dokpdf engleski za pravnike 1 web

8/13/2019 Dokpdf Engleski Za Pravnike 1 Web

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ENGLESKI ZA PRAVNIKE ITANIA BLAEVI, PROF.

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1. Central Features of the EnglishLegal System

Legal Content

1.1 The characteristics of English law1.2 Common law and equity

1.2.1 The development of common law1.2.2 The growth of equity

1.3 Classifications of law1.3.1 Criminal and civil law1.3.2 Substantive and procedural law

Aim

To provide an introduction to some of the central features of the English legal system and

a bacground to your study of the sub!ect.

Language content

Grammar:grammatical terms " noun# verb# ad!ective# adverb$ identifying different

grammatical forms of le%ical items in te%ts$ use of prepositions Oral function:asing for

meaning of words Vocabulary:dictionary use " recogni&ing dictionary order of words$

finding appropriate 'legal( meaning of words

1.1 The characteristics of English law

The United Kingdo doe! not h"#e " !ing$e $eg"$ !%!te. The $"& in S'ot$"nd &"!in($)en'ed *% Ro"n $"& "nd i! di((e+ent (+o the $"& o( Eng$"nd, "$e! "ndNo+the+n I+e$"nd.

The Eng$i!h $eg"$ !%!te i! 'ent+"$i!ed th+o)gh " 'o)+t !t+)'t)+e &hi'h i!'oon to the &ho$e 'o)nt+%. It i! hie+"+'hi'"$, &ith the highe+ 'o)+t! "nd -)dge!h"#ing o+e ")tho+it% th"n the $o&e+ one!. Soe io+t"nt 'h"+"'te+i!ti'! o(Eng$i!h $"& "+e/Eng$i!h $"& i! *"!ed on thecommon lawt+"dition. B% thi! &e e"n " !%!te o(0-)dge "de0 $"& &hi'h h"! 'ontin)o)!$% de#e$oed o#e+ the %e"+! th+o)gh thede'i!ion! o( -)dge! in the '"!e! *+o)ght *e(o+e the. The!e -)di'i"$precedents"+e"n io+t"nt !o)+'e o( $"& in the Eng$i!h $eg"$ !%!te. oon $"& !%!te! "+edi((e+ent (+o the 'i#i$ $"& !%!te! o( e!te+n E)+oe "nd L"tin Ae+i'". Inthe!e 'o)nt+ie! the $"& h"! *een codifiedo+ !%!te"ti'"$$% 'o$$e'ted to (o+ "'on!i!tent *od% o( $eg"$ +)$e!.Eng$i!h -)dge! h"#e "n io+t"nt +o$e in de#e$oing '"!e $"& "nd !t"ting thee"ning o( A't! o( P"+$i"ent.The -)dge! "+e indeendent o( the go#e+nent "nd the eo$e "e"+ing *e(o+ethe. Thi! "$$o&! the to "2e i"+ti"$3de'i!ion!.

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o)+t +o'ed)+e i! accusatorial.Thi! e"n! th"t -)dge! do not in#e!tig"te the'"!e! *e(o+e the *)t +e"'h " de'i!ion *"!ed on$% on the e#iden'e +e!ented tothe *% the "+tie! to the di!)te. Thi! i! '"$$ed the adversarial!%!te o( -)!ti'e.It '"n *e 'o"+ed to theinquisitorial+o'ed)+e o( !oe othe+ E)+oe"n !%!te!&he+e it i! the ()n'tion o( the -)dge! to in#e!tig"te the '"!e "nd to 'o$$e'te#iden'e.

Legal exercises

1.)oo at the statements below and decide whether they are true 'T( or false '*(.

a The law in Scotland is the same as the law in England#b English law has evolved1gradually#c +ost of English law has been codified#

d The common law was developed by the !udges#e The !udiciary is not independent of the government#

f The court structure of the English legal system is the samethroughout the country#

g,ll the courts in the system are of equal authority#hEnglish !udges collect evidence in the cases before them.

2.The aim of the following questions is to help you to begin to understandthe legal implications of the characteristics of English law. Write short answers to eachquestion below and usethem as a basis of a discussion. Compare your answers tothose given in tas 1.

a. -ould a codified system of law mae the law more 'i)certain# or

(ii)fle%ible

b.-hy is it important for !udges to be independent

c.-hat is the disadvantage of an adversarial system of !ustice

Oral work

3. /ou may not understand all the ey words in these discussion questions. 0owwill you as your teacher for an e%planation 0ere are some possible ways

aE%cuse me# cancould you tell me what 4codified4 means b5m afraid 5 dontnow what 4accusatorial4 means. c5m not sure what 4fle%ible4 means. 6oes itmean 4adaptable4

5magine that you do not understand the following terms. ,s each other for ane%planation.

aevolve dhierarchicalbindependent eprecedentccentralised fimpartial

5f you are woring on your own you should use your dictionary to loo up any eywords you do not understand.

Research 4. Find out whether the legal system in your country is adversarial or

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inquisitorial.

1.2 Common law and equit

Thi! i! " 'o$e6 !)*-e't "nd &e &i$$ de"$ &ith it in o)t$ine on$%. O)+ "in )+o!e i! to d+"& "di!tin'tion *et&een 'oon $"& "nd e7)it% "nd the &"% the 'o)+t! "$% the +)$e! o( the!e t&o "+e"!o( $"&. The di((e+en'e! "+i!e (+o thei+ hi!to+i'"$ de#e$oent. Fi+!t $et )! 'on!ide+ &h"t &e e"n *%the &o+d! 0'oon $"&0. 8o) !ho)$d *e "&"+e th"t the% &i$$ '"++% " di((e+ent e"ning "''o+ding tothei+ 'onte6t.

It i! $"& &hi'h i!commonto the &ho$e 'o)nt+% 9 n"tion"$ $"& in 'ont+"!t to $o'"$ $"&.

It i! $"& &hi'h i! *"!ed on -)di'i"$ de'i!ion!(case law)in 'ont+"!t to the $"& &hi'h i! "de *%P"+$i"ent(statute law).

It di!ting)i!he! the 'oon $"& $eg"$ !%!te! *"!ed onprecedents(+o 'i#i$ $"& -)+i!di'tion! *"!ed

oncivil codes.It 'o+i!e! the +)$e! de#e$oed *% thecommon law courtsin 'ont+"!t to the +)$e! de#e$oed *% thecourts of equit.

1.2.1 The development of common law

In S"6on tie! *e(o+e the "++i#"$ o( i$$i" the on7)e+o+ the+e &e+e 'o)+t! in #"+io)! "+t! o(the 'o)nt+% "$%ing $o'"$ ')!to! "nd !oe &+itten $"&! de#e$oed *% S"6on 2ing!. Thi!

oened " ne& e+". At (i+!t the S"6on King! )!ed the e6i!ting $o'"$ 'o)+t! to he$ the +)$e the'o)nt+%, *)t !oon the% *eg"n to !end thei+ o&n -)dge! "+o)nd the 'o)nt+% to he"+ '"!e! $o'"$$%.Thi! en"*$ed the to 'ont+o$ the 'o)nt+% *ette+ "nd "$!o "$$o&ed the to 'oete &ith the $o'"$'o)+t! (o+ the (ee! "id *% $itig"nt!. The +o%"$ 'o)+t! *eg"n to o((e+ *ette+ ethod! o( t+"i$ &hi'h&e+e !o !)''e!!()$ th"t e#ent)"$$% "$$ $"& 'o)+t! '"e )nde+ +o%"$ 'ont+o$. :en'e "t the !"etie the 'oon $"& &"! de#e$oing "d the -)dge! &e+e *eginning to t+"#e$ the 'o)nt+%, 'o)+t!o( 'oon $"& '" into e6i!ten'e.

1.2.2 The growth of equit

on!ide+ the!e 7)e!tion!; ah% did the need (o+ e7)it% "+i!e mean nowadays the principles of law should control procedure.

/egal e&erci!e

-0. Consider the following situation.

Thomas has been charged with murder. 0e is pleading not guilty to the charge. 0is trial is taing

place at *enbury Crown Court. The leading prosecution witness is JC 9oot. 5n his evidence he

states that he saw Thomas running away from the scene of the crime. Thomas has evidence which

suggests that JC 9oot was at home at the time that he said he saw Thomas but the !udge refuses to

let Thomass lawyer question JC *oot about this.

-hen Thomas gives his evidence the !udge allows the prosecuting lawyer to question him. 6uring

the questioning the prosecuting lawyer tells the court that Thomas has previously been found guilty

of a serious criminal offence.

0ow has the procedure of the trial disadvantaged Thomas

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2.The constitution

Legal content

2.1 6efinition and purpose

2.2 Characteristics of the 9ritish constitution

2.2.1The nature of the constitution

2.2.2.The sources of the constitution

2.3.The constitutional role of the !udiciary

2.3.1Jarliamentary sovereignty

2.3.2Separation of powers

2.3.3The rule of law

2.3.H:udicial review

Aim

To e%amine the constitutional framewor of the English legal system and to provide an

introduction to the concepts which form the basis of the system of government in the ;nited

Aingdom. Jarticular emphasis will be placed on the constitutional role of the !udiciary and

some comparisons made with the role of the !udiciary in other countries. The final section will

consider some recent areas of debate arising from the nature of the 9ritish constitution.

