiguous estimate of the impact of ELTon educational, social and economic development.

1r

Communication skills projects

Maggie Jo St John, Freelance ESP Communication SkillsConsultant/David Clarke, British Council

Introduction

In this section David Clarke and Maggie Jo St Johnapproached the issue of communication skills projectsfrom two different perspectives. David has been a DeskOfficer in ELD for the past three years and hastherefore been much involved in the frameworking ofproject documents. Maggie Jo is a freelanceESP/Communication Skills Consultant who is involvedwith helping local personnel to implement project aims.The first part addresses the issue of the widerobjectives of projects and the socio-economic aspectsof these. In the second part issues are raised whichseem to have major influences on the implementation andimpact of such projects.

Wider objectives

Communication skills are an aspect of human resourcedevelopment that have not received sufficient attentionin the literature of development. Such skills areimportant in the native language use, but in a foreignor second language which is used as the means oftransmission of knowledge and practical skills failureto develop them may act as a serious impediment to thesuccessful uptake of training. There is a wealth ofanecdotal evidence to suggest that failure to developadequate communication skills in English which isarguably the foremost language of development andinternational ca-operation can have a deleteriouseffect on the efficiency and effectiveness of projectsin almost all sectors. Research is needed to ascertainthe degree of the problem but it seems clear fromavailable knowledge that communication skillsdevelopment in English is a valuable means of assistingsocial and economic development.

Communication skills or ESP projects funded by thedonor agencies appear to be on the increase. The areasfor involvement are numerous: agriculture, forestry,medicine, tourism, science and technology, business andcommerce, international relations and diplomacy, andshipping are some that are encountered with frequency.

In projects addressing communication skills there istypically a recipient institution that receivestechnical assistance in order to build up its capacityto deliver courses to develop such skills in itsstudents. Aspects of this capacity strengthening willbe incorporated in the immediate objectives of theproject framework. Such objectives may include thetraining of staff, the development of teaching andlearning materials and the establishment of means oftesting students and evaluating the success of theteaching programme. What often appears to beinsufficiently well considered are the widerobjectives. And this unfortunately means the relativeneglect of the developmental justification and impactof the project.

15

It is likely that the wider objectives of communicationskills projects in essence are broadly similar innature. They will typically seek to improve manpowerskills, possibly in a number of key sectors in theeconomy. This is not particularly problematic tostate. What is more difficult is the evaluativeaspects of the objective. How can the improvement ofmanpower skills be charted and assessed? Whatstatistics are available and how reliable are they?What is the economic value of English languagecommunication skills? This argues for a much closerrelationship between the educational institution andthe business community as well as the state sector sothat needs can be properly met. This will requiregreater research and data gathering capacity than suchinstitutions currently possess. Typically they are, touse a military metaphor, "fire and forget" in theiroperation. Once students have graduated they are nolonger the particular concern of the institution. Thismay now be an unaffordable luxury in both developed anddeveloping countries. What is required, I believe isthe closer conceptualization and greater linkingbetween immediate and wider objectives together withenhanced funding for research and external evaluationof the impact of communication skills developed. Thisshould result in better -designed projects and improveddelivery of communication skills in English on asustainable basis.

Hey issues in the implementation of communicationskills projects

There are certain features typically associated withcommunication skills work and projects that should beborne in mind throughout

they are likely to be based in institutions of highereducation where students are older and staff have atleast a masters degree

staff are likely to have experience of research andare expected to produce research publications

communication may be vital to all our activities butwill often be seen as either unnecessary as a formalsubject or of less importance and relevance thanother subjects

In this discussion three related issues will be touchedon, not because there are only three, but because oftime. These three issues are

format of external personnel involvementsources of teaching materialthe role of evaluation

Influential variables

The above represent one issue from each of the threecategories of variables considered to be operatingwithin an organisation. The variables to which I referare those illustrated in Figure 1.

People

Systems Work

Figure 1

It is important to recognize the dynamic interactionwhich exists between these categories. Action takenunder any one will affect not only that category butalso both the others and, in fact, the choice of actionis likely to have been influenced by consideration ofthe other two.

Also of importance is to recognize that these variablesare contextualized, i.e. they are operating within andinteracting with an environment. Like Kennedy (1988)my environment extends beyond the institutionalcontext.

For a Language Centre the immediate environment isindeed the institution but I would see layers ofenvironment. Thus for the institution there is thepotential of a regional and certainly a nationalenvironment (see Figure 2)

Figure 2

16

Within the environment the determinants which seemparticularly apposite for our attention are: culture,language and politics.

Culture

Figure 3

Politics

Language

These are key factors that will, or again should,affect the choices and decisions relating to thepeople, the work and the systems.

Politics is to do with who has power, status andauthority and how these are wielded, influenced andobtained.

Within language two aspects seem of particularinterest: one is the role of English in the widercommunity, as a natural language or an officiallanguage or the language of an educated elite etc.The second is the position of Ll and L2 teachers ofEnglish.

Culture is the set of values, norms and beliefswhich affect how groups and individuals perceive andact. A project (Lee & Field 1985) must fit theexisting culture (unless it is a project whose specificobjective is to change the culture). If it does notthen it will fail either at the outset or wither away.We cannot expect to graft together unrelated species.

So at the implementation stage, we have variablesconcerning people, work and systems operatingdynamically with each other and the wider environment,which includes language, politics and culture. (SeeFigure 4)

Culture Politics

People

Systems Work

Language

Figure 4

1 7

Factors affecting change

Communication skills projects as much as more concreteones introducing new technology, building powerstations, dams, etc. involve change and innovation.Factors relating to change are thus important. Ingeneral change is met by inertia and resistance;successful change processes are those which canminimize resistance effectively. Change has been quiteextensively studied within industrial and managementcontexts. We have been discussing during the seminarthe different perceptions that stakeholders in aproject may have. I too am at times a stakeholder andam therefore applying particular perspectives. One ofthe perspectives which has become fundamental for me isthat of seeing my work as integrally concerned with themanagement of change. Of the factors that research hasshown to be influential in reducing resistance tochange there are six which I have found valuable as anESP/Communication Skills Consultant. These are

1. degree of ownership2 perceived benefit3 participation/involvement4 understanding5 innovation champion6 support from the top

Having outlined some factors which I believe arecrucial to our consideration of project choices let meme exemplify the impact of some of them.

Format of external personnel development

One of the major resource provisions within a projectis human, i.e. personnel and their expertise andknowledge. There are a number of formats which can beadopted, e.g.

full-time personnel only full-time + consultants

part-time consultants/links only(+ consultants)

full-time means present for the duration of the form&project time

part-time means present for an extended length(s) oftime

consultants means those providing short, intensiveperiods of input

Links means a formal arrangement between two (or more)institutions involving exchanges on both sides (i.e. atwo-way process)

Typically we seem to be seeing a shift from full-timepersonnel only to other formats. It has beenrecognized that outsiders can play valuable roles; theycan operate outside some of the constraints, they canadd the weight of shared opinions and approaches,provide impetus and e. end the available expertise. Wemay well be expected to be superpersons fulfilling theroles of managers, teachers, course designers,

17

materials writers, testers, evaluators, facilitatorsand counsellors and so it can be a relief to havesupport and an outside view and even devolve part ofthe responsibility.

In considering the suitability of these formats ingiven situations the resistance to change factorslisted above are relevant.

By degree of ownership is meant the degree to whichthose on the ground feel the project belongs to themand that they are making decisions and influencingits direction. This can be easier to establish ifthere is no full-time external presence: a problemfaced by full-time personnel is "how to withdraw".Similarly participation and involvement may have toincrease if there is no outsider to whom matters canbe left. However, in the absence of full-timepersonnel it is also possible that understanding willbe lower or rather take longer to reach a particularlevel. The format of the human resource input is notlikely to affect the benefits to participation in anyparticular direction. However, the chances of theemergence of a real local innovation champion (theperson(s) who takes risks, pushes for change,encourages others etc.) can be higher if there is noperception of an existing champion. With a full-timepresence it is often perceived that that role isalready filled.

Sources of teaching material

Inevitably communication skills projects are concernedwith teaching materials and three scenarios, or somecombination of them, present themselves. The use ofexisting, published material; adaptation of suchmaterial; the development of in-house material. (Therewas hope a good many years ago of a scheme forcollecting the mass of material that is developedaround the world through projects but which is neveravailable in published format. Such a system mighthave enabled us to adapt project or published materialrather than continually "re-develop" but that valuablefourth scenario is missing.)

Within the crucial work variable we have a dichotomybetween the concepts of local ownership, involvementand participation and potential immediate demands.Thus, often materials are written largely by outsidersin order that something is available at the end of theproject.

This is in part a product of the life span of projectsas they have been perceived in the past. Myvisualization of projects, as they take place on theground, is often of a rectangular box, viz

with a defined start and finish and a period of extremeintensity in between. Projects occur in contexts andwithin sets of systems that are already in existence

and the visualization I would prefer to see is of aproject's beginning and ending as a blending process,e.g.

We should be concerned with establishing processes thatboth yield a product and are on-going, i.e. withestablishing dynamic versus static situations. I thinkwe need a language and a visualization in which what Iwill now refer to as the formal project stage is onlyone phase. That phase would in itself also often bemore extensive and less intensive, i.e. instead ofthree-year intensive projects I believe that theprocesses of change are such that we should be lookingat five, seven, ten and more years of involvement butoften on a less intensive basis.

This would reduce the pressure f o "produce a product"Factors affecting resistance to, and thus the successor otherwise of change tell us that we want courses andmaterials that have been designed by those on theground, not by outsiders. This is because of theownership, participation and involvement, and increasedunderstanding that results. In addition the perceivedbenefit is much greater if the materials belong to, orare the work of those on the ground rather thanoutsiders, particularly if publication results, as thisraises profile and status. We can only expect goodmaterials to be developed locally during a three yearproject when the base level of participants is high,and this is rarely the case.

The project format must allow for the acquisition andinternalization of new knowledge and processes and thenthe application of this. These are extensive versusintensive processes, a factor which seems to be ignoredor placed too low on the list of crucial determiningfactors.

Evaluation

Evaluation may have become an integral part of projectframeworks Lut there are a number of aspects that needfurther thougi:t.

1 The project document details performance indicatorsbut these documents are not distributed to all thoseon the ground who will actually do the work thatprovides the results and the data. If we areserious about evaluation, both as an ongoingdevelopmental influence and as a summativeassessment then the performance indicators should bemade known to all those who are involved in theprocess of change. Both so that attempts tosystematically collect appropriate data can be madeand because, if people know what is expected of themthey are more likely to reach that point.

2 Communicating, the performance indicators is only afirst step, what of the indicators themselves? Themajority comparison, e.g. "better", "more" etc. and

18

yet the initial collection of baseline data and itsdissemination are not integrally built in to theproject start up. The very words "better" and"more" are problematic as they are so general. Howmuch better, how much more is it reasonable toexpect? Whose perspective of better and more is tobe given weight and credence? Here theenvironmental factors can affect the answers.

3 When working with groups and individuals involved inchange I make considerable use of action plans inwhich we specify how much we hope to achieve, bywhen, in what way and with what support. Then wehave a real measure, later, of whether we haveexceeded expectations, met them or not realizedthem. In our discussions what is most important iswhy and how we achieve the results we do, as it isthis that will affect future success. Yet the whyof evaluation seems to be ignored and only the whatbuilt in to the frameworks and indicators that Ihave seen.

Another crucial consideration is the time period ofthese evaluations. If we were genuinely serious aboutevaluation versus "following the book" because it is agood thing we would consider more appropriate timespans.

Let us take the case of communication skills work.Most programmes are taught in the first year of highereducation courses. The first students experiencing theearly stages of change probably graduate three or fouryears on, i.e. four or five years after the projectbegan. Yet the project may only be three years induration. How then can evaluation of its real, appliedeffect be determined. If we reckon on at least threeyears being needed for the changes to become reallyinfluential on the programmes and thus allow for thestudents to complete their studies, we are talking ofat least seven or eight years before we can assess theimpact on graduating students and even longer beforethe impact on them as contributors to the economy canbe considered. In discussing the wider objectivesDavid Clarke has pointed out both the need forevaluating this aspect and some of the problemsinvolved.

Our current approach to project design, time spans andevaluation does not take account of this aspect. Themore extensive approach would allow for at least someevaluation of applied effects within the projectlifetime.

References

Lee R & M Field Stimulating Education Innovation:The Pragmatics of Institutional Change, THE 2.1.1985pp.12-14

Kennedy C 1988 "Evaluation of the management of changein ELT projects" Applied Linguistics Volume 9 No 4pp.329.342

1J

Socio-economic roles and their implications

John Burke/Rod Bo litho - College of St Mark & St John

Theme

The theme for the day was "ELT: socio-economic rolesand their implications - views from the grassroots".The primary purpose was to look to the socio-economic,and indeed cultural and environmental, aspects of ELTaid for development through the eyes of some of thosemost directly involved in receiving and providing ELT,including English teachers from other countries,advisers and UK trainers and institutions.

Objectives

The objectives for the day were two-fold

1 to develop an awareness and consensus amongst thosepresent as to the nature of what might be called the"cross -cutting" socio-cultural, economic andenvironmental framework within which ELT hasincreasingly to operate

2 to chart possible ways forward for ELT within thatframework

The programme

introductionsimulation : Universities Research Project based ina developing country in Africa (Appendix 1)illustrated talk highlighting main socio-economicissuesfocusing questionnaire to participants (Appendix 1)presentation of results from questionnaire on socio-economic issues administered to postgraduatestudents at the College of St Mark and St John(Appendix 1)debate centred round two key articlesconcluding remarks; some issues and outcomes

The simulation centred rolnd the need to preparethe way for the setting up of a language unit in aPolytechnic in Africa involved in training soilscientists within the framework of a massively fundedaid project. The simulation gave the participants theopportunity to step outside their own particularposition and point of view and to consider the broaderissues and consequences of ELT for development.

During the simulation, two of the groups were monitoredby neutral observers, one of whom (Hugh Trappes-Lomax)developed a chart to monitor the complex processes inthe group. The other observer afterwards transferredhis notes to the same matrix. Both charts arereproduced in Appendix 1 for the sake of interest, andin case the idea might be of further value.

The purpose of the illustrated talk was to identify andhighlight the main socio-economic issues which now formthe inevitable backdrop to any ODA-funded project.Video extracts, one of a primary classroom, the otherof a training college methodology class, both inZambia, were introduced in order to contextualize

19

aspects of a particular ELT project in action, and torelate them to the major socio-economic issues.

The issues, and their relationship to ELT work, aresummarized in Figure 1.

Both the student questionnaires and the recordedinterview data were introduced in order to show thevarying degrees of awareness of wider issues among ELTprofessionals from a range of developing countries.The obvious question to emerge concerns the content ofthe courses which we in the UK are providing for suchstudents and their relationship to these wider issues.

The two key articles by Rogers (1982) and Abbott (1984)present differing views of, and perspectives on, therole of ELT in developing countries. Seminarparticipants were asked to read them and to state (in asecret ballot) whose side they were on. Surprisingly,perhaps, twelve sided with Abbott and nine with Rogers.The subsequent debate highlighted both the confusionfelt by participants over many of the issues and theemotive nature of some of them. Numerous points fordevelopment and further consideration emerged. Thesewere summarized in the conclusion, and included thefollowing

the need to recognize that ELT had to provide clearand identifiable socio-economic, cultural andenvironmental benefits. Simply to assert itsrelevance was no longer acceptable. "Cross-cutting"issues such as the environment, women, poverty,employment, population, democratic processes and soon applied as much to ELT as to any other aspect ofaid for development

within that, the need to see ELT as part ofeducation and as a service subject

the importance of fine-tuning ELT provision toparticular contexts to enable cross-cutting socio-economic issues to be accommodated (recognizing thatthere are wide-reaching implications of this for ELTcourse design, for training patterns, projectdesign, and so on)

the need to demonstrate links between ELT and thevarious socio-economic and cultural issues and toestablish measuring instruments and evaluationmeasures of those links, (recognizing that this willrequire ELT specialists to work closely withspecialists from other fields)

the recognition of the urgent need for ELT to lookbeyond its now traditional areas of interest tofocuses and activities which may more readily helpit meet socio-economic demands. These focuses andactivities may well include some of the following

literacy (in English and in the L1)language across the curriculumtranslation and interpretationbroader educational contexts for ELTnarrow-focus ESPapproaches to managing changeapproaches to (and extensive application of)classroom and other relevant research

Developmental Area

(Primary focus)

Input Type

(Component)

Sub-Area

(Secondary focus)

\\ Education

r-

Forestry

Wildlife

_ -

-\\

+

\\

Youth

-Industry

ndustry

-Agriculture

-and

Community

science

+management

+practical

skills

(language training

c)

teacher training

trainer training

interpreting

ESP

materials writing etc.)

'Cross cutting'

Issues

2

the environment

women/health

the poor/rural dwellers /the unemployed

population/democratic processes

(politics?) etc

etc.

Bibliography

Abbott, G (1984) "Should we start digging new holes?"in Rossner & Bo litho (1990)

Action Aid (1990) Action Aid Development Report

Action Aid (1991) Women, Literacy and Development

Cassen R et al (1986) Does Aid Work?, OUP

Hawes, H at al (1986) Education Priorities and AidResponses in Sub-Saharan Africa, ODA/University ofLondon

ODA (1989) Into the Nineties: An Education Policy forBritish Aid

Rogers J (1982) "The world for sick proper' in Rossner& Bo litho (1990)

Rossner, R & R Bo litho (1990) Currents of Change inEnglish Language Teaching, OUP

World Bank (1987) Education in Sub-Saharan Africa,World Bank

21.4c;

Perceptions of impact

Hywel Coleman, University of Leeds

Introduction

The Leeds Group used its day to explore a range oftopics which fall under the rubric 'Perceptions ofimpact", as one aspect of the broader theme of "Thesocial and economic impact of ELT in development". Thetopics dealt with included

interpretations of impact

parameters of impact

stakeholders and impact

managing for effective impact

The objective of the discussion was the generation of aframework for reconciling perceptions of impact. This,it is argued, can be achieved through exploration ofthe ways in which all the constituencies involved in anELT project may perceive impact differently.

1 Metaphors

Images - and the metaphors that help identify them -are a powerful - perhaps the most powerful - forcefor change, and should be of critical interest tothose whose business is educational change. For astart, any innovation that fails to take account ofthe images of those affected by it is likely to fail,or, at best, sit uncomfortably on the shoulders ofits stakeholders.

Thornbury (1991:197)

Taking our cue from Thornbury's thought-provoking anduseful article, we can see that the title of the week'sseminar, "The social and economic impact of ELT indevelopment", itself contains at least two metaphorsimpact and development.

'Dictionary definitions of impact include thefollowing

1. collision; 2. strong impression or effect;3. force exerted by one object when strikingagainst another

whilst definitions of development include

1. gradual unfolding, fuller working out; 2. growth,evolution; 3. stage of advancement

how can these metaphors be interpreted in the contextof "The social and economic impact of ELT indevelopment"?

The three definitions of development, for example,all have their own implications. A "gradualunfolding", on the analogy of a blossoming flower,implies a certain self-sufficient inevitability aboutthe shape of the final outcome. A rose will alwayslook like a rose once it has finished unfolding, and

22

outside influences (perhaps in the form of pruning andfertilising) will influence only the luxuriance of thebloom. The rose will never become a potato."Evolution", on the other hand, suggests an element ofunpredictability; no observer who happened to be aroundat the time could have predicted that ostriches,university lecturers and tortoises would all ultimatelydevelop from the primitive protozoa which firstinhabited the primordial oceans, simply because thatobserver could not have predicted the infinitelycomplicated sequence of environmental conditions towhich the organisms have had to respond in theirevolutionary development. "Stage of advancement",finally, implies the comparison of one entity againstan external and pre-determined sequence alreadyachieved by another entity; it therefore carries withit an element of judgemental evaluation.

Which one of these interpretations of developmentdo we secretly harbour within us when we approach ourwork in ELT? Can we even be sure that everyone withwhom we come into contact in our professional livesshares the same interpretation?

The definitions of impact also have their ownsubtly different but important implications. "Strongimpression or effect" suggests a relatively benignrelationship, in which the impressed body first seeksout opportunities to be impressed and then allows ortolerates the impression - just as a sophisticatedaudience deliberately goes to a theatre and then,perhaps, acknowledges that a drama has had a certainimpact upon it. "Force exerted by one object whenstriking against another", on the other hand, brings tomind a picture of one moving object coming into contact- with some violence - with a fixed object. In thiscase, the moving object is likely to be moving towardsthe stationary object with some volition (either itsown or that of an external agent), but the fixed objectis very unlikely to have any volition at all - just asa mallet being swung by a worker has an impact upon awooden post. Unlike the theatre audience, the woodenpost has no choice as to whether it is going toexperience impact or not. A "collision", finally,suggests a violent crash between two equal bodies whichhave different destinations and which, therefore, aretravelling in different directions. This sort ofcontact is unplanned and is not desired by either ofthe bodies involved.

Which of these interpretations of impact do we havein mind when we talk of the impact of ELT indevelopment? Have we taken it upon ourselves to beat alargely inert and docile body, in the hope that we canknock it into shape and so help it to catch up withother similar but much more advanced bodies? Or are wetalking about chucking some manure on to roses whichhave not flowered yet? Or are we merely aiming toentertain and mildly stimulate an extremely complex anddynamic entity which is exposed to a wide range ofother environmental influences?

Perhaps this question of metaphors has been laboured.Nevertheless, what this exercise demonstrates is thedifficulty which is involved, when talking about the"impact" of ELT in "development", in trying to uselanguage which is absolutely neutral and

non-ideological. This, in turn, warns us of the needto clarify interpretations and check that they aremutually understood.

2 Parameters of impact, the liDs

It is possible to identify at least five sets ofparameters for the discussion of impact. These aredomain, direction, delay, duration and dimension.

Domain of impact

The domain in which impact is experienced indicates thelevel at which it is felt. There are three principaldomains: individual, institutional and national.

Direction of impact

The direction in which impact is experienced indicateswhether it is felt by the "donee" (the recipient) or bythe donor. In fact, as we know from basic physics, ifthere is any contact at all then both bodies are boundto experience some impact. Both donee and donor may beaffected in all three domains (individual,institutional and national).

Deay of impact

Del ay of impact indicates the time when the impact isfirst felt. It may, therefore, be immediate ordelayed.

Duration of impact

The duration of impact indicates the time over whichthe impact is experienced, it may be short-term orlong-term. Whether felt immediately or not, theelement of duration needs to be taken intoconsideration.

Dimension of impact

The dimension of impact refers to its essentialquality. In other words, impact may be positive (thatis to say, desirable), neutral zero), or negative,(i.e. undesirable). All dimensions of impact may beexperienced for different durations, (i.e. short-termor long-term) and at diti,rent points in the history ofa project, (i.e. immediately or after some delay). Forexample, when a project is first set up then, for ashort period, it may have no noticeable impact, (i.e.impact is immediate, short-term and neutral), but theremay then be a positive and long-lasting influence atsome point in the future (in which case it is delayed,long-term and positive).

These five sets of parameters allow us to construct amatrix for the analysis of impact (see F gum 1). Fourcase studies which illustrate some of the parametersare given in Appendix 2.

The value of the matrix lies in its ability to uncoverboth the complexity of impact, and the dynamicnature of impact. (On the complex and dynamic natureof change within institutions, see Coleman 1988.)

Complexity of impact

A project may have a profound influence upon certainindividuals (such as Mohammed in Case study one). Wecan probably assume that if a project does have impactat the national level then, inevitably, it must also behaving impact upon institutions and individuals.However, it is not so clear whether there isautomatically a similar relationship in the otherdirection. Can we be sure, for example, that simplybecause one teacher is influenced by an externalproject then his or her institution necessarilyundergoes some change? Furthermore, even if oneinstitution is affected, can we then be sure that theinfluence of that change will be felt more widely?

This aspect is similar to the 'levels of effect"identified by Chambers and Erith (1990). Thedifference lies in the fact that the matrix ofparameters allows for the possibility of impact beingfelt both by recipient and by donor (illustrated byCase study four).

Dynamic nature of impact

The dynamic nature of projects (and the consequentdifficulty of carrying out non-dynamic projectevaluations) has been discussed by Coleman (1992). Thematrix which is proposed here allows a project'schanging nature to be charted.

An example follows. At the national level, theimmediate impact of a project, for both donee anddonor, may not be felt at all; that is to say, it isneutral. At the individual level, however, theimmediate impact may be negative, in terms ofdisruption both for the donor-country personnel movinginto the project and for the recipient-countrycounterparts. As the project develops, its impact maybecome positive at the individual level (professionallystimulating for the project personnel, for instance),and then at the institutional level. The project'sinfluence may never reach the national domain, however,even after considerable delay.

This is just one possible scenario. The total numberof possible combinations of parameters which could beaccommodated by the matrix is clearly very large.Impact, then, is both complex and dynamic.

3 Stakeholders

The importance of identifying stakeholders has beenemphasised by Morrison (1991a) and by Henderson (1991).However, for the purpose of measuring impact, we wishto extend the concept of stakeholder beyond Mackay'sdefinition (used by Morrison 1991b:71) which restrictsit to "those people in a project whose commitment iscrucial to its success". Rather, we wish to considerthe following as stakeholders

all those people upon whom a project may have animpact at the individual level

23 2

Figure 1

Delay/DuratiDime

'name

Short-

Dela

Short

en/,sion

Domain/DirectionNational IndividualDonee Donor Institutional Donee Donor

Donee Donor

Hate

arm

positive

neutral

negative

erm

positive

neutral

negative

ed

term

positive

neutral

negative

term

positive

neutral

negative

Matrix showing five parameters for the analysis of impact

24

all those people who represent institutions uponwhich a project may have an impact at theinstitutional level

all those people who represent nations upon which aproject may have an impact at the national level

The list of possible stakeholders, therefore, becomesextremely long. It includes not only ELTOs and theircounterparts, but also host country ministry officials,ODA education advisers, host country professionals whoparticipate in project activities, British VSOvolunteers, and even project drivers (of Case studyone).

In order to achieve a thorough evaluation of the impactof a project, therefore, we would need to

identify the different perceptions of impact held bya wide range of stakeholders

identify the differences between these perceptions

identify the likely causes of such differences

If we can identify the probable sources ofstakeholders' differing perceptions of impact, itshould be possible to begin thinking about thecharacteristics of a potentially successful project.

4 Managing for effective impact

So far, we have argued that stakeholders' perceptionsconstitute an extremely important - indeed crucial -element of the impact which a development project has.It has also been suggested that the range ofstakeholders may be more extensive than is oftenthought. Consequently there may be a very complicatednetwork of potential clashes of perception associatedwith a particular project.

It would seem, therefore, that even if all or most ofthe stakeholders could have access to an agreed projectdocument, then it would not be surprising if thevarying perspectives of the stakeholders were to leadto the same document being interpreted differentially.

It is likely that the following factors may contributeto the appearance of differing interpretations of aproject or even of an explicit project document

lack of negotiation of the contents of the documentat appropriate levels

lack of equilibrium in the "ownership" of themoject and its document

incomplete specification of the desired impact (inboth directions and in all domains, in theshort-term and long-term, with both immediate anddelayed effect, on all stakeholders)

rigidity in the project framework

ambiguous phrasing in the project document

We can now turn these around and convert the causes ofproblems into criteria for successful impact. Aprovisional list follows, although there isconsiderable overlap between the successive items inthis list

engage in negotiation at all appropriate levelswhile the project is being set up, so taking accountof the complex nature of project impact

continue to engage in negotiation at all appropriatelevels while the project is running, so takingaccount of the dynamic nature of project impact

incorporate into the project framework scope for thecontinuing renegotiation of the project (SeeColeman 1992 for an argument for flexibility andcontinuing reinterpretation in project design)

identify networks for communication betweendifferent stakeholders

ensure widely shared ownership of projects

specify desired or predicted impact, for allpotential stakeholders, in both directions (i.e. forrecipients and donors) in all domains, bothimmediately and with delayed effect, for shortperiods of time and for longer periods

edit project documents for potential ambiguity fromthe perspective of a range of stakeholders

In connection with the last of these points (theediting of project documents) the following questionsmay be found useful

to what extent does the document probably alreadyreflect or accommodate the requirements of a rangeof stakeholders?

to what extent does the document set up mechanismsfor the continuing renegotiation of perspectives andobjectives?

what further questions would you wish to ask inorder to disambiguate this document? Who would beable to provide answers to your questions?

who would need to talk to whom in order to make thisinto a workable document?

5 Conclusion and postscript

In conclusion, we have been arguing for a heightenedawareness of the existence of varying perceptions ofimpact. We believe that the sharing of perceptions infact contributes to the achievement of maximum impactin projects.

Nevertheless, there are still some awkward issues whichrequire attention. We end with two of these

tyre25'

Issue I

There is a possibility that a particular impact, evenwhen originally perceived by all stakeholders to bedesirable, may ultimately turn out not to be relevant.(See Coleman forthcoming for a discussion of thisissue.)