Language content

Grammar:dealing with comple% sentences 'using signpost

words($ constructions of the type ought not to have taen Vocabulary:inferencing meaning from conte%t$ forming

antonyms

'un"# in"# N1"# im"( Oral function:asing for repetition

&tudy s"ills:notemaing symbols

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2.1 efinition and purpose

constitution i! " !et o( +)$e! &hi'h de(ine the +e$"tion!hi *et&een the #"+io)! o+g"n! o(go#e+nent "nd *et&een the go#e+nent "nd 'itiHen! o( " 'o)nt+%. It! )+o!e i! to !et the"+"ete+! o( go#e+nent"$ o&e+ "nd the +ight! "nd d)tie! o( the 'itiHen!. The+e(o+e, the'on!tit)tion o( "n% indi#id)"$ 'o)nt+% &i$$ dete+ine the !%!te o( go#e+nent in th"t 'o)nt+%.

Be(o+e &e go on to e6"ine the n"t)+e o( the B+iti!h 'on!tit)tion it i! io+t"nt th"t %o) h"#e "'$e"+ )nde+!t"nding o( &h"t i! e"nt *% the 0o+g"n!0 o+ 0in!tit)tion!0 o( go#e+nent. In thi!'onte6t &e e"n the e6ecutive3 the legislature "nd the 5udiciar. In "ddition, in the UnitedKingdo, themonarchh"! "n io+t"nt 'on!tit)tion"$ +o$e "! he"d o( !t"te.

ocabular%

1. The four organs of government are

athe monarch$

bthe e%ecutive$

cthe legislature$

dthe !udiciary.

;se an English"English law dictionary to chec the meaning of these terms.

e!earch

-. The e%ecutive is a broad term which includes the officials of government departments#but in the ;nited Aingdom the collective name for the principal e%ecutive body is theCabinet which is made up of ministers of the Crown$ for the legislature it1 isJarliament. 5ndividual members of the legislature are called +embers of Jarliament.-hat titles are given to these groupsindividuals in the government of your country

2.2 Characteristics of the ritish constitution

2.2.1 The nature of the constitution

esearch

'. 7ind out answers to the following questions

a.-hen was the ,merican constitution first written

b.Can it be changedc6oes the ;nited Aingdom have a written constitution as the ;S, does

d-ho can alter the rules of the 9ritish constitution

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0. 7a!ed on %our an!wer! to the ue!tion! in 8a!k 3# are the!e !tatement! true or fal!e9

a#nunwrittenconstitutioncanbeeasilychanged;bherearenolegalre&edieswhichtheBritishcourtscanapply

toprotecttherightsofthesubects;

c@arlia&enthasnopowerto&akelawstoprotectindividualrights.d@arlia&ent&ustfollowaspecialproceduretoalteranyconstitutionallaws;eherearenodocu&entscontainingconstitutionallawsintheAnited)ingdo&.f#nunwrittenconstitutionis&orefle+iblethanawrittenconstitution.

A n)*e+ o( i!!)e! +e$"te to the e"+$ie+ de(inition o( " 'on!tit)tion 9 the e6tent "nd 'ont+o$ o(go#e+nent o&e+ "nd the +ote'tion o( the +ight! o( the 'itiHen!. Unde+ " &+itten 'on!tit)tionthe!e "+e #e+% '$e"+$% !t"ted/ (o+ e6"$e, the 'on!tit)tion o( the United St"te! gi#e! Ae+i'"n'itiHen! the +ight, inter aliato (+ee !ee'h, e"'e()$ "!!e*$% "nd +i#"'%. An% $"& "!!ed in'ont+"#ention o( the!e "nd othe+ 'on!tit)tion"$ +ight! '"n *e !t+)'2 do&n *% the Ae+i'"n 'o)+t!

"! )n'on!tit)tion"$ "nd the+e(o+e #oid. E7)"$$% the% '"n en(o+'e the +o#i!ion! o( the'on!tit)tion. The 'o)+t! in the United Kingdo do not h"#e thi!o&e+. In the +e"inde+ o( thi!'h"te+ &e &i$$ e6"ine the +e"!on (o+ thi! "nd the +e$"tion!hi *et&een the -)di'i"+% "nd theothe+ o+g"n! o( go#e+nent.

2egal e+ercises

+. =ncountrieswithaliberalde&ocraticsyste&ofgovern&ent&uche&phasisisplacedontheprotectionofindividualfreedo&andrights.Canyouthinkofsi+rightswhich&aybeconsideredi&portantinthese

countries?

%. Writeashortessayof13!wordsonthenatureoftheconstitutioninyourowncountry.=tshouldstatewhethertheconstitutioniswrittenorunwritten.=fitisthelatterwhatisthereasonforthisandhowareindividualrightsprotected?=fthefor&er;whendiditco&eintoe+istenceandwhy?Whataretheprovisionsrelatingtothe&achineryofgovern&entandtheprotectionofhu&anrights?

Douressayshouldconsistoffourparagraphseachbeginningasfollows>@aragraph 1> he constitution in 4country6 is writtenEunwritten . . . 4follow onwithhistoricalreasons6.@aragraph (>he&ainfeaturesof4countrys6constitutionare...@aragraph >heconstitutionrecognisesanu&berofindividualrightswhichinclude...@aragraph $>heprovisionsintheconstitutionforprotectingtheserightsare...

2.2.2 The sources of the constitution:"#ing e!t"*$i!hed th"t the 'on!tit)tion o( the United Kingdo i! not 'ont"ined in "n% one !ing$edo')ent &e no& need to $oo2 "t the !o)+'e! o( the 'on!tit)tion. Othe+ th"n the !t"t)te!entioned in the +e'eding te6t, the!e '"n *e (o)nd in ')!to, '"!e $"&, *oo2! o( ")tho+it%,E)+oe"n o)nit% $"& C!in'e 134D "nd, o!t io+t"nt,constitutional conventions.The!e"+e in(o+"$ o+ 0o+"$0 +)$e! 9 " 'ode o( +"'ti'e (o+ go#e+nent &hi'h h"! e#o$#ed o#e+ the%e"+!. The% "+e +i"+i$% 'on'e+ned &ith the +e$"tion!hi *et&een the +o&n Co+ on"+'hD "ndthe e6e')ti#e, "nd the e6e')ti#e "nd the $egi!$"t)+e. The (o$$o&ing te6t +o#ide! !oe e6"$e!o( the!e 'on#ention!.

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B% the 'on#ention o( ini!te+i"$ +e!on!i*i$it% entioned in the e6t+"'t e"'h indi#id)"$ '"*inetini!te+ i! he$d +e!on!i*$e (o+ "$$ the "'tion! o( the 'i#i$ !e+#"nt! in hi! o+ he+ ini!t+%/ it +e7)i+e! "ini!te+ to +e!ign i( tho!e 'i#i$ !e+#"nt! "2e "n io+t"nt i!t"2e. One o( the o!t !igni(i'"nte6"$e! o( thi! 'on#ention in +e'ent %e"+! &"! the +e!ign"tion o( the ini!te+ (o+ T+"de "nd Ind)!t+%"(te+ one o( the 'i#i$ !e+#"nt! in hi! de"+tent +e$e"!ed " 'on(identi"$ do')ent in o+de+ toe*"++"!! "nothe+ ini!te+.

ocabular%

4. 5f you do not now these words you could use a dictionary. 0owever# it is always a good idea to considerwhether enough information can be e%tracted from the unnown word to enable you to carry on readingwithout using the dictionary. -ith each of these words that you do not now# as yourself the followingquestions

1. -hat part of speech is it

2. 6oes it loo 'or sound( lie any other word you now in English or another related language

3. 5s it ne%t to or near a nown word which can help you to understand

1. tacit4. e%press5. adhered>. enforce

?. e%pedience@. suffice

3. assent


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Ouestion 2 The lining word or could indicate that tacit and e%press have either similar or contrasting

meanings. /ou will probably conclude that e%press means the opposite of tacit. Ouestion 3 -e have

decided that the usual meaning is not helpful# but you might consider the meaning of the verb to e%press#

that is to state something.

Sometimes it is not necessary to as all the questions

!uffice

Ouestion 1 Since it follows must it is a verb.Ouestion 2 5t loos lie sufficient so it probably means.......................................................

Chec that you remember some of the ey words

aThe opposite of tacit is............................

b, rule which is reached by agreement is called a................................cThe head of state in the ;nited Aingdom is called.................................

'several answers are possible(.

dJarliament consists of the 0ouse of )ords and................................eThe leader of the government is the...............................

/egal e&erci!e!

'. -hich conventions are involved in the following situationsaThe government is defeated on a ma!or issue in the 0ouse ofCo&&ons.he@ri&e


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@aragraph c>heconseGuencesofabreachofaconventionwilldependupon...4relateyourco&&entstoparagraphb6.

@aragraph d>Constitutionalconventionshavetheadvantageofbeingfle+iblebecause...4thenco&paretowrittenconstitutions6.

2.' The constitutional role of the 5udiciar

2.'.1 /arliamentar sovereignt

The do't+ine o( parliamentar sovereignt go#e+n! the +e$"tion!hi *et&een the$egi!$"t)+e "nd the -)di'i"+%.

An "ddition"$ (e"t)+e o( the do't+ine o( "+$i"ent"+% !o#e+eignt% i! th"t e"'h ne& P"+$i"ent i!!)+ee. The t+"dition"$ #ie& i! th"t no P"+$i"ent '"n $iit the "'tion! o( " ()t)+e P"+$i"ent. )'ho( the de*"te in thi! "+e" 'ent+e! on the i!!)e o( " Bi$$ o( Right!. Unde+ the t+"dition"$ #ie& o("+$i"ent"+% !o#e+eignt% " Bi$$ o( Right! en"'ted *% one P"+$i"ent 'o)$d *e +ee"$ed *% it!!)''e!!o+. e &i$$ $oo2 "t thi! !)*-e't in o+e det"i$ in the (in"$ !e'tion o( thi! 'h"te+.