Issue 2

There is a possibility that changes in classroompractice may have a fundamental and unpredictableimpact on roles in society outside the classroom.Alternatively, there is a possibility that a particularimpact, even when originally perceived by allstakeholders to be desirable, may not be achievablewithout far-reaching social changes. (See Shamimforthcoming for a case study.)

Note

The members of the Leeds team were Hywel Coleman,Fauzia Shamim (University of Karachi, currentlyundertaking large classes research at Leeds), andAnne Wiseman. Jenny Jarvis, Jaynee Moon and DavidTaylor were also involved in the planning of theLeeds contribution. This report was prepared byHywel Coleman.

We are particularly grateful to David Crabbe,Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand, whowas a Visiting Fellow in the Overseas Education Unitat Leeds at the time when the "Leeds Day" was beingplanned. He participated in all our planningmeetings and contributed many very useful insights.

References

Chambers, Fred and Erith, Philip. 1990. "Onjustifying and evaluating aid-based ELT'. ELT Journal,44(2): 138-143

Coleman, Hywel. 1988. "Analyzing language needs inlarge organizations". English for Specific Purposes 7,155-169

Coleman, Hywel. 1992. "Moving the goalposts: projectevaluation in practice". J. Charles Alderson and AlanBeretta (eds), Project Evaluation. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press

Coleman, Hywel. Forthcoming. "Interpreting classroombehaviour in its cultural context". In H. Coleman(ed.), Society and the Classroom: SocialExplanations for Behaviour in the Language Class

Henderson, Thelma. 1991. "Categories of personnelinvolved in a project: an examination of issuesconnected with their relationship". British Council,Training for Sustainability of ELT Aid Projects, 19-20.(Dunford Seminar Report 1990.) London: The BritishCouncil

26

Morrison, Jim. 1991a. "What are the factors thatcontribute to sustainability?' British Council,Training for Sustainability of ELT Aid Projects, 17-19.(Dunford Seminar Report 1990.) London: The BritishCouncil

Morrison, Jim. 1991b. "Sustaining education projectsoverseas through training in Britain". BritishCouncil, Training for Sustainability of ELT AidProjects, 70-77. (Danford Seminar Report 1990.)London: The British Council

Shamim, Fauzia. Forthcoming. "Towards anunderstanding of learner resistance to innovation inclassroom methodology: A case study". H. Coleman(ed.), Society and the Classroom: SocialExplanations for Behaviour in the Language Class

Thornbury, Scott. 1991. "Metaphors we work by: EFLand its metaphors". ELT Journal 45 (3),193 -200

Linguistic imperialism

Robert Phillipson

My recent work (Phillipson 1992) attempts to placeissues of language and power, language and dominance,the ethics of aid, ELT professionalism, and the overttechnical agenda and the covert political agenda ofglobal ELT within an explicit theoretical framework.This links up the macro level of English as a worldlanguage to the micro level of the pedagogic andlinguistic principles which underlie ELTprofessionalism. Such a theory can hopefully help toreduce the subjectivity of much evaluative analysis,and might help to clarify the "cross-cutting" of ELTwith other dimensions of "development". It presupposesa coherent trans-disciplinary approach drawing on manytraditions in the social sciences and the humanities.

A key concept is linguicism, which is defined asideologies, structures and practices which are used tolegitimate, effectuate and reproduce an unequaldivision of power and resources (material andimmaterial) between groups which are defined on thebasis of language. Linguicism is affirmed in similarways to racism. In linguicist discourse the dominantlanguage is glorified, dominated languages arestigmatized, and the relationship between dominant anddominated is rationalized, always to the advantage ofthe dominant.

This was the pattern in colonial education, which hadthe following characteristics

the low status of local languages

local educational traditions being ignored

stress on the civilizing properties of the masterlanguage

western-oriented, bookish education

from secondary level upwards, a copying of Europeaneducation, which was monolingual

education playing a key role in introducing "science"and "civilization"

The rationalization of the linguistic hierarchy wasimplicit in the colonial power structure, and explicitin many policy papers on colonial education.

This pattern of linguicism was also imposeddomestically, vis-a-vis dominated indigenous languages(Welsh, Breton, Navajo, etc.) and is currently beingasserted vis-a-vis immigrant languages.

The linguicist characteristics also apply verygenerally in postcolonial societies, i.e. most "ThirdWorld" countries have perpetuated colonialist languagepolicies. World Bank ,studies of education neglect thelanguage issue. IMF structural adjustment policiesinvolve a continued emphasis on the learning of theformer colonial language.

27

What rights should all languages ideally enjoy? Agreat deal of effort is being put into determining andcodifying linguistic human rights, at Unesco, theCouncil of Europe, the European Parliament, and inapplied linguistic circles (FIPLV, AMA) (seeSkutnabb-Kangas and Phillipson forthcoming). Existinginternational covenants and most national constitutionsdo not guarantee the rights of minority languagespeakers to learn the mother tongue fully, as well asthe dominant language, to identify with the mothertongue(s), and use this in dealings with officialdom.There is an increasing awareness that such matters areinalienable human rights, and that according suchrights to minority language speakers does not representa threat to dominate languages. A proposed linguisticcharter for Africa (Dalby 1985) proclaims the equallinguistic rights of every individual, literacy in allAfrican languages, granting these the status ofnational languages, and giving one African language thestatus of official language in each country, to replaceor be used alongside the existing "foreign" officiallanguage.

The reason that the speakers of few languages in formercolonies enjoy such rights is that the educational andlinguistic policies of such countries are locked in astructure which has replaced the colonial one, andwhich can be called imperialist.

Imperialism can be conceptualized as a structuralrelationship whereby one society of collectivity candominate another. The key mechanisms are exploitation,penetration, fragmentation and marginalization. Thereare six interlocking types of imperialism: economic,political, military, social, communicative, andcultural. The principal sub-types of culturalimperialism are media, educational, scientific, andlinguistic imperialism. English linguistic imperialismcan be defined as the establishment and continuousreconstitution of structural and cultural inequalitiesbetween English and other languages. Characteristicsof ELT in this structure are the following

Anglocentricityprofessionalismpolitical disconnectionnarrowly technical training

An example of ELT operating in a linguicist way at themacro level is the way arguments are marshalled in alanguage planning policy paper for Namibia. Thevariables selected gave far greater prominence toEuropean languages than any Namibian languages, andplaced excessive emphasis on the use of language forinternational purposes rather than for intranationalpurposes.

An example of ELT operating in a linguicist way at theMicro level is the tenets which served as pillars ofthe rising ELT profession and which were given a sealof approval at a key conference at Makerere in 1961.There were five tenets

English is best taught monolingually

the ideal teacher of English is a native speaker

the earlier English is introduced, the better theresults

the more English is taught, the better the results

if other languages are used much, standards ofEnglish will drop

All five are scientifically false, and can be betterlabelled as

the monolingual fallacythe native speaker fallacythe early start fallacythe maximum exposure fallacythe subtractive fallacy

Adhering to these tenets has had major consequences,structural and ideological, for the entire ELToperation in aid contexts.

There is a clear need for more empirical studies totest the theoretical apparatus in a variety of contextsand refine it.

Linguistic hierarchies have been successfullychallenged in minority education in several parts ofthe world (see examples, and theoretical analysis, inSkutnabb-Kangas and Cummins 1988). There is achallenge for ELT to reconnect politically and work outanti-linguicist strategies which can empower speakersof dominated languages.

References

Dalby, David 1985 "The life and vitality of Africanlanguages: a charter for the future", in LinguisticLiberation and Unity of Africa, Kahombo Mateene,John Kalema and Bernard Chomba (eds), Kampala:Organization for African Unity Inter-African Bureau ofLanguages, pp.29-34

Phillipson, Robert 1992 Linguistic Imperialism,Oxford: Oxford University Press

Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove and Jim Cummins (eds) 1988Minority Education: from Shame to Struggle,Clevedon: Multilingual Matters

Skutnabb-Kangas, Tove and Robert Phillipson (eds)forthcoming linguistic Human Rights, probablyCambridge University Press

28

)

ELT and development: projects and power

Roger Bowers, British Council

Introduction

Unlike others here this week I am not at presentpersonally involved in a curriculum innovation projector programme which will allow me to report currentac'dvity and research, though I shall be referring toseveral projects which have been reported elsewhere(Bowers 1987: Celani et al 1988). My primary concernnevertheless is with curriculum innovation in whichthere is interaction between a "host" group orinstitution and an external agency or advisers, and inparticular with the hundred or so projects in Englishlanguage teaching currently managed by the BritishCouncil on behalf of Britain's Overseas DevelopmentAdministration: but I am conscious (and this is a pointof substance to which we might return in discussion)that some of my comments on insider/outsider roles andpower relations can apply to any innovation contextincluding curriculum development initiated, funded andconducted wholly within a national educationsystem.

My recurrent reference point today will be RobertPhillipson's (1990) study of English LanguageTeaching and Imperialism, for though I profoundlydisagree with much of Phillipson's thesis there is nodoubt that the issues which he discussed are relevantand deserve debate. "Language pedagogy", he says(1990:29), "must attempt to place its activities in amacro-societal theoretical perspective and analyze thehistorical, political and intellectual roots of theprofession". I agree.

Much of this week's discussions will, I presume, haveconcerned the agenda for change itself: in whatdirections curriculum innovation proceeds, with whatintentions and results, and by what processes. Ourconcern this morning is with two prior questions

Who is empowered to set the agenda for change?

On what grounds do they exercise this authority?

Linguicism

Phillipson's central concern is defined as follows(1990:41):

English linguistic imperialism is one example ofLinguicism, which is defined as "ideologies,structures and practices which are used tolegitimate, effectuate and reproduce an unequaldivision of power and resources (both material andimmaterial) between groups which are defined on thebasis of language".

It will come as no surprise that I reject the argumentthat the work of agencies such as the British Counciland its bilateral and multilateral analogues in theareas of educational development and promotion of theEnglish language is appropriately thus described.There is an issue here nevertheless which is central tothe diffusion of innovation, and it is one to which I

hope you will be able to contribute and compareexperience and opinions during the discussion session.

A central problem which I encounter in pursuing theargument may bb illustrated by a further and finalquotation from Phillipson (1990:7):

In language pedagogy the connections betweenEnglish language and political, economic andmilitary power are seldom pursued. Languagepedagogy, the theory and practice of languageteaching and language learning, tends to focus onwhat goes on in the classroom, and relatedorganizational and methodological matters. Inprofessional English teaching circles, Englishtends to be regarded as an incontrovertible boon,as does language policy and pedagogy emanating fromthe core-English countries. It is felt that whileEnglish was imposed by force in colonial times,contemporary language policies are determined bythe state of the market ("demand") and the force ofargument (rational planning in the light of theavailable "facts"). The discourse accompanying andlegitimating the expert of English to the rest ofthe world has been so persuasive that English hasbeen equated with progress and prosperity. In theview of the Ford Foundation's language projectsofficer, "English as a Second Language (ESL) wasbelieved to be a vital key to development by boththe United States and by countries like Indonesia,the Philippines, Thailand, India, Turkey,Afghanistan, Pakistan, Egypt, Nigeria, Colombia,and Peru" (Fox 1975: 36). The arguments in favourof English are intuitively commonsensical, but onlyin the Gramscian sense of beliefs which reflect thedominant ideology (Gramsei 1971).

My concern is not with earlier parts of this passage,though there are a number of elements which I woulddisagree with. My problem is with the last sentence.Not only does it remove any obligation on the part ofthose on the other side of the argument to listen to myviews, since I am in the chosen terminology arepresentative of the "Centre". It provides a pretextupon which any proponent from the "Periphery" ofsimilar views could also be rejected, on the groundsthat their perceptions have been distorted bysubjection to precisely the process of intellectualhegemony which is at issue. I cannot accept thatrestriction of debate.

But let me turn away for the time being from Phillipsonwith the observation that his concern with thepolitical and cultural aspects of the promotion ofEnglish language and international involvement ineducational development is a well placed concern. Icannot claim that bilateral and multilateral aid isdirected solely towards the developmental interests ofthe "recipient" with no attention to the interests ofthe "donor" (terms whose semantics we do not have thetime to discuss here). In my work and that of parts ofmy Division - though not, I may say, the units whichsupport our aid programmes - there is regular referenceto the "export market", and there is no douhi thatterms such as promotion, market, investment, long termreturn are a part of the rhetoric of cultural relationsand indeed of education and development. If there is a

a" 1

single lexical item which sums up the tension betweeninterests it is perhaps the word demand; for demandcan be both stimulated and satisfied, and it is theextent to which we believe we are doing the first or -

the second of these when we engage in internationalprogrammes for curriculum innovation that places us onone side or the other of the linguiciern debate. (Thesame, I may say, goes for much of our morecommercially oriented activity too: publishers, forexample, would resist the accusation that they were init solely for the money without regard for educational,cultural and international values.)

So who sets the agenda?

Inevitably our personal experience of engagement ineducational innovation is likely to colour our views onthis issue. My own long term experience (I have beeninvolved more tangentially in a number of countries)has been in Ghana, India and Egypt. It is on this lastcontext that I primarily draw.

Georgie Hyde's (1978) study Education in ModernEgypt reports President Anwar El-Sadat's summary ofthe major concerns of educational policy in postrevolutionary Egypt under five headings: nationalintegration, secularization, education of the masses,revival of Arabic, and modernization (this last termbeing widely defined). She reports also therecognition within Egypt of the role which the importof educational ideas, of science and technology, and oflanguage (primarily English) would play in the pursuitof these aims. It is interesting to note, if we areprepared to accept Hyde's observations, that at leastat the policy level no conflict was felt between therevival of Arabic and the promotion of English andother "international" languages. The import of ideasand a medium from outside was wen as a part of therevolutionary process, not as repression of it. In theEgyptian context, my own observation suggests, ideasand processes drawn in from outside were not seen asthreatening: whereas foreign ownership of those ideas,and foreign influence over the decisions which ideasand processes should be accepted and indigenised,certainly would have been. (President Mubarak'sshopping list this week will be a long one, but he willin terms of his own ideology and personal authority begiving no political or cultural ground in presentingit.) In the Egypt of my experience there was never infact any danger that the fundamental decisionsregarding education policy and language policy would beoutside the control of national politicians andadministrat_ e: far from it The boundaries betweenlocal policy and external professional advice werefirmly drawn, and the advisory role itself tightlycircumscribed. To suggest otherwise would have been toinsult those to whom and with whom we worked.

Even so, in a major aid environment such as Egypt hasbeen over twenty or more years, there are tensions.Some of them, for our area of focus, are exemplified inELT Documents 125 (1987) which describes a range ofteacher education programmes at the Centre fordeveloping English Language Teaching, Ain ShamsUniversity, Cairo, an Egyptian/American/British project

30

with which I was closely connected over five years from1979. The questions concern both the content and theprocess of curriculum innovation, and I can bestresummarize them as follows.

Appropriate methodology

As I have pointed out at a previous Dunford, allinnovation involves a measure of mediation, of matchingideas to contexts and hypotheses to reality. In thecontext of curriculum innovation this requires thedevelopment and implementation of a two-foldmethodology which we may label M1/M2.

Ml methodology is a set of principles for themanagement of the classroom, informed by a desiredapproach to language teaching and learning. M2methodology is a set of principles for themanagement of change, informed by an approach tosocial development in general and curriculumdevelopment in particular. Both Ml and M2 need to beappropriate in terms of four features - two "internal"and two "external"

Internal

Approach

Is the methodologyconsistent with a set ofbeliefs about educationwhich are both inprinciple valid for thelocal context and inpractice held by thoseinvolved in and accountablefor a methodologicalinnovation?

Is the methodologyconsistent with a set ofdevelopmental aims whichare both in principlevalid for the localcontext and in practiceascribed to by thoseinvolved in andaccountable for thedevelopment?

Techniques

Is the methodologyrealizable through a setof techniques which arein principle feasiblefor those responsible forimplementation and inpractice performed bythem?

Is the projectmethodology attainablethrough a set oftechniques which areboth in principle feasiblefor those responsible forimplementation and inpractice performed bythem?

External

Resources

Can the methodology beimplemented within theresources locallyavailable, and does itmake the best use of them?

Can the developmentbe implemented withinthe resources locallyavailable, and does itmake best use of them?

Curriculum

Is the methodologycompatible with othercomponents of thecurriculum, and does itmaximize the effect of thecurriculum as a whole?

Is the developmentcompatible with othercomponents of thedevelopment curriculum(i.e. the aims andprocesses of the totaldevelopmental agenda),and does it maximize theeffect of the developmentprogramme as a whole?

Far a programme of innovation, in our case ofcurriculum innovation, it has to be appropriate interms of both Ml and M2. To be appropriate it has tobe valued within the set of aims and beliefs held bythose locally responsible for endorsing the innovation.Failure to achieve that endorsement, throughdisagreement or default., sets the programme as a wholeon a course to failure, and may well earn accusationsof attempted linguistic or pedagogic imperialism.

Let me turn to my second example. The Brazilian ESPProject reported in Celani et al (1988) incorporates adetailed and well documented description of how aproject was initiated in order to ensure from theoutset maximum participation in framing the objectivesand in agreeing and enacting the processes of thecurriculum project. In general, Celani reports(1988:7)

The main characteristic of the Project is perhapsits participatory quality. It derived from theneeds of practising teachers and these sameteachers have been closely linked with most of theoperations involved in implementing the project.This collaborative feature ensured activeparticipation from the start and influenced thedesign of the evaluation of work carried out inPhase IL The Project is a loose federation ofinterested parties, not a rigid structure imposedby a Ministry or an outside agency.

Another characteristic is the allowance made forpreserving local features. Teachers who work withstudents of tourism will thus teach oral skills,while the majority concentrate on reading only.Some teachers feel the need to put more emphasis onstructural aspects of language than others do.There is a consensus tempered with variety. Thedecision not to produce a Project textbookcontributed to this atmosphere.

Approaches to innovation

This notion of consensus tempered by varietycaptures well one of the approaches outlined by StrakerCook in assessing the Egyptian project mentioned above(Bowers 1988:18)

Reviewing the literature on educational innovation,Nicholls (1983) reduces a number of approaches tothree basic models

31

Model 1 research - development -diffusion

In this model, an active researcher-theoretician,as innovator, perceives a problem and presents hissolution to a passive receiver. However, he +Akesno part in the implementation process.

Model 2 social interaction

This has essentially the same ingredients as Model1, but focuses rather on the means of diffusion.The innovator determines both who the receivershall be and what his needs are. The receiver isseen as active, in that he may provide feedback tothe innovator, but the innovator has no role in theimplementation of the innovation nor in anysubsequent modifications.

Model 3 problem-solving

In this model, users' needs are paramount, andinnovation emerges spontaneously from discussionsand transactions between users. In effect, theusers are at the same time the (collective)innovator and the recipients. Innovation thusbecomes a non-directive process, and the outcome isunpredictable.

There are several comments to be made. The first twomodels are variants of the same basic approach:innovation is conceived as a product, an artefact to besold to the recipient. There is a high degree ofcontrol over design, but little or none overimplementation. The feedback allowed for in Model 2does not amount to evaluation, since there is nomechanism for systematic adjustment of the innovationto the system or of the system to the innovation.

Model 3 is superficially more attractive: it treatsinnovation rather more as a process, or at least as thesum total of changes wrought on the system ofspontaneous perturbation. However, it denies the roleof an instigator, either among the users or operatingon the group from outside: and one wonders thereforejust how the innovation is generated. Changes mayindeed occur spontaneously, but it is less likely thatgenuine innovations would. For who are the users, ifthey are not teachers and educators within the system.Hierarchical structures such as educationalinstitutions have an inherent stability and engenderingrained staff attitudes. These surely exert apowerful inhibiting influence on innovators operatingfrom within.

Straker Cook goes on to analyze the components of aninnovating environment and to set out his owncategorization of strategies for diffusion(co-operative; inertial; self-adaptive; multi-level;precedence): but this is not the place to go intothem. Let us return to the Celani example, where thegeneral characterization of the project as a "Model 2"approach is supported by detailed evaluation results.One of the questions asked, to a population of over 100teachers and over 200 students, concerned theirattitudes to the introduction by the project of an ESPapproach. Here are the findings (Celani 1988:33):

Table 5.1a

Learning ESP seems to you to be

preparation to suit the interestsof the consumer society

ESP Teachers(1) (2)

8% 6%

Students

12%

Ex-students

13%a means of spreading the imperialistdomination of other peoples 5% 0% 8% 7%

a way of knowing other peoples 20% 15% 16% 10%access to specific bibliography 75% 71% 49% 66%access to any bibliography 85% 91% 60% 46%useful for getting a job 20% 18% 10% 12%other 5% 6% 3% 2%

(N) (84) (34) (2008) (224)

It does not seem to me that these findings supportcharges of linguicism or (dare I mint the term?)pedagogicism. The approach which a programme ofinnovation adopts affects from the outset the ownershipof the project, the decision-making powers of theparticipants in it. The Celani example may not berepresentative of all such projects, or even of suchprojects as are supported by British agencies: but itis unreasonable to assume that such projects are not,by and large, sensitive to the issues which Phillipsonraises and guided by procedures for !dentification,design and implementation which ensure that the "donor"is employed in roles which are defined by the"recipient".

We may ask therefore about the extent to which the"recipient" is equipped to assume the role of authoritywhich a participative model requires. And it will besurprising if in answering this question we do not findourselves employing some of the models and terminologydiscussed by Straker Cook above: we immediatelyconfront issues of "top-down" and "bottom-up", ofpre-planned and organic growth, of the "external" and"internal" initiation and management of change.

The role of training

Change involves choice; and choice involves bothdisplacement (distancing from what is) and discernment(awareness of what might be). It seems to be that apart of the solution to the dilemma which Straker Cookdefines comes through the provision, either inpreparation for a proposed innovation or as theundirected cause of it, of what we may termdevelopmental training. This is conductedthrough programmes which incorporate the followingfeatures (Richards & Nunan 1990=ii) - for "teachers"read also "trainers", "inspectors", "materialswriters", "curriculum developers" etc.

a movement away from a "training" perspective to an"education" perspective and recognition thateffective teaching involves higher level cognitiveprocesses, which cannot be taught directly

the need for teachers and student teachers to adopt aresearch orientation to their own classrooms andtheir own teaching

less emphasis on prescriptions and top-downdirectives and more emphasis on an inquiry-based anddiscovery-oriented approach to learning (bottom-up)

a focus on devising experiences that require thestudent teacher to generate theories and hypothesesand to reflect critically on teaching

less dependence on linguistics and language theory asa source discipline for second language teachereducation, and more of an attempt to integrate sound,educationally based approaches

use of procedures that involve teachers in gatheringand analyzing data about teaching

I have no answer to the dilemma that might arise where,in order to train a recipient group out ofover - dependence on an authoritative external group, weattempt to train them in an independence of authoritywhich is itself net a part of their cultural set. Butperhaps such a context is never more than superficiallyapparent. In practice, I repeat, there are clearprocedures in the identification and design of projectsfor engaging local authority, making project aims andprocesses subject to local constraint, and ensuringthrough both training and structural means the localownership and sustainability of a project.

What kind of training?

Supposing that we accept the need to avoid providingtraining which creates rather than diminishesdependence by the "Periphery" on the "Centre" (anotherof Phillipson's concerns), what features might suchtraining display? I approach this question from twoangles.

The first approach is, like Phillipson, to draw uponKachru (1986) in recognising four basic areas in whichthe power of English might manifest itself -linguistic, literary, attitudinal and pedagogic - andto ask in what ways training might address these. Ileave this question folater discussion to address ifit interests you.

The second approach is to consider the management ofchange, not with respect specifically to education andELT but in relation to change in general, in any

32

organization. I draw here on Hunt (1986: 255-6) whoidentifies these components

data-collection what is the evidence of theproblem? What are the symptoms?

definition of the problem what precisely isthe problem?

diagnosis and identification of the cause(s)what is causing the problem?

the plan what shall we do?

the action implementation of the plan ofaction to correct the deviation (intervention)

consolidation stabilization

evaluation

Although Hunt goes on to argue that much change is notso rationally initiated and conducted, nevertheless apart of the process of ensuring that authority forchange - that is, the answer to my two initialquestions Who sets the agenda for change, and onwhat grounds? - rests with those likely to be mostaffected by it must be to ensure that a reasonablenumber of them are individually empowered by trainingand experience to ask these questions, within whateverideological or institutional framework they choose orare required to operate in. And if this proposition isin itself a perpetuation of linguistic or pedagogicimperialism, then the denial of the proposition and thewithholding of training is more damagingly so.

Interestingly, therefore, in continuing to disputePhillipson's premises, I find myself agreeing with someof his conclusions. For it may be that a part of theprocess of empowering those who should be so empoweredto take decisions regarding curriculum innovation inELT must take us outside the technical concerns of ELT,beyond language and education, into the areas ofdecision-making and the management of change ingeneral. The place of management training foreducational administrators and policy formulatorsdeserves attention, and it is significant thatmanagement training is ...oming to the fore in a numberof professional courses in .'"teat Britain - includingcourses designed primarily for the overseas student,teacher and researcher.

I have to end though on a cautionary note which leadsme to profess some sympathy with Phillipson'sunderlying concerns, though at a level which he doesnot, I believe, address - the level of the individual.Though training may be a large part of my answer toaccusations of unworthy and ongoing influence, thattraining too must be sensitively deployed andconducted, and seen from the viewpoint of therecipient. A forthcoming article by Martin Parrott,the text of which I will make available for thediscussion groups, has graphic descriptions of caseswhere according to his reports this has not been thecase and the process of training has damagedindividuals and thereby the educational programmes andcontexts in which they operated.

33

But even here, within the life of projects, I have tosay that at the end of the day the responsibility forensuring that projects and project components donot preserve and enhance inequality but ratherimprove access to opportunity is one which as with allaspects of project planning and performance is ashared responsibility. It is an odd argumentwhich, in seeking to increase the respect for ourrecipient colleagues and to enhance their rights andauthority, does not pay them the respect of assumingthat they will display the authority vested in themby their local standing, knowledge, sensitivity andcontinuity of being there. In the best projects thatis exactly what they do: and in doing so they, with us,must carry the can if a project fails to meet itsappopriate objectives or succeeds in achieving thewrong ones.

References

Bowers R G (ed): "Language teacher education: anintegrated programme of ELT teacher training": ELTDocuments 125: MEP/Macmillan, Basingstoke: 1987

Celani M A A et al (eds): The Brazilian ESP Project:An Evaluation: Centro de Pesquisas, Recursos eInformacao em Leitura: EDUC, Sao Paulo: 1988

Hunt J W: Managing People At Work A Manager's Guideto Behaviour in Organizations: 2nd ed: McGraw-Hill,Maidenhead: 1986

Hyde, Georgie D M: Education in Modern Egypt:Ideals and Realities: Routleoge & Kegan Paul,London: 1978

Kachru B: "The power and politics of English": WorldEnglishes 5/2- 3,121 -140: 1986

Nicholls k Managing Educational Innovations:Unwin Educational, London: 1983

Parrott M: Teacher Education "Factors relating toprogramme design": in Bowers R G and Brumfit C J (eds):Applied Linguistics and English LanguageTeaching: MEP/Macmillan in association with theBritish Council: Basingstoke: forthcoming

Phillipson R: English Language Teaching andImperialism: Tranecultura, Tronninge, Denmark:1990

Richards J C & Nunan D: Second Language TeacherEducation: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge andNY: 1990

Republic of Yemen

Case study - ELT Project in Sana'a University

Case study leaders: Veronica Daly and Claudia Cooper

Project background

British Council/ODA support for ELT in Sana'aUniversity dates back to 1982/3. The Project has twodistinct branches

ESP/EAP materials development, teaching and testingin Sana'a University Language Centre (SULC), in theFaculties of Medicine, Science, Engineering andAgriculture

Materials development and language improvement inthe Faculties of Education in Sana'a, Taiz, andHodeida

Task

Stag. 1

Participants were asked to consider the Projectobjectives, structure and ODA/BC/SULC input, set in thecontext of the SULC/Yemen background, and to identifythe strengths and weaknesses of the Project.

Stage 2

Participants were asked to consider the following

If this Project were to be continued after July 1992into a new phase, what might be

its immediate objectives?its wider objectives?the indicators of achievement?any revised input from the BC/ODA and SULC?

Recommendations

The group considered Yemen to be very different fromthe other countries represented at this year's DunfordSeminar. To appreciate the problems faced by theProject, and to evaluate its achievements, it wasnecessary for participants and case-study leaders tospend some time discussing and clarifying the moreunusual features of Yemen's development problems, thecultural and educational background, and thecombination of personalities/stakeholders' intereststhat have contributed to the history of the SULCProject. The particular changes and challenges facingYemen and the Project in 1990/91 as a result of theGulf Crisis also had to be considered in some detail.