Anothe+ +e'ent de*"te i! the i"'t o( B+it"in0! e*e+!hi o( the E)+oe"n o)nit% on the!o#e+eignt% o( P"+$i"ent.

/egal e&erci!e!

1;. An!wer the!e ue!tion!.

a.To which relationship does the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty applyb. -hat test do the courts apply to test the validity of legislation in the ;A

c. -hat legal authority is there for the rule that !udges must obey Jarliament

d. -hy was the Supreme Court of the ;nited States able to strie down thelegislation on racial discrimination in$ro'nv.$oard of ducation)

e. 5n 1DD> the 9ritish government presents the *emale Education 9ill toJarliament. Section 1 of the 9ill states 8o blue"eyed female child shall receive afull"time education after reaching the age of ten years. The legislation is approvedby a ma!ority of both 0ouses of Jarliament and receives the ?oyal ,ssent.

a-ill the 9ritish courts be obliged to enforce this law

b-ould your answer be different if 9ritain had a written constitutionguaranteeing a right to full"time education up to the age of si%teen years

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2.'.2 eparation of powers

Anothe+ (e"t)+e o( the B+iti!h 'on!tit)tion &hi'h i! +e$e#"nt to the 'on!tit)tion"$ +o$e o( the-)di'i"+% i! the theo+% o( theseparation of powers. Thi! theo+% &"! "+ti')$"+$% de#e$oed *%the F+en'h o$iti'"$ !'ienti!t, onte!7)ie).

The theo+% h"! *een '+iti'i!ed (o+ *eing )+i!t 9 th"t i!, it i! "n i+"'ti'"$ ode$ to &hi'h theB+iti!h !%!te o( go#e+nent doe! not 'on(o+. Fo+ e6"$e, e*e+! o( the e6e')ti#e "+e "$!oe*e+! o( the $egi!$"t)+e 9 the he"d o( the -)di'i"+%, the Lo+d h"n'e$$o+, i! " e*e+ o( the"*inet. E7)"$$%, the 'o)+t! e+(o+ "n% "dini!t+"ti#e ()n'tion!.

The 'on!tit)tion o( the United St"te! &"! e6+e!!$% *"!ed on the !e"+"tion o( o&e+! 9 thee6e')ti#e CP+e!identD, the $egi!$"t)+e CSen"teJ :o)!e o( Re+e!ent"ti#e!D "nd the -)di'i"+%CS)+ee o)+tD "+e di!'+ete*odie!. B)t e#en the United St"te! go#e+nent doe! not 'on(o+e6"'t$% to the theo+%. E"'h *od% e6e+'i!e! 'ont+o$ o#e+ the ()n'tion! o( the othe+! th+o)gh "'o$e6 !%!te o( 'he'2! "nd *"$"n'e!. Fo+ e6"$e, the P+e!ident "oint! the -)dge! to theS)+ee o)+t *)t hi! noin"tion! )!t *e "+o#ed *% the Sen"te, "nd &e h"#e "$+e"d% !eenth"t the -)di'i"+% h"! the 'on!tit)tion"$ +ight to !t+i2e do&n $egi!$"tion "! )n'on!tit)tion"$.

B% 'ont+"!t, in F+"n'e, the theo+% o( !e"+"tion o( o&e+! i! the +e"!on &h% the 'o)+t! do noth"#e the -)+i!di'tion to 7)e!tion the $eg"$it% o( the "'t! o( the e6e')ti#e "nd the $egi!$"t)+e.

It i! gene+"$$% "''eted th"t " +e'i!e !e"+"tion o( the ()n'tion! o( go#e+nent i!i+"'ti'"*$e. onte!7)ie)0! theo+% !ho)$d *e !een "! +e!'+iti#e4?+"the+ th"n de!'+iti#e, it!e!!en'e *eing th"t no one e+!on o+ *od% !ho)$d h"#e ()$$ 'ont+o$ o( "$$ th+ee ()n'tion! o(go#e+nent. In "+ti')$"+, the 'o)+t! !ho)$d *e indeendent o( the e6e')ti#e "nd the $egi!$"t)+e!o th"t the -)dge! '"n en!)+e th"t the!e *odie! do not e6e+'i!e thei+ o&e+! "+*it+"+i$%.

o&prehension check11. 7illinthe&issingwordsfro&thewordsinthebo+below.

hereare4a6...................&ainfunctionsofgovern&ent.hesearethe4b6.....................the4c6......................andthe4d6.......................hetheoryofseparationofpowersstatesthatthesefunctionsshouldbecarriedoutby4e6.......................bodies.heBritishconstitutiondoesnot4f6......................tothistheory.hesa&epeopleare&e&bersofthe4g6....................andthe4h6....................andthereareso&e4i6...................functionswhicharecarriedoutbythecourts.hedistinctionisclearerintheconstitutionofthe4?6...........................wherethee+ecutive;legislativeandudicialrolesareperfor&edby4k6..................bodies.hetheoryis4=6........................ratherthan4&6.................oftheliberalsyste&ofgovern&ent;anessentialfeatureofwhichisthatthe4n6....................shouldbe4o6....................ofthe4p6.................andthe4G6...................

independent; legislature; Anited Htates; confor&;e+ecutive; udicial; three; different; prescriptive;e+ecutive;udiciary;ad&inistrative;legislature;descriptive;legislative;different;e+ecutive.

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Focabulary12. Whenfor&ingandrecognisingopposites4antony&s6thereareseveralprefi+eswhichcanbeused;fore+a&pleunI4asinunknown6.

hefollowingwords;whichhavebeenused inChapters1 or(; canbe usedwiththeprefi+esunI;inI;ilIori&Itofor&theiropposites.Writethe&downusingthecorrectprefi+.alawful iustice

bfa&iliar ?partialitycpractical keGuitabledlegal =writtenefair &practicablefvalid nconstitutionalgdependence olicitJh&ake

5B>heseprefi+esoftenindicateanopposite&eaningbutthesa&eletters4e.g.i&I;inI6alsooccurinwordswherethisisnotthecase;fore+a&plei&portant;influence.

Research1. o what e+tent does the govern&ent of your country confor& to the theory of

separationofpowers?oanswerthisGuestionyoushouldidentifythethreeorgansofgovern&entinyourcountryandfindoutwhethertheirfunctionsareperfor&edbydifferentpeopleorbodies.

Legal exercises

14. Write a short essay of &'' words on what you understand by the separation of powersand the reasons for maintaining it. (ou should include a discussion on whether the theoryapplies to the )ritish constitution and make comparisons with other countries including yourown. (ou may find the following essay plan helpful*

a "efine the theory,b The reasons for the theory.c To what e%tent does it apply to the )ritish constitution#d +ompare with the constitutions of other countries.

2.'.'. The rule of law

8o) !ho)$d *e "&"+e o( the t&o "in 'h"+"'te+i!ti'! o( the B+iti!h 'on!tit)tion. The!e "+e;

P"+$i"ent i! the !)+ee o+g"n o( go#e+nent, "nd)nde+ " !oe&h"t $oo!e "$i'"tion o( thetheo+% o( !e"+"tion o( o&e+!, the 'o)+t! "+e indeendent o( P"+$i"ent "nd the e6e')ti#e.

e !h"$$ no& de#e$o the 'on!tit)tion"$ i$i'"tion! o( the!e thee! *% e6"ining the &"%! in&hi'h the 'o)+t! '"n 'ont+o$ the "'tion! o( the e6e')ti#e. In thi! 'onte6t &e "+e t"$2ing "*o)t thee6e')ti#e in it! *+o"d !en!e "! the "dini!t+"to+! o( the !%!te o( go#e+nent.It i! io+t"nt to )nde+!t"nd '$e"+$% th"t the 'o)+t! h"#e no o&e+ to +e#ie& themeritso(e6e')ti#e "'tion/ th"t i! the% "+e not 'on'e+ned &ith the 7)e!tion; 0I! thi! "'tion +ight o+&+ong


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The +in'i$e o( the +)$e o( $"& e*odie! o+e th"n the +e7)i+eent th"t go#e+nent "'t! &ithinit! $eg"$ o&e+! *)t "$!o th"t it "'t! in "''o+d"n'e &ith the +e'ogni!ed +in'i$e! o( liberaldemocrac.

Fi+!t $et )! !e"+"te the t&o "!e't! o( " "+ti')$"+ !it)"tion.

". A n)*e+ o( !)!e'ted e+!on! h"d *een inte+ned )nde+ the !t"t)to+% o&e+! o( the i#i$A)tho+itie! CSe'i"$ Po&e+!D A't CNo+the+n I+e$"ndD 144.*. =)+ing the e+iod o( inte+nent (o)+teen inte+nee! h"#e *een !)*-e'ted to i$$9t+e"tentd)+ing inte++og"tion. The+e &"! no !t"t)to+% ")tho+it% (o+ the!e inte++og"tion +o'ed)+e!.