Stage 1

Looking at the two branches of the Project,participants considered the ESP/EAP materials writingarea to be potentially the most successful, in terms ofidentifiable needs, as well as immediate and assessableimpact. It was felt that the ELTO presence and other

34

inputs into the Faculties of Education were too limitedto achieve the aims of the Project. Above all, theinclusion of two very distinct branches under oneProject heading was seen as a potential weakness.

The Case-study leaders then supplied furtherinformation on specific constraints that had becomeevident during the course of the Project, and outlinedthe achievements of the Project to date.

The group identified the lack of Yemeni teachers andpotential counterparts as being a major drawback, andthe complete lack of a career structure within SULC wasfelt to be the chief cause, along with a long historyof reliance on foreign nationals. It was agreed thatthis has implications for the design of future projectframeworks in Yemen, and in any language centre-basedELT project.

Stage 2

It was agreed that many lessons could be learned fromthe history of the Project to date. During thediscussions a clear case emerged for a new phase ofproject, targeted specifically at fulfilling theUniversity's need for Yemeni teachers of English attertiary level. This need is particularly acute at thepresent time, due to recent events that have resultedin a severe shortage of foreign currency (needed to payforeign national teachers), together with thecontinuing exponential rise in student numbers.

The objectives of a new project would therefore focuson the setting up of a postgraduate/Masters Degreeprogramme in English language studies, to be offered bySULC. The immediate impact would be to supplyqualified ESP/EAP Yemeni teachers to replace foreignnationals in the classroom, in accordance with theGovernment policy of Yemenization. The establishmentof a postgraduate degree programme in SULC would, initself, resolve the problem of the lack of a careerstructure: the best-qualified Yemeni teachers couldthen have the possibility of further career advancementand incentives, by lecturing on the MA programme andconducting research within SULC.

Conclusions

The Case-study leaders were encouraged to find that,after considering the history of the Project, theCountry background and the current needs of theUniversity, the participants had come up with aproposal for a future project phase which correspondsto that already proposed by the Head of Project, andnow under consideration by the University and the ODA.

0

Annex 1

Project constraints

Two unrelated projects in one. The major input hasbeen in EAP while the input for the Faculty ofEducation has come to be inadequate. There hasbeen no possibility ofELTO influence on theFaculty of Education syllabus.

Job descriptions

The original job descriptions for ELTOs in themiddle phase of the Project did not fit therequirements of the Project. The need for furthermaterials development had been underestimated.

Local perceptions

the developmental role of ELTOswas notappreciated. SULC expected ELTOs to

have heavy undergraduate teaching loads

carry out routine low level administrative duties

as in many countries, the University stipulatesthat certain key subjects (e.g. Methodology) shouldbe the preserve of PhD holders

Yemenization

no Yemeni counterparts: SULC has no careerstructureAncentives for Yemeni staff

a history of foreign nationals who imported theireducation system to Yemen - paid in hard currency(or partly). Yemenis dependent upon them for mostof their teaching

Personalities

inflexible attitudes and vested interests

Slowness of communication and decisionmaking

both within Yemen and in London

Budget

no funding has been received for ELTOs in Taiz andHodeidah to attend meetings which are essential toProject or for secretarial support for Head ofProject or for consumables

poor communication and lack of follow-up to ensurelocal contribution to Project running costs

35

Annex 2

Project achievements and positivedevelopments

Materials writing project on target

In the "important" faculties as far as ESP/EAP isconcerned, i.e. Engineering, Medicine and Science,piloting is already underway.

Design and piloting of the new testing format

In the faculties of Medicine and Science theintroduction of objective tests where they have notbeen used previously.

Exemption test

The notion of an exemption test has been introducedto the university and a pilot test has beensuccessfully implemented in the Faculty ofMedicine.

Appointment of a Head of Project

This has drawn the project together by improvingmorale and re-emphasizing needs. It occured aftera visit and recommendation by a representative fromELD.

Realization of the ELTO developmental role bySULC

As indicated by the off-loading of teaching hoursand the fact that ELTOs are no longer required tobe course co-ordinators and thus no longer havingto spend time on humdrum administration.

Job descriptions

New descriptions drawn up to match the needs of theproject.

36

Annex 3

SULC

The Sana'a University Language Centre was establishedin 1982/3, following the recommendations of a BritishCounciVODA consultancy. Its function is to servicethe language teaching requirements of other Faculties.The English Unit is the largest; Arabic, Russian andFrench Units have also been established. At presentSULC does not offer its own degree courses orfacilities for postgraduate research.

Staff

The Dean of SULC is a Yemeni with a PhD in AppliedLinguistics from the United States. The Head ofEnglish is an Indian PhD-holder. Until 1990 most EFLteachers were native-speakers from Britain and Americaon Kuwait-funded contracts, and PeaceCorps volunteers,as well as nationals of other countries. At present,because of the shortage of hard currency, it is notpossible to recruit native-speaker teachers; sincequalified Yemeni teachers are few, the University hastaken on a number of non-native speaker foreignnationals, most of whom hold PhDs in EnglishLiterature, to teach in SULC. In addition, severalqualified and experienced Yemeni EFL teachers from AdenUniversity have transferred up to SULC in 1990/91.

Facilities

SULC does not have its own classrooms; teachers teachin the rooms of the Faculties to which they areassigned. Office and staff-room space is severelylimited in SULC itself; ELTOs, including Head ofProject, have to carry out most of their developmentalwork (materials writing, etc.) from home. Reprographicfacilities are limited. Some equipment provided underthe British Council/ODA project is under-used becauseof lack of space, and lack of funding for consumables.

37

r

Annex 4

Yemen: country background and ELT profile

Population approximately 12-13 million, of whom 50 percent are under the age of fifteen. Per capita GNP$600 (1988). illiteracy rate 70 per cent (50 percent among males, 90 per cent among females).

The Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) and the People'sDemocratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen) became onecountry, the Republic of Yemen, in May 1990.

Economic and political background

The local economy is predominantly rural andagricultural, with some light industry. Significantoil reserves are being discovered and exploited; thisoil should assure fuel self-sufficiency and an exportincome, but is not expected to make the Country as richas its neighbours.

Until 1990/91 North Yemen was a major recipient of aidfrom Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, as well as from the Westand from the Eastern Bloc. The dollar remittances of11/2-2 million emigrant Yemenis also boosted the economy.This picture changed radically in 1990/91 as a resultboth of Unification and the Gulf Crisis. The ending ofKuwaiti aid, the drastic reduction in Saudi funding,and the forced return of 11/2 million Yemeni workers fromSaudi Arabia and the Gulf have all led to an acute andunprecedented shortage of hard currency, as well as anunemployment crisis.

Recent Government policies promote training,Yemenization, oil exploitation and exports, and thedevelopment of a Freeport and new industrial zone inAden. Liberalising reforms introduced in 1990/91include improved press freedom (a remarkable diversityof newspapers and journals have begun publication, andbookshops are well-stocked; this should haveimplications for adult literacy), and plans formulti -party parliamentary elections.

Education

Until the revolution of 1962, Yemen was effectively cutoff from the outside world, and educationalopportunities existed only for a tiny elite. Thepresent educational system was set up in the 1960sfollowing the Egyptian model, and from the beginningYemen has had to rely on foreign nationals (chieflyEgyptians) as teachers at all levels from primary totertiary. Priority has been given to the training ofYemeni teachers, but there have been problems inachieving and maintaining standards, particularly inELT.

English is the first foreign language in Yemen, but itis only mastered and used by a small minority atpresent. English is a compulsory subject throughoutsix years of preparatory and secondary schooling, andin the first ye&s of most University degree courses.The Ministry of Education stresses the value of Englishas a preparation for higher studies, as a language of

38

international communication, and as a "window" onscience and technology. English is the medium ofcommunication between Yemenis and non-Yemenis, forexample in Dutch and German aid projects. Competencein English is widely seen as a marketable skill, asYemen opens up to the outside world.

Cate d'Ivoire

Car.e. study - National ESP Project

Case study leader: Gerry Greenall

This case study used the results of a survey into theuse of English in a francophone economy (Cote d'Ivoire)to suggest an improved project framework for theIvorian National ESP Project. The lack of overtrelevance of the objectives to wider socio-economicissues in the existing project framework was noted,these, together with their indicators of achievementand progress, being expreeaed purely in terms of narroweducational aims and of internal project statisticswhile taking it for granted that ELT/ESP was usefuldevelopmentally.

The survey looked at the use of English made by forty-nine graduates of the Institut National Superieur del'Enseignement Technique (INSET in this document),mainly from the year 1988. Twenty-nine were graduatesof the three-year bi-lingual secretarial school,fourteen from the five-year commercial studies college,and five from the five-year engineering college. Thesegraduates were employed in a wide range oforganizations, mainly international agencies andmultinationals. These are listed herewith with part ofthe results of the survey.

The summary table, an extract from the results of thesurvey, shows the approximate percentage of time spent"using" English in the various organizations by eachinterviewee, and whether English was "required","essential", "useful", or "not necessary", both fortheir current activities and for their personalpromotion.

The table demonstrates that English is essential atleast for the vast majority of those leaving the topend of the ".vorian educational system. A major pointemerging was that mastery of English enhanced theemployability of the graduates, as either an Englishtest was given in the case of some institutions, or itwas taken for granted that English was known in thecase of others.

The list of organizations shows Abidjan is a centre forinternational agencies (e.g. UN), and a number ofmultinationals are also established there. Oneattraction of Abidjan may be the availability ofwell-educated local staff with, amongst other things,good linguistic skills. One contribution of ELT to thelocal economy may therefore be increasing thecompetitiveness of Abidjan, as a regional base despiteits being francophone, vis-a-vis other West Africancapitals.

There is a delicate balance to be made between simplymeeting an existing need, which is perhaps rathershortsighted, and providing an educated labour pool asfertile ground for development, although this couldlead to social unrest through over-qualification andunemployment. To this end project objectives shouldincorporate a feedback mechanism to enable fine-tuningof educational outputs (at least as far as English

39

training is concerned) to needs, actual or potential.

As it is in the long-term interests of internationalagencies and multinationals to have English-speakingpersonnel on site in Abidjan, improvement of Englishskills through the public education system, as atpresent supported by ODA, should be regarded as primingonly.

Sustained English training ought eventually to becomethe responsibility of the organizations themselves, andtherefore project objectives should envisage thepossibility and desirability of the financial burden ofsuch training being shifted over to theseorganizations.

The development of self-financing or cost-recoverysystems should therefore be incorporated into projectobjectives to facilitate real economic sustainabilityof English language training in the long term.

The existing project framework as incorporated into thelatest project report is attached and also a suggestedrevised project framework taking the above factors intoaccount.

41

Percentage of time "using" English and importance of English now (= W)and for advancement/promotion (is /-)

Required (R) Essential (E) Useful (U) Not necessary (N)

ISS ESCA ENSIA

Afribache (tarpaulins etc.) 50%/R/RAfrican Development Bank 70%/R/RAsia Auto Parts 10%/R/RAxis (computers, software) 10%/R/RBHP UTAH (gold prospecting) 8096/R/RBritish Council 75%/R/R --Centrages (agriculture) 10%U/ECDCI (Unilever - distribution 10%/E/EChamber of Industry 40%/RJRCitibank (US) 90%/R/RCoca Cola 40%/RJRCoopers & Lybrand (auditing) 50%/R/RErnst & Young (auditing) 20%U/EEsso CI 10%/R/RFood & Agriculture Organization 30%/R/R --IBM 30%/R/R 15%/R/RInternational Community School 90%/R/RInternational Labour Organization 1. 50%/R/R

2. 50%/R/R3. 50%/R/R4. 90%/R/R --

Ivoire-Systemes (software) 5%/FIRMecanembal (Unilever) 20%'E/ROrdre des Pharmaciens 2%/N/UPioneer Overseas Co-op (seeds) 80%/RJR --Price Waterhouse (auditing) 30%/R/RSAPH (rubber) 5%/U/USchlumberger (oil extraction) 80%/R/R --SGBCI (banking) 10%/U/ESIR (oil refining) 1. -- 5%/U/E

2. - -- 40%/E/E3. -- 30%/R/R

25%/E/U5. -- 40%/U/U

Socopao (transit agents) 10%/U/R --Star Auto (Mercedes Trucks) 10%R/RTotal CI 4%/N/EUN Development Programme (UNDP) 1. 30%/R/R

2. 0%/N/R3. 60 %/RJR4. 609b/R/R.

UN High Commission for Refugees 75%/R/RUS AID 95%/R/RWorld Bank 1. 90%/R/R

2. 80%/R/R3. 65%/R/R4. 60%/R/R

40

Present project structure and indicators - National ESP Projectsub-project a, Cote d'Ivoire

Project structure Indicators of achievement

Outputs

1 By October 1989, INSETEnglish Department will befully Ivorianized with astructure for in-servicestaff development

2 Development of materials byteachers as ongoing part ofteaching

3 By 1990, all teachers willbe familiar with CERESP

4 Increased use of publishedESP material

5 By 1991, national ESPcentre established

6 By July each year, scheduleof project priorities willbe drawn up

7 By July each year a numberof visits and seminars willhave taken place

8 By July 1989, proceduresfor "accessory" resourcesand advice established

9 By 1991, a number of targetinstitutions will havebenefited from sustainedproject input

Immediate objectives

1 To assist in theIvorianization of INSETEnglish Department

2 To contribute to developmentof infrastructure forsupporting teachers of Englishin vocational & technicallycAes & the grandee ecoles

3 Feasible schedule of ESPadvisory activities tograndee ecoles

No visits required by ELTO;development of materials withno regular ELTO involvement

Presence of bank of materialsin INSET Resource Centre

Attendance at seminars; use ofresources

Increased demand for ESP material;allocation of budgets by targetinstitutions; classroomobservation

Opening; status agreed; recordsrecords

ELTO post report

Increased demand; attendancerecords

ELTO post report

Centre records; classroomobservation; improved ESP coursedesign

Smoothly functioning departmentunder Ivorian head; development ofmaterials by teachers with astructure for in-service staffdevelopment

Familiarization with Centre ofEnglish teachers in METFP andincreased use of published ESPmaterial. Opening of CERESP

Increased demand andattendance, classroomobservation, improved course

41

Progress towards objectives

Achieved. In-service staffdevelopment pursued through TCT.There are however no INSETteachers doing the EDIP course atthe moment

Recent interviews with teachersindicate this is going on

All 105 teachers have beencontacted. 86 of them face-to-face

In present economic climate,target institution budgets arelikely to be negligible.CERESP resources are used

Achieved ahead of schedule

In hand for 1991/92

Achieved. Forty-two teachersobserved ninety seminar contacthours; 148 teacher/seminarattendances

Achieved and put into effect

Twenty-seven out of thirty-eightinstitutions so far benefited fromat least one of following:classroom visits, BPP, TCTD,seminar attendances

Achieved. In-service staffdevelopment through TCTD.Materials development progressing

Achieved, although use of materialdifficult to monitor

Not yet fully achieved. CertainGEs not yet approached. Not allwere targeted in the period tomid-1991

Proposed wider objectives and indicators of National ESP Projectsub-project a

Objectives

1 To help provide a pool ofappropriate manpower forcompanies in CI requiring theuse of English

2 To enhance the attractivenessof CI as a base for companiesand agencies requiring English

3 To encourage close linksbetween such companies, thechambers of industry, commerceand agriculture, andinstitutions providing trainingby providing a mechanism forconstant updating of a) coursecontent & methodology andb) manpower requirements inresponse to company needs

4 To ensure continuity of theprogrammes throughself-financing mechanismsnegotiated with the clientcompanies

Indicators of achievement

Absorption of graduates intocompanies in appropriate posts

Increase in economic and otheractivities in such bodies

Establishment and operation of amechanism for involvement ofcompanies in planning anddelivery

Initiation and implementation of adeveloping self-financing process(target 40 per cent after fiveyears)

42 Al

Kenya

Case study - Kenyatta University English Project

Case study leader: Andrew Thomas

Task

In the light of the recently concluded KenyattaUniversity English Project, to propose a method toinvestigate the desirability, feasibility and possibledesign of a new nationwide (outreach) four-universityproject for pre-service graduate teacher education,through a BEd English, indicating social and economicimpact.

Kenyatta University English Project (KUEP) mainfeatures

Curriculum Development for BEd English to supplysecondary graduate English teachers for Kenya, withassociated staff development, mainly through a KenyattaUniversity MA English (staff development for the latterat PhD level done in UK).

Report on the task

The four universities of Kenya are Kenyatta University(KU) Nairobi University (NU) Edgerton University (EU)and Moi University (MU). KU is the only one with anestablished BEd English, but the others would like tohave/are planning to have one.

Two questions, intra-university and inter-university.Intra-university: How best to achieve the rightcombination of language and methods in a particularuniversity. Inter-university: How many universitiesshould have the BEd English and how should they berelated?

Pre-project analysis

does Kenya need more graduate English teachers?

do students want to enrol for BEd English insufficient numbers?

what intra- and inter-university models wouldMinistry prefer?

what intra- and inter-university models wouldinstitutions prefer?

would the Government of Kenya control thestructures?

how feasible are the different models?

An investigative procedure for the intra-univereityquestions

1 Look at KU experience, through in-depthinstitutional evaluation

evidence of inter-department cooperation

43

evidence of integration (language and methods) incourses

evidence of collaborative inputs from differentdepartments, into design and teaching

evidence of collaboration in supervision andassessment of teaching practice and agreement oncriteria

2 Look at departmental structures of NU, EU, MU,through in depth institutional appraisal. Actualstructures, and cooperative potential

3 Would one want to do it the same way as at KU, ifone had the chance?

would it be possible to do the same in NU, EU, MU?

do the structures of NU, EU, MU lend themselves to analternative approach?

Inter-university options

four separate programmes

KU leading the other three

central body for fouruniversities

possible to have one MA programme feeding all theBEd programmes with staff

An investigative procedure for the inter-universityquestion may be a similar in-depth appraisal todetermine the desirability and feasibility of

a one, two, three or four BEd programmes (i.e. KUonly, KU plus one, two or three other universities)

b replicating the KU model in other universities and

c collaborating between different universities

Once a) settled, b) and c) may be considered in theform of a matrix of possibilities

Collaboration Replication

Feasibility

Desirability

Uganda

Came study - Makerere University, School of EducationDevelopment Project

Case study leader: Barry Sesnan

Proposition

That ELTOs on arrival at post may conclude that theproject framework should be altered to have a moreeffective impact.

Consider the information given and the Uganda projectframework at two levels

minor alterations

major changes within the wider objectives

Advise how the project framework could 1311.ve been pre-designed to allow alterations and changes to be madewhile the Project is under way.

Information provided

background (profile of population, recent history,education system, current economic situation)

project framework

project memorandum

Background

The people

Uganda has 16.2 million people (1991), a birth rate ofat least three per cent per annum, a subsistence andcash agriculture economy. There is little industry buttrading is a growing sector of the urban economy. Mostphysical plant, buildings and other infrastructuredecayed during the 1974-85 period (Amin and Obote) whenthe currency became valueless, investment shrank tozero and those who could get out did so. Added to thatwere many deaths from state terrorism, two civilconflicts, the collapse of medical services and thesubsequent rise of AIDS.

Individual institutions were occasionally damaged byfighting (but Makerere was not) but more often bygradual looting by their own staff to survive on theworthless salaries. The flight of trained personnelhas continued mainly to Southern Africa.

The University

Makerere University has decayed both physically andacademically since its days of glory in the 1960s. Inpart this was inevitable: it no longer has a uniqueposition in East Africa, its costs per student wereunreasonably high, it had costly buildings to maintainand a staff bloated in some (non-marketable) subjectsbut very scarce in others.

The School of Education (then the Faculty of Education)

44

was supported by a large ODA project in the 1960s partof which was the Teachers for East Africa Programme.

The British Council

The British Council has been in Uganda continuously(apart from a few years of Amin) since beforeindependence. The ELTO post has normally been held bya British supplemented lecturer (such as John Bright).

There is no ELO. There is another Project in theInstitute of Teacher Education/National TeacherColleges system with an experienced ELTO.

The secondary schools

500 government/300 private and "Third World"; all do0-level, perhaps half do A-level (Uganda Certificate).There are very few technical/vocational options. Thegovernment capitation in boarding may be as little asten per cent; the parents pay the rest. Inevitablygood schools with a "good" set of parents get better.

There is no problem in getting a place in a schoolsomewhere if you have money to pay the fees. Thisapplies even to quite good schools.

The students

The ultimate customer, the student, is not mentioned inthe documentation for this post. There is a hugenumber of students both those from well-off familieswho are the correct age for their class and those whohave had many hitches (war, lack of money for feesetc.) who are older and tend to be in the "Third World"schools.

Individual students may have to raise their own fees asparents' salaries are rarely big enough. Thisdiscourages girls, who cannot do the labouring/guarding/hawking jobs.

Four students

Mary, at Gayaza the best girls' School. Herparents struggle to keep her there (even at the veryhigh fees and book charges) as classes are small,discipline is strict and the success rate at universityentry is phenomenal. Her mother attended Gayaza alsoand her father went to one of the best equivalent boys'schools. Her daughters will also go to Gayaza. Gayazahas a powerful PTA determined to keep the School amongthe best.

John, at the nearby 'Third World" School is helpedby an uncle to pay the fees but it is never sure at thebeginning of each term whether he will be able to startschool. The classes are crowded; the School has an"instant" cash flow - fees to staff salaries. Littleis left over (after the owner has taken his profit) tobuy equipment or maintain the buildings. The PTAcontributes reluctantly at a fund-raising once a year.John can rarely afford books.

Monday, a newspaper vendor had already dropped outbefore the end of primary school when he was displaced

4 k:1;

by the civil war. He and his sister support four otheryounger children. He wants to go back to school but istoo old to sit with children in a primary. There is noprovision for him to go to school in the afternoons sohe can continue to sell in the mornings.

Ha lima, at an urban government school will drop outthis year as the soaring fees mean her family cannotafford to keep her there as well as pay the boys' fees(though Ugandans do try hard to educate the girls).She has an alternative to raise fees by "befriending" asugar daddy.... but with AIDS this may be certaindeath.

The teachers

Teachers receive £8 a month as their salary. In a goodschool the PTA will increase this to £40 and luncheswill be provided. The ideal posting is to a "famous"boarding school where accommodation will also be given.The next best is to an urban school where extensive"coaching" can be given.

The training system produces very few teachers comparedto the need. Makerere will produce thirty-six teachersthis year in English (PGDE + BA Ed). The NTCs mayproduce a hundred or so.

The trainers

The National Teachers Colleges (Diploma), Institute ofEducation (two-year BA post Diploma), Makerere.

The parents

Virtually every Ugandan is the "parent" of someoneyounger. School fees, typically £40 per term, exceedmost government salaries.

The ELTO's problem

Working in a department producing only thirty-sixteachers a year seems not to be the most efficient wayfor the ELTO to work; he decided that outreach to theschools and the existing teachers was important. Theproject framework as drafted did not allow for much ofthis. Could the project framework have had flexibilitybuilt in to it to allow him to make adjustments to hiswork based on a professional assessment of thesituation (and with the consent of the Makereredepartment)?

The discussion

At first it was pointed out that this was not anuncommon situation, probably more common than wasrealised. Often the ELTO went ahead and did thenecessary work in response to the situation he/shefound on arrival. However, if the framework was tomean anything and the changes were to be formalised thechanges could be incorporated either as flexibility inthe original document or by changing the document atthe next convenient point (e.g. renewal of agreement).

The discussion centred on the flexibility of theoriginal document. It was pointed out that in theUganda study the wider objective

46

to secure a higher level of English languagecompetence of secondary school graduates throughimprovements in the quality of secondary teachers ofEnglish

would permit the kind of outreach work seen to benecessary. It was agreed that flexibility, if theframework was to have any meaning, would have to bewithin the wider objectives. Otherwise, the frameworkwould have to be totally rewritten.

The wider objectives should have a socio-economicvalidity especially when considered with theirassumptions and risks.

If major changes took place in the system (such asprolonged closure or a sudden change in medium ofinstruction) these would affect the ability to carryout the wider objectives and may require the wholeframework to be rewritten (or cancelled).

As for changing the immediate objectives, it wasrecommended that the ELTO should establish the hostinstitution's agreement to the recommended changes,then seek advice both within the representation and, ifnecessary, as part of a process of review by ODA orother consultant. Survey and other preparation workcould go ahead.

It was further considered that the immediate objectivesbe deliberately written with wider options to allow theELTO to advise and alter on arrival, especially if theELTO has relevant experience.

The consensus was that the problem was probably not amajor one: the wider objectives should reflect thesociety accurately enough to allow the best work to bedone; within the period of one contract, sufficientslight and/or preparatory changes could be made; thenext contract could reflect the desired new work.

4.

Peru

Case study - ESS Project in materials writingand INSET

Case study leader: Isobel Rainey

The project

ESS Project 1990-1993, this is the second stage of aproject which started in 1984.

This stage of the Project has three main aims

the consolidation and development of the in-servicetraining of Peruvian secondary school teachers ofEnglish, initiated during the first stage of theProject

the revision and rewriting of a set of five EFLcoursebooks - one book for each of the five years ofsecondary school. These books were also writtenduring the first stage of the Project

the training of a small team of teacher trainers(four to six in all), who will be mainly responsiblefor sustaining and developing the Project when theELTO leaves

Achievements in first stage of Project

Five books of acceptable quality, given the aims andthe budgets written and published in extremelydifficult circumstances: no ELTO at post; Britishexpert visited Lima twice a year only to supervisematerials writing; some writing and supervision alsocarried out in London while a few project teachers weretaking INSET courses there.

A small but enthusiastic group of teachers from Lima-Callao and five provincial capitals were trained inusing the materials and had expressed interest incontinuing to use them.

Five teachers were sent to Britain for languageimprovement and methodology courses.

Developments in project August 1990 - July 1991

ELTO at post in late August 1990. Well-equippedProject office organized and functioning by lateNovember within the main Ministry of Educationbuilding

three author teams identified for materials writing.By April 1991, Team One had been trained in WPskills and had completed revision of Books One andTwo and accompanying teacher's guides. All fourbooks now available to teachers

three INSET seminars had been given in Lima-Callaoand two in the provinces with the result that thenumber of teachers involved in the project tripled

two members of Team One sent to Britain in July fora six-month INSET courses

46

Team Two trained in WP skills and now revising andre-writing Book Three

potential Project trainers identified

a very unsuitable Counterpart replaced in May 1991by a keen, competent person

permanent secretarial support finally secured aftera ten-month period (September to end of June) duringwhich a Secretary was available during three monthsonly

after three changes of the ME directors who aresupposed to oversee and support the Project, theELTO and the Peruvian Counterpart can now count ontheir pleasant and efficient co-operation

seven more project teachers will be going to Britainfor INSET courses in January 1992

Current problems and difficulties

Owing to the dire economic situation in Peru, the ESSteachers have been on strike since April. (Theiraverage wage is around £40 a month and Lima iscurrently rated the third most expensive city in theworld.) It is not possible/wise to organize seminarsduring teachers' strikes so the five seminarsprogrammed for the period July-December cannot betaught. Teachers can, however, be invited to Projectmeetings.

The system for printing and publishing the coursebooksis very time-consuming and inefficient - no oneinvolved in the project has been trained to use all theequipment provided by ODA. (The ELTO had hoped to takea course in April in the use of Pagemaker, Windows andthe electronic scanner, but this proved impossible asthe then Counterpart could not be relied on tosupervise the Project during her absence.) Currently,the production stage of the materials writing iscontracted out to a company of systems engineers, whoafter putting the materials on to Pagemaker and liftingthe drawings with the scanner, produce the masters on alaser printer. The masters are then transferred toelectronic stencils and subsequently taken to anotherpart of Lima for the actual mimeographing process.This means that the materials are being "produced" inthree different places in Lima; as a result it is verydifficult to detect design or text errors. Theseproblems are compounded by the fact that the equipmentprovided by ODA is not entirely compatible withPagemaker; nor is the scanner totally compatible withthe IBM computer.

Case study

discuss the best way to use the teacher trainingtime available between now and end of December,bearing in mind that seminars per se cannot be runbut that current levels of interest andparticipation should at all costs be sustained

consider ways in which the printing of the materialscan be made less labour intensive, more efficient,and error proof

discuss ways of directing (harnessing andchannelling), in order to maximize impact andminimize chaos, all the energy and ideas with whichscholars will return to Peru in January and April1992

Conclusions

During the remainder of the strike, project teachersshould be called to meetings at which there could besome kind of academic/vocational input. Initially,those teachers who have already had training in the UKand/or who have been identified as potential teachertrainers would be responsible for the input.Subsequently, all the teachers should have a chance tolead the meetings. Topics to be addressed could varyfrom areas of language in need of improvement to arevision and development of the methodology componentof the INSET seminars, which all the teachers haveattended. Officially it will not be possible to awardcredits/ certificates for attending the meetings, butin the February and March 1992 seminars, before thestart of the next school year when it should bepossible to organize seminars again, one of thecomponents or modules could cover the content alreadydealt with at these meetings. Thus, during the actualseminar, only a little time would be spent on recappingand revising this content. In the seminarcertificates, however, the duration of the seminarwould be expressed in terms of the total number ofhours the teachers spent on covering all the content,including that of the meetings held between Septemberand December 1991.