No& $et )! "$% the t&o o+igin"$ 7)e!tion! to the !e"+"te i!!)e!;

1 a 8s the act of internment right or wrong9Inte+nent i! " #e+% 'ont+o#e+!i"$4+o'ed)+e. It'o)$d *e "+g)ed th"t to i+i!on eo$e inde(inite$% &itho)t the *eing 'h"+ged &ith"nd (o)nd g)i$t% o( "n% 'ond)'t &hi'h i! i$$eg"$ i! "n "*)!e 5 o( h)"n +ight! "ndthe+e(o+e &+ong. A$te+n"ti#e$% it '"n *e "+g)ed th"t !)'h "n "'tion *% the St"te i!ne'e!!"+% to !"(eg)"+d the n"tion"$ inte+e!t d)+ing &"+ o+ othe+ tie! o( '+i!i!. Toe6"ine the!e "+g)ent! i! to e6"ine themeritso( the +o'ed)+e "nd thi! i! not the()n'tion o( the B+iti!h 'o)+t!.

b 8s the act of internment lawful or unlawful9The+e i! no do)*t th"t it &"! $"&()$ )nde+the o&e+! o( "n A't o( P"+$i"ent 9 the i#i$ A)tho+itie! CSe'i"$ Po&e+!D A'tCNo+the+n I+e$"ndD 144. I( "n "'tion h"d *een *+o)ght *e(o+e the 'o)+t! to 'h"$$enge the#"$idit% o( inte+nent it &o)$d h"#e *een dete+ined on thi! *"!i!.

2 a :ere the interrogation procedures right or wrong9 Ag"in to "n!&e+ thi! 7)e!tion &e&o)$d need to $oo2 "t the e+it! o( the +o'ed)+e! &hi'h "+e "! 'ont+o#e+!i"$ "!inte+nent. h"t "+g)ent! '"n %o) thin2 o( (o+ "nd "g"in!t !)'h "'tion!


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The 'o)+t o( (i+!t in!t"n'e (o+ '+iin"$ '"!e!, the +o&n o)+t, i! *o)nd *% the :o)!e o( Lo+d!"nd the o)+t o( Ae"$/ the $o&e!t 'o)+t! in the hie+"+'h%, the 'o)nt% 'o)+t "nd the "gi!t+"te!0'o)+t! "+e *o)nd *% the :igh o)+t, the o)+t o( Ae"$ "nd the :o)!e o( Lo+d!. No 'o)+t i!*o)nd *% the de'i!ion! o( the!e $o&e+ 'o)+t!.

Sin'e 134 &hen B+it"in -oined the E)+oe"n o)nit%, the o!ition o( the E)+oe"n o)+to( )!ti'e )!t "$!o *e 'on!ide+ed. Thi! &i$$ *e e6"ined in det"i$ in h"te+ 1 *)t %o) !ho)$d

*e "&"+e th"t it i! " 'o)+t o( +e(e++"$ in +e$"tion to E $"& "nd not " 'o)+t o( "e"$, "$tho)gh it!de'i!ion! on the inte++et"tion o( E $"& "+e *inding on B+iti!h 'o)+t!.

ere are !ome of the court! in the >ngli!h legal !%!tem

Courts e.ercising criminal jurisdiction

Courts e.ercising civil jurisdiction

CQ;?T Q* ,JJE,)

Civil 6ivision Criminal 6ivision

0570 CQ;?T Q* :;ST5CE

Chancery

6ivision

*amily

6ivision

Oueens

9ench

6ivision

CQ;8T/ CQ;?TS+,75ST?,TES CQ;?TS

omrehen!ion check

1. 6ecide whether the following statements are true or false

aQnly the 0igh Court is bound by decisions of the Court of ,ppeal.

bThe 0ouse of )ords is bound by its own precedents#cThe 0igh Court must always follow the precedents set by the 0ouse of )ords.

dEnglish courts are not bound by the European Court of :ustice.

/egal e&erci!e!

-. -hat is meant by the doctrine ofstare decisis)

3. -hat was the significance of the 1D Jractice Statement

0. -hen may the Court of ,ppeal depart from its own previous decisions

2. -hat is the position of the European Court of :ustice in the English legal system

'.1.2 The binding element in precedents

In the 'o)+!e o( " -)dgent " -)dge &i$$ !"% "n% thing!, not "$$ o( &hi'h "+e *inding. Fo+ the)+o!e! o( -)di'i"$ +e'edent " -)dgent 'o+i!e! t&o "+t!; theratio decidendi "ndo$iterdictumC!ee the e6t+"'t *e$o& (o+ e6$"n"tion! o( the!e te+!D. It i! the ratio decidendi&hi'h i!

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e+!)"!i#e. Thi! i! " de*"t"*$e "!!e+tion theneigh*o)+ +in'i$e h"! *een the *"!i! o( "n%!)''e!!()$ $eg"$ "'tion! in#o$#ing di((e+ent ("'t)"$ !it)"tion!.

A di+e't "$i'"tion o( the +in'i$e '"n *e (o)nd in the -)dgent o( =eni! :en+% in the '"!eo(Tutton % others v. #. D. &alter Ltd.1@M B @1. The $"inti((! 2et *ee! ne"+ $"nd ("+ed *%the de(end"nt!. The de(end"nt! !+"%ed thei+ $"nd "nd '+o o( oi$ !eed +"e &ith in!e'ti'ide, 2i$$ingthe *ee!. The de(end"nt! 2ne& the in!e'ti'ide &"! d"nge+o)! to the *ee! *)t the% ("i$ed to gi#e the

$"inti((! "de7)"te &"+ning o( the !+"%ing. The $"inti((! !)ed the de(end"nt!, *"!ing thei+ "'tion onLo+d At2in0! neigh*o)+ +in'i$e inDonoghue#.Stevenson.Note ho& the -)dge "$ie! the +in'i$eto the !e'i(i' ("'t! o( the '"!e.

Per=eni! :en+% ;I t)+n then to "$% Lo+d At2in0! te!t inDonoghue#.Stevenson154M A ?@4, ?. Fi+!t; &"! !+"%ing "noti'e"*$% %e$$o& oi$ !eed +"e (ie$d &ith :o!t"thion $i2e$% to in-)+e *ee!< $e"+$% the "n!&e+ )!t *e %e!.Se'ond; &"! thi! +e"!on"*$% (o+e!ee"*$e< Ag"in, %e!, the de(end"nt! 2ne& *oth o( the ? d"nge+!, "nd o( the

+e!en'e o( the *ee 2eee+! &ithin the "+e" Cthe $"tte+4@ (+o " +e#io)! !+"%ing in'ident the %e"+ *e(o+eD. Iti! not " '"!e &he+e the de(end"nt! &e+e igno+"nt o( the +e!en'e o( *ee 2eee+!. Thi+d; o)ght then thede(end"nt! to h"#e h"d the *ee 2eee+! in thei+ 'onte$"tion< Ag"in, the "n!&e+ to th"t i! not on$% %e!,the% o)ght to, *)t in the e#ent the% did/ 10the+e i! the in!t+)'tion the de(end"nt! g"#e to +. oon to &"+nthe *ee 2eee+!. The+e i! no !)gge!tion th"t the de(end"nt! &e+e igno+"nt o( the e6i!ten'e o( "n% o( the!e

$"inti((!.I the+e(o+e 'on'$)de th"t the $"inti((! &e+e o&ed " d)t% o( '"+e.

omrehen!ion check

4. -hat would the formerR and the latterR refer to in te%ts

Thi! '"!e i! " good e6"$e o( " !i$e "$i'"tion o( the neigh*o)+ +in'i$e "nd '$e"+$% i$$)!t+"te!the oint "de in the e6t+"'t on . > th"t -)dge! in $"te+ '"!e! "% "$% "ratioin di((e+ent ("'t)"$!it)"tion!. O( 'o)+!e, not "$$ '"!e! "+e !o !t+"ight(o+&"+d. The '"!e o('edley( "yrne % Co. Ltd#.'eller % Partners Ltd1@>M A >@? +o#ide! " o+e 'o$e6 e6"$e.

;. A"+t (+o the *"!i' ("'t! the+e "+e t&o io+t"nt &"%! in &hi'h thi! '"!e '"n*e di!ting)i!hed (+oDonoghue#.Stevenson.

Vocabulary

%. Find words in the excerpt which have similar meanings to those listed below:a responsibleb carelessc clearly statedd wrong reports.

Language and information check

1#. In order to revise some prepositions and review information in th< above excerpt, form sixsentences, choosing one item from ead column below:

a The bankers inuired with his advice.

b !e had dealings for a large company.

c They relied to the loss.

d "he sued him on its readers.

e # newspaper is not financially

accountable for his negligence

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f The bank was not responsible into the financial situation.

The distinguishing facts inHedley Byrnev.Hellerwere,

i. the case involved negligent words or statements as opposed to negligent actions3 andii. the plaintiffs had suffered financial loss rather than phsical in5ur.

8o) &i$$ !ee th"t the!e di!ting)i!hing ("'t! $ed the :o)!e o( Lo+d! to +e!t+i't the neigh*o)+ +in'i$e&hi'h i! *"!ed on (o+e!ee " *i$i$ o( h"+. The% "dded the ()+the+ +e7)i+eent o( " 0!e'i"$ +e$"tion!hi

*et&een the $"inti((! "nd the de(end"nt!. Thi! h"! *e'oe theratiodecidendio( the '"!e. A! &ith the neigh*o)+ +in'i$e the n"t)+e o( " 0!e'i"$ +e$"tion!hi0 h"!*een dete+ined *% !)*!e7)ent '"!e! in#o$#ing (in"n'i"$ $o!! !)((e+ed "! " +e!)$t o( neg$igent&o+d! 9 "nd !o the '"!e $"& de#e$o!.

/egal e&erci!e!