The question of compatibility of equipment andprogrammes should be addressed as soon as possible.The real problem has been caused by the fact that anApple Macintosh computer should have been orderedinstead of an IBM. (The IBM, although powerful, is avery "inflexible" machine. When working with anelectronic scanner and Pagemaker, production isexcruciatingly complicated and slow. The AppleMackintosh, on the other hand, is completely compatiblewith the scanner and Pagemaker and the actual designand production of the masters should be both fast andreasonably easy. It was suggested, therefore, that forthe production stage of the materials an AppleMackintosh should be bought or hired. If this provedimpossible for financial reasons, then some kind ofexchange should be arranged with the IBM computer.) Inthe meantime, a person from the Project or from theMinistry of Education should be trained in the use ofall the equipment and programmes.

All those teachers who receive INSET in Britain shouldbe asked to work very closely and intensively with the"Departamentales" in the provinces. Each teacher wouldfirst be responsible for informing the specialist ofthe aims of the project and for organizing, withhis/her help, INSET seminars for EFL teachers in theschools which fall under the jurisdiction of his/herUSE/ Departmental. So that they would not be workingalone when carrying out their tasks in the USE's, eachteacher would also select and train as assistanttrainers, prior to the decentralized seminars, one ortwo teachers from those project members who have not

47

been to Britain. Thus the teachers trained in Britainwould be sharing their training with three differentgroups: the language specialist in theUSE/Departmental, at least one fellow project memberand a large number of ESS teachers in their respectiveUSE's/Departamentales.

6_

Malaysia

Case study - ITC Language Proficiency Project

Case study leader: Ray Brown

Background

The background is that of a country in rapid economicdevelopment. It is also a country in which English hasnot been emphasized in education for over twenty yearsdue to the development and spread of the nationallanguage (Bahasa Malaysia, or, commonly, "Bahasa").Formerly much education was in the medium of English.Numbers were low and standards high. But numbers ineducation have increased greatly and English has becomea subject rather than a medium (since 1969 in schools,1983 in universities).

The result is a greater number of schoolchildren with apoor command of English. This is perceived as a dropin standards. With the rapid economic expansion of thecountry the need for English is making itself more andmore felt. The economy is essentially private-sectorled and has moved from being a commodity-based economyto a manufacturing-based economy with large exports.The PM's aim is development by the year 2020. TheGovernment has recently expressed its concern about thestandard of English teaching and is giving much greaterpriority to the subject. The Government's policy couldbe described as "functional bilingualism", i.e. Bahasafor all/English for all. Bahasa is now wellestablished and secure as the national language thoughit is not the first language of Chinese and Indians.The objective of "English for all" is however far frombeing attained.

There are a number of problems in the ELT field. Exampass rates are low and appear to be getting lower.There is a shortage of teachers. There are seriousimbalances between the quality of teaching in urbanareas and the quality in rural areas, or between thedeveloped west coast and the less developed east coastof the peninsula, or between the west coast and the twostates of East Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah. The numberof teachers, their quality, the lack of English in theenvironment and the motivation of learners are allproblems in the rural areas

The MoE are taking steps to remedy these problems. Anumber of young Malaysians are being trained asteachers in UK and a further extensive programme of UKtraining is presently in preparation. There are plansto increase the numbers of teachers in training andplans to make the SPM (0-level) pass in Englishcompulsory as soon as it is feasible to do so. TheODA/British Council have been active in the followingareas

the Sabah Rural Primary English Project, 1981-91

an ELTO post in Schools Division in MoE, workingprincipally on the development of the secondaryschool curriculum

an ELTO post in Teacher Education Division of MoE,developing a national level self access programme in

48

twenty-eight teachers' colleges to improve the levelof English of future English teachers

UPM/University of Warwick link: an academic linkprogramme between Warwick University and twoMalaysian universities (UM and UPM) which will helpupgrade English teacher training and servicecourses

TCTD programme: a limited number of awards per yearfor ELT

exchanges and visits

Task

How might British ELT aid to Malaysia be bestintegrated with other inputs, British P.,nd Malaysian, toimprove ELT in order to maximize social and economicdevelopment?

The investigation should cover

how best can Malaysia go about achieving its goal offunctional bilingualism?

how can ODA/BC best contribute to this?

the study will obviously bear in mind ODA's commitmentto development and how our inputs can ease problemssuch as urban/rural gaps, deprivation, male/femalegaps, employment opportunities, human resourcesdevelopment and educational imbalances. The reportshould suggest ways in which contributions to theseareas could be measured.

A "Bridge Programme" was proposed to recruit and trainteachers from less privileged areas with a view togetting them to return to their local areas and, aswell as teaching English, participate in communitydevelopment and rural development. The purpose of theone year's intensive bridging programme between schooland teacher training is to bring them up to the levelof trainees from the more privileged areas and toprovide training in community and rural development.

One year bridging progamme

Wider objectives

1 To overcome the urban/rural imbalance in education

2 To overcome the east/west geographical imbalance ineducation

3 To develop rural communities in the East CoastStates and in Eastern Malaysia

Immediate objectives

1 To raise educational standards of selected youth tothe level required for entry to TFCs, or BEds inUniversities (Malaysia or UK)

2 To raise awareness of issues in rural developmentwith a view to making the selected youth not onlyteachers of English but catalysts of socio-economicdevelopment

Content of the bridging programme

SPM subjects - maths, science, Bahasa Malaysia,intensive English

issues and techniques in rural development

Staffing and staff/materials development

staff are quality teachers of SPM subjects fromurban schools

INSET programme particularly for issues in ruraldevelopment through materials development

Location, number and type of centres

urban (staff are urban)one per participating stateresidential

Proposed British inputs

six-monthly consultancy visits for INSET throughmaterials development for three years in the firstinstanceUK or third country training

Indicators of achievement

1 Numbers returning to their rural areas

2 Improvement in quality and effectiveness ofteaching

3 Extent of contribution of returning teachers torural development in the community

5;49

Cameroon

Case study - Secondary INSET Project

Case study leaders: Colin Davis/Patrick Samba

Background

Cameroon lies between West and Central Africa on theGulf of Guinea and is bounded on the north, west, southand south east respectively by Chad, Nigeria, theAtlantic Ocean, Gabon and the Congo. A GermanTerritory from 1884 to 1914, Cameroon was divided,after the defeat of Germany in the First World War,into two parts. One part, a fifth of the country andpopulation, was administered by Britain and the rest byFrance. Today, Cameroon is a bilingual and bi-culturalcountry. Because Cameroon has had three differentcolonial masters its history and education arechequered and this, above everything else, accounts forthe very slow pace of reforms because of each group'svarying interests and their attachment to their formercolonial heritage.

All education in Cameroon is state controlled andalthough the State gives permission to mission bodies(voluntary agencies) and to individuals (lay private)to run schools, the curricula, syllabuses, timetables,examinations and certification as well as the generalsupervision of instructional programmes, are theprerogative of the State and those who do not conformto the many texts and decrees regulating to educationare sanctioned sometimes by the closure of theestablishments or by the withdrawal of subventions.Volur.tary agencies and lay private institutions reapplyevery year for permission to reopen.

Like the public administration of the country,Cameroon's formal educational system and practices arevery highly centralized. What ever is taught at anylevel is decreed by the Government. Of the tenadministrative provinces in the country two areEnglish-speaking. The anglophone provinces run aseven-five-two years system respectively of primary,secondary and high school courses while the francophonesector runs a six-four-three years system. There is nodifference in university education although the onlyone University is very French-oriented. Both sectorshave a two years pre-school system called the nurseryschool. This is available only for those living in thecities. Education is not compulsory; thus manychildren in the rural areas do not attend school. Theexamination system is still different between theanglophone and francophone systems and attempts havebeen made since 1960 to harmonize the school syllabuseswithout much success. The multicultural heritage ofour curricula is considered by some people in authorityas a weakness rather than as a strength and, because ofwell-founded suspicions, attempts at subtleassimilation by the majority are being resisted by theanglophone minority even where the reforms may be forthe better. Apart from technical education which wasthe first casualty of subtle assimilation, both sectorsmore or less maintain their own system each of which isbased on their colonial heritage. French is taught inthe English medium schools beginning from Class Four

(ages eight and nine) and English is used as a languageof instruction for all subjects from the age of fourwhile French is a language of instruction in theFrancophone sector and English is taught from ClassFour (ages eight and nine).

It is against this background of problems and unease inthe education system and the background of other issuessuch as the dramatic shortage and/or the presence of alarge number of unqualified staff, the almost totallack of instructional materials, equipment andlogistics, the high demand for education even in therural areas in the face of a population explosion andthe creation of more schools for political expediency,that the British INSET Project in this part of thecountry could not have come at a better time. Like theAmerican Project-Support to Primary Education, whichwas terminated prematurely, the British INSET Projectprovides a very cherished momentum in seminars, in-service, and pre-service workshops in English, mathsand physics in addition to the dynamic experiment ofthe joint project in the three subject areas.

The decision by the Cameroon Government to create "anAnglo-Saxon-type University" in Buea, if and when itdoes begin to operate, will show the full force andnecessity of this Project with its potential forexpansion and replication, which is what is nowhappening!

The French Technical Assistance Programme has alreadystarted studies to introduce a similar scheme infrancophone Cameroon.

50

Sri Lanka

Case study - ELT Testing and Evaluation Project

Case study leader: Richard Webber

Background

The Sri Lankan Testing and Evaluation Project (ELTP)was established in 1.987 in order to set up a GCE0-Level English language examination to test the ODAfunded secondary school materials "English Every Db.y".The ODA funding for this Project and for theconcomitant Materials Development Project wasoccasioned by a change in Government of Sri Lankaeducational policy further to the election of a newgovernment in 1977 and the publication of a White Paperin 1981. The new policy departed from previousthinking by looking upon English as a tool in thedevelopment of a newly outward-looking economy in whichEnglish would be of great importance in internationaltrade and in the development of a modern servicesector. The Project is currently scheduled to becompleted on 30 June 1992 and the majority of its goalsin terms of staff training, equipment supply and thecreation of an administrative infrastructure have beencompleted. Specifically, the 0-Level has now beensuccessfully administered three times despiteconsiderable disruption caused by war in the North andEast and by an insurrection in the south. Candidacy atthe last sitting was 335,000 and candidacy in December1991 is expected to approach its maximum at c.400,000.

Economic considerations

The group considered the impact of the Project on thenational economy in various ways.

Firstly, the group considered sectors of the economywhich would seem to be most likely to be affected by animprovement in the English language skills of theschool leaver workforce. The sectors that wereconsidered were: hotels, tourism, trade, public sector,teaching and remittances from overseas workers. Whilstthe group agreed that the generally beneficial effectof the sectors on the economy of Sri Lanka could not bewholly attributed to improved English languageachievement at 0-Level, it was agreed that thisenhancement was economically significant in the shortterm and potentially more so in the long term.

Secondly the group considered the impact of the Projecton the big foreign currency earning sectors of the SriLankan economy, i.e. tea, tourism, garments,remittances and gemming/diamond cutting. The groupfelt that the picture here was somewhat mixed with, forinstance, garments, tea and gemming being virtuallyunaffected by any human capital enhancement created byimproved English language skills while tourism andremittances were more likely to benefit. However, evenin the cases of garments, tea and gemming, whilst thevast majority of workers required no English languageskills the group pointed out that all these workerswere dependent on a few EL-able individuals tonegotiate and monitor trading contracts.

51

Thirdly, the group considered the impact of the Projecton the Sri Lankan domestic economy. It was felt thatthe importance of EL skills in agriculture, fishing,manufacturing, mining and construction was minimal butthat its importance in both private and public sectorservices was considerable.

Social considerations

The Project was seen by the group as being ofconsiderable social significance because of the verylarge number of youths that were certificated each yearby the GCE 0-Level English. The group thus consideredthat the involvement of society in education was initself of great importance in investigating how wellsociety might be functioning. Thus, the fact that thenew GCE 0-Level was being effectively administered, wasbeing perceived to be so administered and was generallyaccepted by society, after a vigorous publicitycampaign, as a worthwhile and fair testing instrumentwas agreed to be a significant benefit to the whole ofSri Lankan society.

The group considered the social impact of the Projectin terms of ODA's six "cross-cutting issues" i.e.women, population, environment, forestry, poorest ofthe poor and good governance. Regarding the last ofthese the group heard that English language skills werepeceived by the Sri Lankan people as the key to goodmodern sector jobs and that a common perception amongrural youth that this key was not being made availableto them had led at various times to civil disturbanceand vast loss of life. The group therefore felt thatthe Sri Lankan ELTP was of major importance inassisting Government of Sri Lanka in good governance ofthe nation by assisting it in maintaining a perceptionof well being in the populace and in preventinginterruptions to the smooth development of the economyby civil unrest. The group also learnt that morefemales sit the GCE 0-Level English Language and thattheir success rates were greater than those of men.Further, the group learnt that despite war in the northand east the Tamil ethnic minority achieved markedlyhigher pass rates at GCE 0-Level English than theSinhalese majority. The group therefore concluded thatthe skills enhancement of females and of the majorethnic minority would be of great value in thedevelopment of the economy of Sri Lanka as peace isrestored to the north and east and female participationrates in the workforce increase.