11. 6istinguish betweenratio decidendiandobiter dicta-hat is the significance of thedistinction

12. -hat is the difference between reversing and overruling1'. -hy do you thin it was necessary for the 0ouse of )ords to distinguish between negligentwords and negligent acts inedley $yrnev.eller)

14. ,s a lawyer# you are consult by your client# +rs 7amble# over the following problem. Qnwhich case precedent would you base your advice and why

+rs 7amble had inherited G1I#III when her rich uncle died. She consulted her ban

manager# +iss 8ugget# on the best way to invest the money. Qn the basis of her advice +rs

7amble bought G>#III worth of shares in 5ntoil pic. She invested the remaining G>#III in a

construction company called Awibuild pic after reading an article about the company in a

national newspaper. 9oth companies were financially unsound at the times +rs 7amble

invested in them and si% months later both 5ntoil pic and Awibuild pic have ceased trading

and +rs 7amble has lost all her money.

This last type of question is very common in legal study$ it is called a problem question. There

is a special technique for answering these questions which is different from the usual essay

technique. 5t can be quite simply stated although in practice it is more difficult

a. 5dentify the area's( of law involved " often there will be more than one.

b. State what the law is in the relevant area's( by an analysis of cases.

c. ,pply the law to the facts of the problem# particularly analysing any facts which

distinguish the problem from the relevant case law.

,lthough you are in a way being ased to act as a !udge in problem questions it is not

important that you reach a decision " often the case law will be uncertain so that it will not be

possible to do so. The questions are a test of your ability to recognise the legal issues involved

and to analyse the law.

Evaluation

One o( B+it"in0! *e!t 2no&n "nd, indeed, 'ont+o#e+!i"$ -)dge! !t"ted the '"!e (o+ g+e"te+ ($e6i*i$it% in

the 'oon $"&. :e "+g)ed th"t the )+o!e o( the $"& i! to "'hie#e -)!ti'e "nd th"t "t tie!, thi!"% +e7)i+e " de"+t)+e (+o the e6i!ting +)$e! o( -)di'i"$ +e'edent. In "+ti')$"+ he "d#o'"ted th"tthe o)+t o( Ae"$ !ho)$d *e (+ee to o#e++)$e it! o&n +e#io)! de'i!ion! in the !"e &"% "! the:o)!e o( Lo+d! i! "*$e to do.

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iscussion

1+. Thin2 "*o)t the!e 7)e!tion! "! %o) di!')!! the "d#"nt"ge! "nd the di!"d#"nt"ge! o( -)di'i"$+e'edent.

". :o& doe! 'e+t"int% in the $"& "'hie#e -)!ti'eD ? LR >.

8itle. Qrdinary print and inverted commas indicate that this is not a boo but a !ournal article.

@ear of journal.

/aw Buarterl% eview.olume number

Page number

'.2 tatute law

St"t)te $"& i! the $"& en"'ted *% P"+$i"ent. In !e'tion 4.5.1 on "+$i"ent"+% !o#e+eignt% &ee6"ined the !)+ee $egi!$"ti#e o&e+! o( P"+$i"ent "nd eh"!i!ed the 'on!tit)tion"$ ("'t th"t

the -)di'i"+% h"#e no ")tho+it% to 7)e!tion the #"$idit% o( "n A't o( P"+$i"ent. Ne#e+the$e!! -)dge!do h"#e "n io+t"nt +o$e in +e$"tion to $egi!$"tion; P"+$i"ent "!!e! the $"&!, "nd the 'o)+t! "$%the to indi#id)"$ '"!e!. B)t *e(o+e the $"& '"n *e "$ied the -)dge! )!t de'ide on it! e"ning.Thi! +o'e!! i! '"$$edstatutor interpretation.

Be(o+e e6"ining thi! +o'e!! in o+e det"i$ %o) !ho)$d !t)d% the no+"$ +o'ed)+e o( " Bi$$th+o)gh P"+$i"ent. An indi#id)"$ ie'e o( $egi!$"tion i! 2no&n "! " Bi$$ d)+ing it! $egi!$"ti#e +o'e!!"nd '"$$ed "n A't "(te+ +e'ei#ing the Ro%"$ A!!ent. Un$e!! othe+&i!e !e'i(ied, "n A't 'oe! into(o+'e on the d"% it +e'ei#e! the Ro%"$ A!!ent.

'.2.1. The purpose of statutor interpretation

hen inte++eting !t"t)te! the 'o)+t! "+e !"id to *e !ee2ing the 0intention o( P"+$i"ent0.Thi! !e"+'h i! "! di((i')$t "! th"t (o+ theratio decidendio( " '"!e. P"+$i"ent 'o+i!e!"n% indi#id)"$ e*e+! o( P"+$i"ent &ho "% h"#e di((e+ent #ie&! on "n% one!)*-e't. See2ing the 'oon intention o( !)'h " di!"+"te g+o) &o)$d *e " !e')$"ti#e"nd io!!i*$e t"!2. In thi! !en!e the 0intention o( P"+$i"ent0 i! " h+"!e &ith $itt$ee"ning.

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". The )+o!e o( !t"t)to+% inte++et"tion the+e(o+e i! to (ind the e"ning o( the &o+d!)!ed in the !t"t)te. A! eo$e !t)d%ing in " (o+eign $"ng)"ge %o) &i$$ *e "+ti')$"+$% "&"+e th"t &o+d!"+e o(ten 'o$e6 "nd "*ig)o)! "nd (inding thei+ e"ning i! not "n e"!% t"!2.

/anguage note

2#. So often replaces a word or clause which has already been used in the same or previoussentence. 5t can be used formally in writing or informally in conversation.

>&amle:, :ohnsa' t8e +rime Minister yesterday99 6id he say so 'so @ that he saw the J+ yesterday(

>&amle:+any people feelt8at a $ill of %ig8ts 'ould increase t8e *rotection of *ersonalliberties

The )abour party thins so but the Conservative party does not. 'so @ that a 9ill

. . .(

0egal e6ercises

21. There are four possible interpretations of the following simple sentence. -hat are they:ohn met Jeter and he raised his hat.

22. -hich of the following would you consider to be a vehicle

a a carb a pramc a bicycled an aeroplane.

-hich of the following would you consider to be a building

aa tentba houseca garden shed d a caravan.

'.2.2 ids to interpretation

Gi#en th"t &o+d! "+e "n ie+(e't e"n! o( 'o)ni'"tion " n)*e+ o( "id! h"#e e#o$#ed to"!!i!t -)dge! in the inte++et"tion o( !t"t)te!. The ne6t e6t+"'t +o#ide! "n o)t$ine o( !oe o(the!e "id! *)t *e "&"+e th"t !t"t)to+% inte++et"tion i! not " !'ienti(i' +o'e!! "nd the!e 0+)$e!0 o(inte++et"tion "+e gene+"$ +in'i$e! +"the+ th"n !t+i't +)$e!.

Let )! no& "dd !oe det"i$! *% e6"ining !oe '"!e! in#o$#ing the '"non! o( 'on!t+)'tion.

The 0iteral ule,London % )orth Eastern *ailway Co. +. "erriman$1%4*& A2"; !0The !t"t)te in thi! '"!e io!ed " d)t% on +"i$&"% 'o"nie! to +o#ide "n "de7)"te &"+ning!%!te &hene#e+ +"i$&"% &o+2e+! &e+e 0+e"i+ing o+ +e$"%ing0?? the +"i$&"% $ine. The $"inti((!h)!*"nd &"! 2i$$ed &hi$!t oi$ing "nd '$e"ning the +"i$&"% oint!. No &"+ning !%!te h"d *een+o#ided. The :o)!e o( Lo+d!, *% " th+ee to t&o "-o+it%, he$d th"t + Be++i"n h"d *eeneng"ged inmaintainingthe +"i$&"% $ine "t the tie o( hi! de"th "nd thi! &"! not the !"e "!0+e"i+ing "nd +e$"%ing0 it.It i! inte+e!ting to note in thi! '"!e th"t the L"& Lo+d! in !ee2ing the 0$ite+"$ "nd )!)"$0 e"ningo( the &o+d! 0+e"i+ing "nd +e$"%ing0 +e"'hed di((e+ent 'on'$)!ion!/ th"t i! the ino+it%

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'on!ide+ed th"t + Be++i"n0! "'tion! did 'oe &ithin the e"ning o( 0+e"i+ing "nd +e$"%ing0.Thi! gi#e! " '$e"+ i$$)!t+"tion o( the di((i')$t% in dete+ining the e"ning o( &h"t ight "e"+to *e #e+% !i$e &o+d!.

The ?olden ule,#dlerv.,eorge$1%*4& 2 - "The de(end"nt &"! 'h"+ged )nde+ !e'tion 5 o( the O((i'i"$ Se'+et! A't 14 &hi'h +o#ide! th"tno e+!on !h"$$ 0in the #i'init% o( " +ohi*ited $"'e0 o*!t+)'t "n% e*e+ o( :e+ "-e!t%0!(o+'e!. Geo+ge &"! 'h"+ged )nde+ !e'tion 5 "(te+ ente+ing " ini!t+% o( =e(en'e "i+(ie$d. :e"+g)ed th"t he &"! not in the #i'init% o(, *)t "'t)"$$% in " +ohi*ited $"'e "nd h"d the+e(o+e not'oitted the o((en'e "''o+ding to the &o+d! o( the !t"t)te. :i! "+g)ent &"! +e-e'ted 9 !)'h "ninte++et"tion o( the A't &o)$d $e"d to "*!)+dit% "nd n)$$i(% it! )+o!e. The 'o)+t inte++eted theo((en'e "! 0inor in the #i'init% o(.

The ischief ule,Smithv.'ughes$1%*#& 1 :0 ;'#Se'tion 1C1D o( the St+eet O((en'e! A't 1? "de it " '+iin"$ o((en'e 0(o+ " 'oon +o!tit)te

to $oite+ o+ !o$i'it

in " !t+eet o+ )*$i' $"'e (o+ the )+o!e o( +o!tit)tion0. The de(end"nt &"!'h"+ged "(te+ !o$i'iting (+o the *"$'on% o( he+ o&n hoe. She "e"$ed "g"in!t he+ 'on#i'tion)nde+ the A't, '$"iing th"t !he &"! not !o$i'iting 0in the !t+eet o+ )*$i' $"'e0. Lo+d P"+2e+ "+o"'hed the '"!e *% 0'on!ide+ing the i!'hie( "ied "t in the A't0. Thi! &"! to 0en"*$e eo$eto &"$2 the !t+eet &itho)t *eing o$e!ted o+ !o$i'ited *% 'oon +o!tit)te!0. It did not "tte+th"t !he h"d *een !t"nding on the *"$'on% o+ in the !t+eet. :e+ "e"$ &"! +e-e'ted.

2'. /egal e&erci!e!

a. -hat is the constitutional reason for !udges seeing to find the intention of Jarliament when

interpreting statutes

b. -hy does the need for statutory interpretation arise

c. 6istinguish between internal and e%ternal aids. 7ive e%amples of both.

d. -hy do you thin Jarliament enacted the statute which was at issue in the $errimancase 6oyou thin the decision of the ma!ority of the 0ouse of )ords in that case reflected the intention of Jarliament

There is a particular technique to use in answering questions which require you to apply legislation to

a given situation

i. 6ecide on the words which will require interpretation.

ii. ,nalyse the words on the basis of your nowledge of the rules of statutory interpretation.

iii. ,pply your analysis to the situation.

,pply this technique to the following question.

e. Consider the fol lowing situations in the light of the relevant statutory provisions

aSection H of the Qffensive -eapons ,ct 1DDH provides ,nyperson found carrying a gun# pistol# nife or any otheroffensive

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weaponshallbeguiltyofacri&inaloffence.'a&esischargedunderthe#ctafterbeingfound

carryingapieceofbrokenglasswhichhehadpickedupoffthestreet.

bhe/&ployers2iability4-efective/Guip&ent6#ct19%9section1416reads>Where;aftertheco&&ence&entofthis#ctI4a6ane&ployeesuffersapersonalinuryinthecourseofhise&ploy&entinconseGuenceofadefectineGuip&entprovidedbyhis

e&ployerforthepurposeofhise&ployersbusiness0and4b6thedefectisattributable39

whollyorpartlytothefaultofathirdperson4whetheridentifiedornot6;theinuryshallbe

dee&edtobeattributabletonegligenceonthepartofthee&ployer...

Hection146reads>=nthissectionIeGuip&entincludesanyplantor&achinery;vehicle;

aircraftandclothing...personalinuryincludeslossoflife...

BertisasailoronboardtheMorning &tar (asupertanker6.8ewase&ployedbyranspo

picwhoownedthevessel.heshipsinksonitsfirstvoyageasaresultofadefectinits

construction.Bertsuffersseriousinuriesintheincident.Rose;whoisalsoe&ployedby

ranspopic;isontheshipforafreerideasarewardforthirtyyearsservicetotheco&pany.

Rosediesintheaccident.

'.2.' eform

The '"!e o(London % )orth Eastern *ailway Co.#."errimani! "n i$$)!t+"tion o( the &"% in&hi'h " !t+i't "dhe+en'e to the $ite+"$ "+o"'h to !t"t)to+% inte++et"tion "% ("i$ to "'hie#e the)+o!e o( " !t"t)te 9 o+ the intention o( P"+$i"ent. The "+g)ent in ("#o)+ o( !)'h "n "+o"'hi! *"!ed on the do't+ine o( "+$i"ent"+% !o#e+eignt%; the 'o)+t! )!t "''et the &o+d! )!ed *%P"+$i"ent "nd not !ee2 to g)e!! it! intention o+ )+o!e i( thi! '"nnot *e +e"di$% !)o+ted *%the &o+d! )!ed. I( thi! $e"d! to in-)!ti'e it i! (o+ P"+$i"ent to 'h"nge the !t"t)te.

The o!t #o'"$ '+iti' o( thi! "+o"'h &"! Lo+d =enning. :e enth)!i"!ti'"$$% "doted &h"th"! *e'oe 2no&n "! the 0)+o!i#e "+o"'h0 to !t"t)to+% inte++et"tion. Thi! i! "n e6ten!ion o(the i!'hie( R)$e &hi'h $oo2ed *e%ond the &o+d! o( the !t"t)te to it! )+o!e. Thi! "+o"'h+e'ei#ed $itt$e -)di'i"$ !)o+t. The 'on($i'ting !t"teent! o( Lo+d =enning "nd Lo+d Siond!

in-agor % St -ellors *ural District Council #.)ewort Cororation1?1M 4 A$$ ER 5high$ight the -)di'i"$ 'on($i't.

Crammar

24. ;nreal conditionals 'in the past( are formed as follows

5f had past participle# wouldcouldmight have past participle.

*or e%ample 5f the legislature had discovered the gap# it would have filled it in.

These conditionals are called unreal because in fact both actions did not happen.

A"+t (+o the 'on!tit)tion"$ i$i'"tion! o( Lo+d =enning0! "+o"'h it i! "+g)ed th"t "n e6'e!!o( -)di'i"$ '+e"ti#it% &o)$d $e"d to indi#id)"$ -)dge! dete+ining &h"t i! 0+ight "nd -)!t0. Thi!'o)$d +e!)$t in "'')!"tion! o( *i"! "nd +e-)di'e. Ne#e+the$e!! the+e h"! *een " gene+"$ '+iti'i!o( " !t+i't "dhe+en'e to the Lite+"$ R)$e. The L"& oi!!ion +eo+tThe Interpretation of

StatutesCL"& o. No. 41D "+o#ed the )!e o( the i!'hie( R)$e, +e(e++ing 0" 'on!t+)'tion&hi'h &o)$d +oote the gene+"$$egi!$"ti#e )+o!e o#e+ one &hi'h &o)$d not0. Lo+d =enning0!'""ign h"! )ndo)*ted$% $ed to " o+e ($e6i*$e -)di'i"$ "+o"'h to !t"t)to+% inte++et"tion.

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ocabular%

2+. ,d!ectives can usually be recognised by their suffi%es 'endings( and this can help yourunderstanding of a te%t.

;sing the nouns and verbs below# choose appropriate suffi%es to form ad!ectives. The

following suffi%es will be needed "ive# "able# "al# "ory# "ary# "ing# "ent. ',ll the ad!ectives

have already been used in the boo.(

Noun Adjective

defect reason law

description

continent

statute

convention

e%cess

equity

hierarchy

discretion

Verb Adjective

elude

neglect

foresee

coerce

precede

attribute

speculate

reconcile

distinguish

2*. -rite an essay of >II words on the following statement

hene#e+ the !t+i't inte++et"tion o( " !t"t)te gi#e! +i!e to "n "*!)+d "nd )n-)!t !it)"tion, the -)dge! '"n"nd !ho)$d )!e good !en!e to +eed% it 9 *% +e"ding &o+d! in, i( ne'e!!"+% 9 !o "! to do &h"t P"+$i"ent&o)$d h"#e done, h"d the% h"d the !it)"tion in ind.

PerLo+d =enning,)ortham#."arnet Council13M 1 LR 44

Essay questions in the form of a quotation are very common. 9efore writing your essay thin

carefully about the meaning of the quotation and its particular emphasis in relation to the topic.

/ou will rarely be ased to provide only factual information$ you must also be prepared tocomment critically on the sub!ect and to analyse the relevant areas of debate or controversy.

?ead the following essay plan to help you structure your essay properly.

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2". $i!cu!!ion

a. -hat is the aim of the !udges when they are interpreting statutes

b. -hat is the constitutional reason for this aim

c. -hat difficulties are involved in achieving this aim

d. -hy is statutory interpretation necessary

e. -hat aids are available to assist !udges in the interpretation of statutes

f. -hat is str ict interpretation and how does it lead to absurd and un!ust situations

g. -hat approach to interpretation is )ord 6enning advocating -hy is it controversial

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The courts

,ummar%

Legal content

H.1. Classification of the courts

H.2. The civil courts

H.2.1. Small claims

H.2.2. ?eform

H.3.The criminal courts

H.3.1.The decision to prosecute

H.3.2.The classification of offences and the criminal courts

H.3.3. ?eview

H.H. Tribunals and arbitration

Aim

To provide a factual account of the structure of the English courts based on the distinction

between civil and criminal courts# and courts of first instance and appellate courts. , critical

assessment of the functions and purpose of the system will be included together with an

analysis of proposals for reform.

Language content Grammar:long noun phrases

Vocabulary:dictionary use " using guidewords$ verb noun collocations$ negative affi%es '"

less# dis"# mis"(

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4.1 Classification of the courts

8o) &i$$ no& *e ("i$i"+ &ith the di!tin'tion *et&een 'i#i$ "nd '+iin"$ $"&/ thi! di!tin'tion i!+e($e'ted to !oe e6tent in the !t+)'t)+e o( the 'o)+t!. Be(o+e %o) +e"d the (o$$o&ing e6t+"'t %o)!ho)$d "$!o *e "&"+e o( the di((e+en'e *et&een 'o)+t! o( (i+!t in!t"n'e "nd "e$$"te 'o)+t!. The'o)+t in &hi'h " '"!e i! (i+!t he"+d i! '"$$ed thecourt of first instance.In "$o!t "$$ '"!e! it i!o!!i*$e to "e"$ to " highe+ 'o)+t (o+ +e'on!ide+"tion o( the de'i!ion o( the o+igin"$ 'o)+t. The!e'o)+t! "+e '"$$edappellate courts.A$tho)gh the+e i! no '$e"+ di!tin'tion *et&een the 'i#i$ "nd '+iin"$ 'o)+t! o+ 'o)+t! o( (i+!tin!t"n'e "nd "e$$"te 'o)+t!, it i! )!)"$ to de"$ &ith the indi#id)"$ 'o)+t! )nde+ tho!e he"ding!.