Appendix 1

Socio-economic roles and their implicationsJohn Burke/Rod Bo litho - College of St Mark & St John

Socio-economic aspects of ELT: questionnaire responses

All teachers/teacher trainers in ELT-- mixed nationality - all volunteers

1 Number of Participants: 34

2 Average Age: 36

3 Sex: M - 23; F - 13

4 Countries: Ethiopia/Ghana/Niger/Cote d'Ivoire/Zairefranzanie/Lesotho/MozEunbique/Sudan/Madagascar/Colombia/Malaysia/Pakistan

6 Average number of languages able to use fluently: 2.9

6 Number of different languages represented: 27

7 The participant's view of theirown socio-economic status

"advantagedutimiddle-class" = 34

8 The socio-economic groups in In order of prioritytheir country needing attention a rural dwellers,

b the poorc womend youthe the unemployed

9 The main socio-economic issues The top 6 given. The need forin their countries a economic stability, growth and employment

b the development of democratic processesc increased literacyd better relationships with other countriese ethnic integration and national unityf population control

(Other items includedhealth/housing improvements'corruption controlimproved agriculturetransport/communications)

10 The reason English is taught intheir country

In order of prioritya international communicationb trade/business/tourismc science/technologyd educatione employmentf for pleasure

(2 respondents had no real reason why Englishwas taught)

52

11 The socio-economic groups whobenefit a mostand, b leastfrom the availability of English

most a the education/advantaged young peoplecultural minoritiesthe "displace.7

least b rural dwellersthe poorthe handicappedwomen

12 The links between socio-economicgroups and issues, and theavailability of English in thecountry

a English provides access to opportunities foremployment

b it assists educational and personal improvement(for employment)

c it helps develop the economy and improvesemployment opportunities

d it provides access to world knowledge andknowledge about health/population etc

e it helps develop/maintain national unity

13 The degree of recognition ofEnglish and support for Englishgiven by the government

What thcs participant's mainpurpoe.-: is in being on acourtao ;21 UK

Government support isenthusiastic 3supportive 26indifferent 5negative 0

In order of prioritya career enhancementb to be better able to assist in the socio-

economic development of their countryc the development of personal interests and

understanding

15 The participant's view of his/hermain role on return home inrelation to socio-economic issues .

In order of prioritya to help fellow teachers teach more

effectively; and so, learners to learn moreeffectively and gain access to generalknowledge, technology, opportunities forself-improvement

b to help educate the community through literacyprogrammes, community education, adulteducation

c to produce teaching materials to help teachers/learners learn effectively

16 Those aspects of training theparticipants feel meet therequirements of their future roles

a course learning processes - organising,planning, evaluating, observing, interactingwith others, leading seminars, designingmaterials

b course topics, including methodology, materials,course design, language awareness, issues ineducation and development

fi r-53

17 The relationship between English In order of priorityand education in the participant's a English is essential for educationalcountry productivity

b English assists educational mobilityc modern English teaching provides a model for

other subjectsd English is not important for educational

development

18 The consequences of Englishceasing to be taught in theparticipant's country

In order of prioritya national isolationb extreme difficulty in obtaining higher

education abroadc great decline in job opportunities at home and

overseasd development, trade and economic declinee ethnic and national disorder and administrative

collapsef no educational materials or educationg decline in number of doctors, engineers,

scientists and agriculturalists

(and frustrated youth unable to listen to popsongs)

19 What the participant would spendmoney on in supporting English In order of priority

a teacher training and educationb teaching materialsc resource centres and librariesd improving general education and tackling

illiteracye ESP training

t

Grid used for observation of Universities Research Project"simulation" meeting

Chair(BC AssistantDirector)

Deanof Arts

Ministry ofEducationOfficial

Head ofEnglish

ELTAdviser

Personalities1

Mollifyingtactfulbut firm

Acerbic,defensive

Sleepy Anxious,ratherinsecure

Altruistic,concerned

Patches2

BC (ELT)role incountry

The Universityincluding theLanguage Centre

All majoreducationdecisions,especiallyliteracy

"English" asa relevantUniversitydiscipline

Advicerole

Pay-Offs3

Opportunityfor BC rolein importantnationalproject

ReduceUniversitiesResearchProject; boostLanguage Centre

Preservedecision-making role

Increaseperceivedrelevance ofDepartment ofEnglish

Advice seento beeffective

Processes4

- Phatic- Elicitation- Action- Decision

Negativethen positive

Delay Questioning,suggesting

Respondingto queries;proposing

Project(s)5

Action planto be draftedimmediatelyafter meeting

Larger fieldfor project- developmentof LanguageCentre

Link withliteracyprogramme

ESP element- staff inEnglishDepartment

INSETprogramme

Link toenvironmentalissues

1 Apparent personality traits which seem likely to affect the course ofevents in the meeting

2 Interests/areas of responsibility or influence which the holder willwant to defend

3 Looked-for outcomes in the interest of this person

4 Stages/strategies in the development of the meeting (asperceived/pursued by the various participants

5 The different perceptions of the essential nature of the project asnnso far as agreed by the end of the meeting

Grid designed by Hugh 'Frappes-Lomax, Institute for Applied Language Studies, University ofEdinburgh

r^1

55

Observer's feedback on Universities Research Project"simulation" meeting

Chair Dean MoE Head of Dept ELT

Personalities Concerned/diplomatic

Anxious/pushable

Concerned/defensive

Self seeking Pushy

Patches BC/influence

The ruralpoor/Poly. Dept

The nationalbenefit

Status ofDept

Status withODA/ELTrole

Pay-Offs Position visa vis theGovernment ofclientcountry

Avoiding harmto rural poor/Dept

PoliticalKudos

Promotion/UK visits

Kudoswith ODA

Processes Facilitator/harmoniser

Objecter,later

crushed

Objecter,later

adapts andnegotiates

Enthusiasticsupport

Pushes ELTviewrelentlessly

Project(s) To producea harmoniousdocument

To accommodatethe rural poor

Embracingotherlanguages

Materialsand trainingfor dept

INSET/ELTOs

56

Appendix 2

Perceptions of impactHywel Coleman, University of Leeds

Parameters of impact: case studies

The four case studies illustrate some of the parametersof impact discussed in section 2 of Perceptions ofimpact. The first three case studies are authentic,but names have been changed or removed. The fourthcase study, though invented, contains a considerableelement of authenticity.

Case study one

Mohammed completed his secondary school education in1975. He had done well at school, but he was one of alarge family and there was no question of his beingable to pursue his education any further. For threeyears he helped his father to work the family's ricefield. However, in 1976, like many young people fromhis village, he moved 500 miles to the capital city insearch of employment and a regular wage which couldthen be used to support the education of his youngerbrothers back in the village.

For the first couple of years Mohammed had a successionof labouring and casual jobs. In 1980, though, hebegan to work as the servant and driver for aforeigner. One of his tasks was to clean thebookshelves in the foreigner's study. Mohammed foundthat the books on the shelves fell into three or fourcategories: novels in his own language, novels inEnglish, books about his own culture and country, andbooks to do with English language teaching.(Apparently the foreigner was working in a BritishCouncil project in a local university.) Mohammed askedif he could borrow some of these books and theforeigner agreed. Over the next two years Mohammedread voraciously and he rapidly broadened hisperceptions of his own country and the wider world.His English improved a lot as well.

The foreigner for whom he worked was intrigued to seehow Mohammed responded to the books in the study and sooffered to help him take up education again, as apart-time student at a private university. Theforeigner left the country in 1984, but by that timeMohammed was well into a four-year progamme ineducation. He graduated in 1986 and immediately beganwork as an English language teacher in a statesecondary school.

In 1989 Mohammed moved to the language centre of agovernment ministry and again found himself workingwith somebody associated with the British Council - butthis time as a counterpart to an ELTO. In October 1991he will be coming to Britain with an ODA scholarshipfor counterpart training, to do a masters degree inEFL.

Case study two

The University Grants Commission in a developingcountry initiated a national-level project to providein-service training in ELT to college and university

teachers. This was in collaboration with a departmentin a British university. Although the programme wasaffiliated to a local university for accreditationpurposes, it was decided that selected candidatesshould be sent to the partner university in Britain fora one-year masters programme in TESOL aftersuccessfully concluding the local in-service trainingcourse.

Two members of a three-person team from the Britishuniversity arrived to undertake initial planning andorganization of the in-service training course. Thethird team member - designated as Director of Studies(DoS) - arrived a few days before the first coursebegan. Incidentally, this man had had no previousexperience of working in developing countries. Soonafter the first course started, the local counterpart -who had actually initiated the whole Project - went onlong leave, so leaving the foreign DoS to fend forhimself. The DoS had considerable difficultiesunderstanding the workings and the system of the hostinstitution. This led to mutual mistrust andresentment between himself and the authorities in thehost institution. The conflict culminated when, at theend of the course, the DoS flew back to Britain withouthanding over the final examination papers to the localuniversity authorities, arguing that he could not trustanyone locally to mark the papers fairly.

The conflict seriously affected the Proje t and nofurther courses could be offered for the next twoyears.

Case study three

This case study is set in the same country and the sameUniversity Grants Commission project as that discussedin Case study two. Two years after the difficultiesdescribed in the earlier case study, a new British DoSwas appointed, along with a full-time counterpart.

The in-service training course started up again, andthe project is now in its seventh year and is runningvery successfully. Almost 180 teachers from differentuniversities and colleges from all over the countryhave been trained. A number of these have alsocompleted masters degree programmes in linguistics andELT at different universities in Britain.

A majority of the graduates of the course are teachertrainers, working at a variety of levels throughout thecountry. Some of the graduates have since beenpromoted to senior positions in their own institutions,and a number of them are now members of national andprovincial curriculum committees and are also involvedin textbook writing. Curriculum changes have beenintroduced recently in several institutions and many ofthese can be attributed to the influence of thegraduates of the UGC in-service programme. Regularmasters programmes in ELT are also being instituted insome universities in the country.

Case study four

The University of Plaistow used to have a wellestablished Department of International Education. The

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Department existed for over twenty years and, duringthat time, it developed strong links with various partsof the world, but especially with countries in theErehwon region. Expertise was thus built up in thefield of education in relation to Erehwon countries inparticular.

Students from numerous Erehwon countries were sent toPlaistow's Department of International Education inorder to benefit from this accumulated expertise. Theygenerally participated in the regular diploma andmasters programmes. In addition, the Department wasfrequently asked by funding agencies to designtailor-made courses for specialist educators fromvarious Erehwon countries.

Consequently, the Department tended to recruit onlystaff who had had substantial experience in thesecountries. The Department became increasinglywell-known for its expertise in Erehwon education andstaff often served as consultants to various agencies.

However, in 1985 the attention of funding bodies beganto move away from Erehwon and was directed more andmore towards Utopia. British aid to Erehwon was cutsubstantially and was transferred to Utopia. Thefunding agencies therefore began to seek out universitydepartments which could offer courses suitable forUtopian educators. Not surprisingly, the Department atPlaistow was perceived as having relatively little tooffer in the field of Utopian education. Inconsequence, the number of students sent to thedepartment by the aid agencies dropped considerablyover the next few years.

These developments coincided with changes in governmentpolicy towards the funding of universities.Increasingly, university departments were required togo through an accounting process which revealed whetherthey were making a loss, breaking even, or making aprofit. As the number of students entering theDepartment of International Education dropped, so theincome of the Department fell. As a result, all thestaff on fixed-term contracts had to be releasedgradually. (Ironically, most of them are now teachingin different parts of Utopia.) The single member ofthe Department with a tenured position was transferredto the Department of the Philosophy of Education, andso the Department of International Education at theUniversity of Plaistow closed its doors for the lasttime in July 1991.

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Appendix 3

Seminar programmeDanford House Seminar 1991

22-27 July 1991

Theme: The social and economic impactof ELT in development

Monday 22 July

1100 Participants arrive

1130 Welcome to Dunford House - Dr Denis Pain,Director, Dunford House

1135 General introduction to seminar -David Clarke, Rex Berridge, English LanguageDivision, British Council

1145 Keynote speech - Dr Roger Iredale, ChiefEducation Advisor, Overseas DepartmentAdministration

1300 Lunch

1400 Dr Desmond Nuttall, Director for EducationalResearch, Paul Redfern, London School ofEconomics

1445 Discussion

1545 English language teaching in Eastern Europe -Roy Cross, English Language Division, BritishCouncil

1630 Discussion

1715 Session ends

Tuesday 23 July

Day organized by University of Leeds, OverseasEducation Unit. Presented by Hywel Coleman, AnnWiseman and Fauzia Shamim

Theme: Perceptions of impact

Wednesday 24 July

0900 Communication skills projects in development -David Clarke, Maggie Jo St John

0945 Gender and development - Sarah Ladbury

1045 Discussion: gender and English language teaching(ELT) in development

1130 Introduction to case studies

1300 Lunch

59

1400 Case studiesYemenCote d'IvoireKenyaUganda

- Claudia Cooper/Veronica Daly- Gerry Greenall- Andrew Thomas- Barry Sesnan

1800 Session ends

Thursday 25 July

Day organized by College of St Mark & St John.Presented by John Burke and Rod Bo litho.

Theme: Socio-economic roles and their implications -views from the grass roots

Friday 26 July

0900 English and imperialism -Dr Robert Phillipson

0945 ELT and development - Dr Roger Bowers, Director,English Language Division, British Councl

1045 Group discussion

1130 Introduction to case studies

1300 Lunch

1400 Case studies:Peru - Isobel RaineyMalaysia - Ray BrownCameroon - Colin Davis/Patrick Mbunwe-SambaSri Lanka - Richard Webber

1800 Session ends

Saturday 27 July

0900 Action plans:Justifying and evaluating ELT aid strategies forELT aid

1045 Action plans continued

1145 Seminar evaluation

1230 Seminar closes

Dunford 1991 participants British Council - Overseas

UK participants Richard Webber - British Council Sri Lanka

Martin Cortazzi - School of Education Andrew Thomas- British Council KenyaUniversity of Leicester

Cyril Weir Centre for Applied Language Studies ELTOsUniversity of Reading

Claudia Cooper Yemen - San'a University LanguageJames Morrison - Moray House College of Education Centre Project

Thelma Centre for English Language Teaching Veronica Daly Ye nen - Sana'a University LanguageHenderson University of Warwick CE ntre Project

Hugh Institute for Applied Language Isobel Rainey Pc ru - English for Secondary SchoolsTrappes-Lomax Studies, University of Edinburgh Pr )jest

John Naysmith - TESOL Unit, West Sussex Institute of Cohn Davis Ca neroon - Anglophone CameroonHigher Education Secondary INSET Project

Michael English Department Barry Sesnan Uganda - Makere University, SchoolConnelly St Mary's College, Strawberry Hill of Education Development Project

John Clegg Department of English Language Gerry Greenall Cote d'Ivoire - National ESP ProjectTraining, Ealing College of HigherEducation Ray Brown Malaysia - 'ITC Language Proficiency

ProjectRoger Flavell - Institute of Education

University of London Brian Bamber Pakistan - ELT Centre, University ofMehran, Hyderabad

Adrian Department of Language StudiesHolliday Christchurch College Canterbury

Overseas participants

OlayinkaQuadri

Fauzia Shamim -

Mary Muchuri

Patrick -Mbunwe-Samba

Nigeria - National UniversitiesCommission

Pakistan - Study Fellow atUniversity of Leeds

Kenya - Study Fellow at Universityof Lancaster

Cameroon - Inspector

UK Collaborating Institutions

Hywel Coleman -

Ann Wiseman

John Burke

Rod Bo litho

Overseas Education UnitUniversity of Leeds

Overseas Education UnitUniversity of Leeds

International Education CentreCollege of St Mark & St John

International Education CentreCollege of St Mark & St John

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Seminar staff (British Council)

David Clarke

Rex Berridge

Marcelle Organ -

2

Course Director

Course Organizer

Assistant Course Organizer

.