4.2 The civil courts

Be(o+e e6"ining the!e 'o)+t! in o+e det"i$ $et )! 'on!ide+ thei+ )+o!e. i#i$ "'tion! t"2e$"'e *et&een t&o o+ o+e indi#id)"$! in di!)te. The!e di!)te! '"n t"2e "n% (o+!, (o+e6"$e *et&een neigh*o)+!, ("i$ie!, 'o"nie!, 'on!)e+! "nd "n)("'t)+e+!. It i! the

()n'tion o( the 'i#i$ 'o)+t! to "d-)di'"te on the!e di!)te!. =i((e+ent t%e! o( di!)te! &i$$ +e7)i+edi((e+ent (o+! o( "d-)di'"tion/ !oe di!)te! &i$$ *e o+e !e+io)! "nd 'o$e6 th"n othe+!.

The!e di((e+en'e! "+e +e($e'ted in the 'o)+t !%!te/ the -)+i!di'tion o( the 'o)+t! i! $iited *% thet%e o( '"!e "nd, &ith the $o&e+ 'o)+t!, *% the geog+"h% "nd the "o)nt o( the '$"i. Fo+

e6"$e, the 'o)nt% 'o)+t! "+e $iited in to+t "nd 'ont+"'t '"!e! to in'ident! &hi'h o'')++ed&ithin thei+ $o'"$it% "nd to '$"i! &hi'h do not e6'eed ?,.

Comprehension chec@

1. #nswer these Guestionsa Whatarethecivilcourtsoffirstinstance?bWhowillhearacaseinthe8ighCourt?cWhatistheter&usedforthepartywhoappealstoahighercourt?

dWhatisthe&osti&portantcivilcourtoffirstinstance?e7ro&whichcourtswillanappeallietotheCourtof#ppeal?fowhichcourtwillanappealliefro&the&agistratescourt?gWhatisthehighestappellatecourt?hWhatappealprocedurewasintroducedbythe#d&inistrationof'ustice#ct

19%9?

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-ictionary use

2. Whichpagewillthewordbeon?Whenlookingforaworditisusefultolookatthetopofthepagewherethefirstandlastentriesonthatpageareprinted.7ore+a&ple;ifyouarelooking

forappellateyouwill find it 'in;8e Cassell Concise nglis8 ata%ia " adhere

sticle " stilt

C wicer"wild

illegible " imagine

5 dispossess " disseminate

D organs " ormolu

E !unet " !ustify

/ ignorantine " illegal

F materia medica " matting

G wrap " wring

O constitution " consummate

4.2.1 mall claims

e h"#e "''eted th"t '"!e! &i$$ di((e+ in !e+io)!ne!! "nd 'o$e6it% "nd th"t the 'o)+t !%!te!ho)$d t"2e "''o)nt o( th"t ("'t 9 " !t+"ight(o+&"+d "'tion (o+ the +e'o#e+% o( " 4 de*t &i$$+e7)i+e di((e+ent +"'ti'e "nd +o'ed)+e (+o " di!)te o#e+ " 'oe+'i"$ 'ont+"'t in#o$#ing "'o$e6 oint o( $"& "nd " '$"i (o+ ?, d""ge!. Thi! i! not to !"% th"t "$$ '"!e!in#o$#ing !"$$ !)! o( one% &i$$ *e !i$e "! +eg"+d! the $"& "nd the de(inition o( " !"$$'$"i *"!ed on (in"n'i"$ $iit! i! ne'e!!"+i$% "+*it+"+%. Ne#e+the$e!!, the "-o+it% o( '"!e! "+enot 'o$e6 "nd it i! io+t"nt th"t the !%!te +o#ide! "n e((i'ient e"n! o( +e!o$#ing the!edi!)te!. ithin the (o+"$ 'o)+t !%!te thi! i! done th+o)gh the 'o)nt% 'o)+t "+*it+"tion!e+#i'e. The (o$$o&ing "+"g+"h! +o#ide "n o)t$ine o( thi! +o'ed)+e.

The +e!ent 'o)nt% 'o)+t! &e+e !et ) in 1>@ to +o#ide " $o'"$$% *"!ed !e+#i'e &hi'h &"!

e"!i$% "''e!!i*$e to o+din"+% eo$e. Fig)+e! +o#ided *% the on!)e+ o)n'i$ in it! 13+eo+t,ustice out of *each(!ho&ed th"t the 'o)nt% 'o)+t! h"d *e'oe +i"+i$% " de*t9'o$$e'tion "gen'% in &hi'h the "-o+it% o( "'tion! &e+e t"2en o)t "g"in!t the o+din"+% e+!on;0("+ (+o *eing the 'o)+t o( the o+din"+% e+!on "! $"inti((, it &"! the 'o)+t in &hi'h theo+din"+% e+!on &"! !)ed (o+ de*t0. E7)"$$%, 'o)nt% 'o)+t +o'ed)+e h"d *e'oe too (o+"$ "nde6en!i#e to ()$(i$ it! o+igin"$ )+o!e. In +e!on!e the "+*it+"tion !'hee &"! int+od)'ed in135.

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The o+igin"$ -)+i!di'tion o( the "+*it+"tion !'hee &"! to he"+ '$"i! in#o$#ing $e!! th"n 3?. Iti! no& "nd"to+% (o+ "$$ '$"i! o( $e!! th"n ?, "nd "% *e )!ed, i( *oth "+tie! "g+ee, indi!)te! in#o$#ing $"+ge+ !)!.

CThe+e i! " +o#i!ion (o+ 'e+t"in '"!e! in#o$#ing 'o$e6 $eg"$ i!!)e! to *e +e(e++ed to " highe+'o)+t.D The '"!e i! he"+d *% the Regi!t+"+ o( the 'o)nt% 'o)+t C"n 0"!!i!t"nt0 -)dge &ho i!

e$o%ed *% the 'o)+t "nd &ho!e +o$e i! "dini!t+"ti#e "nd -)di'i"$D.

The (i+!t !t"ge i! the +e$iin"+% 'on!ide+"tion/ the Regi!t+"+ &i$$ di!')!! the di!)te &ith the"+tie! "nd de'ide ho& the '"!e i! to *e 'ond)'ted. In #e+% !i$e '"!e! it "% *e o!!i*$e to+e!o$#e the di!)te "t thi! !t"ge. I( the '"!e goe! to ()$$ "+*it+"tion the +o'ed)+e i! $e!! (o+"$th"n in the 'o)nt% 'o)+t.

It i! io+t"nt to +e"$i!e th"t 0"+*it+"tion0 in the $eg"$ !%!te doe! not h"#e the $"% e"ning o('on'i$i"tion "nd 'o+oi!e, "!, (o+ e6"$e, in "n ind)!t+i"$ di!)te. The 'o)nt% 'o)+t"+*it+"tion !'hee i! "d#e+!"+i"$ in &hi'h one "+t% 0&in!0 "nd the othe+ 0$o!e!0.

=)+ing the he"+ing the Regi!t+"+ &i$$ he"+ *oth !ide! to the di!)te "nd "% '"$$ e6e+t &itne!!e!.Leg"$ +e+e!ent"tion i! e+itted *)t no 'o!t! (o+ thi! "+e "&"+ded. Thi! i! to di!'o)+"ge the )!eo( $"&%e+! &ho h"#e " tenden'% to 'o$i'"te "nd (o+"$i!e e#en " !i$e '"!e A(te+'on!ide+ing the e#iden'e the Regi!t+"+ &i$$ gi#e -)dgent. The+e i! no +ight o( "e"$ "g"in!t thede'i!ion o( the Regi!t+"+ "$tho)gh the de'i!ion "% *e 'h"$$enged on #e+% $iited g+o)nd!, e.g.e#iden'e o( i!'ond)'t *% the Regi!t+"+.

The "+*it+"tion !'hee h"! *een +e$"ti#e$% !)''e!!()$ in in'+e"!ing "''e!! to the 'o)+t! (o+ theo+din"+% eo$e &ho "2e ) 5 e+ 'ent o( the $"inti((!. :o&e#e+, it h"! *een '+iti'i!ed (o+ !ti$$*eing too 'o$e6; in "+ti')$"+ the "d#e+!"+i"$ !t%$e o( en7)i+%, "$tho)gh odi(ied, 'ontin)e! todi!"d#"nt"ge "nd intiid"te "n% o+din"+% eo$e. The+e i! gene+"$ "g+eeent th"t "nin7)i!ito+i"$ (o+ o( he"+ing &o)$d *e o+e "+o+i"te in !"$$ '$"i! "'tion!, "$$o&ing theRegi!t+"+ to $"% " o+e "'ti#e +o$e. Re'ent $egi!$"ti#e +e(o+! in thi! "+e" &i$$ *e 'on!ide+ed inthe ne6t !e'tion.

omrehen!ion check

4. Complete the summary below with words from the list which follows$ you may use a word morethan once.

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in addition# because# e%cess# formal# nevertheless# agree# informal# informality# access#

although# more# less# permitted# may# formality# must# discouraged# disagree# should.

The arbitration scheme was set up+a)...............................county courtswere no longer fulfilling their purpose of providing+b).............................to

ordinary people in a fairly(c)............................. situation and withoute%cessive(d)......................or cost. Small claims of up to G>II(e)..................be heard by the scheme$ larger claims+f)..................................

also be heard if both sides(g)........................Jarties(h)......................berepresented by lawyers but this is+i)..........................,lthough rules arefollowed# the atmosphere is(5)........................formal than in the countycourts$(@).....................the procedure is said still to be very comple%and to frighten many people.

e!earch

2. *ind out the names of the civil courts in your country. Set them out in a diagram# noting

which courts are courts of first instance and which are appellate courts.

/egal e&erci!e!

6. 7eorge had agreed to sell his car to 8igel for G2II. 7eorge has delivered the car but 8igel

refuses to pay the money. 7eorge wishes to tae legal action to enforce the contract. 0e sees your advice

on the following

aTo which courts may he apply to enforce the payment b5f he is dissatisfied with the

result to which court's( may he appeal

4. ,ngela is seriously in!ured in a road accident caused by Jercys negligence. She estimates

her damages to be G>I#III.

a5n which court would the legal action tae place b5f her action is unsuccessful# to which

courts may she appeal

0.-.- eform

hi$!t it i! thefunctiono( the 'i#i$ 'o)+t !%!te to "d-)di'"te on di!)te!, it!aim!ho)$d *e to do !oe((i'ient$% "nd ("i+$%. The 'o++e't *"$"n'e *et&een the!e t&o +e7)i+eent! i! not e"!% to "!!e!! o+"'hie#e. An e((i'ient !%!te &hi'h i! 7)i'2 "nd 'he" "% not +o#ide "n "de7)"te oo+t)nit% (o+the $itig"nt! to +e"+e "nd +e!ent thei+ '"!e. E7)"$$%, de$"% "nd e6en!e '"n $e"d to in-)!ti'e. The+e&"! in'+e"!ing '+iti'i! th+o)gho)t the 1! th"t e6i!ting 'i#i$ +o'ed)+e &"! neithe+ e((i'ient no+("i+. St"ti!ti'! !eeed to !)o+t the!e '+iti'i!!. In e+!on"$ in-)+% '"!e! the "#e+"ge e+iod o( tie(+o "''ident to !ett$eent in the :igh o)+t &"! (i#e %e"+!/ in > e+ 'ent o( '"!e! the 'o!t!in#o$#ed in *+inging the "'tion &e+e highe+ th"n the "o)nt o( d""ge! "&"+ded CZ"nde+,Cases and

-aterials on the English Legal System(eiden(e$d Ni'ho$!on, 1D. o!t! "nd de$"%! "+e $e!! inthe 'o)nt% 'o)+t! *)t the% $e"#e no +oo (o+ 'o$"'en'%. The go#e+nent +e!onded to the!e'+iti'i!! *% )nde+t"2ing " "-o+ +e#ie& o( the 'i#i$ -)!ti'e !%!te.

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/anguage oint = comound noun!

'. 5n formal and academic English you often find quite long phras composed of several nouns.

a a one court entry systemb a new case flow management system

c leave entitlementsd a new in"court arbitration systeme the new small claims arbitration limit

5f you have any difficulty understanding these phrases# try starting v the article 'athe( and the

first ad!ective 'e.g. new( and then the 5 noun$ after that read the ne%t to last noun and so on.

*or e%ample becomes

a new system 'of( management 'of the( flow 'of( case's(

English compound nouns are constructed bacwards in contras some other languages. 5f youloo ateyou will realise that the sec ad!ective belongs to the first noun# thusthe new limit 'for the( arbitration 'of( small claims

(. 8ow trya# candd.

A! " +e!)$t o( the 'i#i$ -)!ti'e +e#ie& the Lo+d h"n'e$$o+, Lo+d 'K"% int+od)'ed +e(o+ing$egi!$"tion to P"+$i"ent 9 the o)+t! "nd Li Se+#i'e! Bi$$. The Bi$$ +e'ei#ed the Ro%"$ A!!ent in$"te 1. o!t o$ +o#i!ion! +e$"te to the de+eg)$"+i!"tion o( the $eg"$ +o(e!!ion/ the!e *ee6"ined in h"te+ @. The A't gi#e! the Lo+d h"n'e$$o+ the o&e+ to di!t+i*)te *)!ine!!*et&een the :igh o)+t "nd the 'o)nt% 'o)+t! on *"!i! o( the 'o$e6it% o( indi#id)"$ '"!e!.The (in"n'i"$ $iit o( ?, '"!e! he"+d *% the 'o)nt% 'o)+t! i! the+e(o+e +eo#ed.The +oo!"$ h"! *een gene+"$$% &e$'oed in theo+% *)t (e"+! h"#e * e6+e!!ed o#e+ ho& the!%!te &i$$ &o+2 in +"'ti'e. The 'o)nt% 'o)+t! "$+e"d% o#e+*)+dened "nd de$"% i! " g+o&ing

+o*$e. An% in'+e"!e in &o+2$o"d o( the 'o)nt% 'o)+t! &itho)t 'oen!"ting "dini!t+"ti#e+e(o+ &i$$ de(e"t the )+o!e o( the +oo!ed 'h"nge!.The o)+t! "nd Leg"$ Se+#i'e! A't "$!o en"'t! the +oo!"$ in the -)!ti'e +e#ie& th"t the +o$e o(the Regi!t+"+ in !"$$ '$"i! "'tion! !ho)$d o+e in7)i!ito+i"$. It "$!o gi#e! " !t"t)to+% +ight to$itig"nt! to +e+e!ented *% " $"%e+!on. Thi! i! "+t o( the o$i'% o( the L h"n'e$$o+ to *+e"2 the$eg"$ +o(e!!ion0! onoo$% on +ight! o( ")dien'e. Thi! i! di!')!!ed o+e ()$$% in h"te+ @.

4.' The criminal courts

hi$!t the )+o!e o( the 'i#i$ 'o)+t! i! to "d-)di'"te on di!)te! *et&een indi#id)"$! "nd to+o#ide " +eed% (o+ the &+onged "+t%, the )+o!e o( the '+iin"$ 'o)+t! i! to dete+ine&hethe+ the "'')!ed e+!on h"! 'oitted " '+ie "nd to )ni!h the &+ongdoe+. The *"$"n'e+e7)i+ed i! *et&een the need to +ote't !o'iet% "nd the need to en!)+e, "! ("+ "! o!!i*$e, th"t

on$% the g)i$t% "+e )ni!hed. Gi#en the !e+io)! 'on!e7)en'e! &hi'h '"n +e!)$t (+o *eing'on#i'ted o( " '+iin"$ o((en'e, it i! ne'e!!"+% to +o#ide !"(eg)"+d! "g"in!t &+ong()$'on#i'tion. One &"% i! th"t the *)+den o( +oo( i! on the +o!e')tion to +o#e 0*e%ond +e"!on"*$edo)*t0 th"t the "'')!ed 'oitted the o((en'e 'h"+ged. Thi! '"n *e 'o"+ed &ith the *)+den o(+oo( in 'i#i$ "'tion! &he+e it i! (o+ the $"inti(( to !ho& th"t the de(end"nt i! $i"*$e 0on the*"$"n'e o( +o*"*i$itie!0, th"t i! the de(end"nt i! o+e $i2e$% to *e $i"*$e th"n not. A$!o '+iin"$'o)+t +o'ed)+e !ee2! to en!)+e " ("i+ he"+ing *% io!ing #e+% !t+i't "nd (o+"$ +)$e! o(e#iden'e C'o"+e the ($e6i*$e +o'ed)+e! in the 'o)nt% 'o)+t "+*it+"tion !'heeD. "n% othe+!"(eg)"+d! +e$"te to the o&e+! o( the o$i'e..

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4.'.1. The decision to prosecute

iscussion

1;. a. ho '"n !t"+t '+iin"$ +o'eeding!*e he"+d in 'o)+t. A! &ith'i#i$ "'tion!, '+iin"$ o((en'e! #"+% in !e+io)!ne!! "nd 'o$e6it%. The!e di((e+en'e! "+e "g"in+e($e'ted in the '+iin"$ 'o)+t !%!te. The (o$$o&ing te6t o)t$ine! the &"% in &hi'h o((en'e! "+e'$"!!i(ied "nd the 'o)+t! o( (i+!t in!t"n'e "nd "e"$.

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Pre"reading exercise

1-. 7nswer briefly the following questions.

aWhat is a summary offence#

b8ive an e%ample,

cWhat is an indictable offence#

d8ive an e%ample.

eWhat are offences triable either way#

f8ive e%amples.

The+e "+e th+ee t%e! o( '+iin"$ o((en'e; !)"+%, indi't"*$e "nd t+i"*$eeithe+ &"%. The n"t)+eo( the o((en'e &i$$ dete+ine the ode o( t+i"$.

S)"+% o((en'e! "+e the $e!! !e+io)! o((en'e! !)'h "! ino+ oto+ing o((en'e!. The!eo((en'e! "+e t+ied in the "gi!t+"te!0 'o)+t, &itho)t " -)+%, *e(o+e " *en'h o( th+ee $"%"gi!t+"te!o+ one !tiendi"+% "gi!t+"te. The "gi!t+"te! &i$$ he"+ the e#iden'e "nd +e"'h " #e+di't. I( the#e+di't i! 0not g)i$t%0 the de(end"nt &i$$ *e "'7)itted/ i( 0g)i$t%0 the "gi!t+"te! &i$$ "!! !enten'e.The !enten'ing -)+i!di'tion o( the "gi!t+"te!0 'o)+t! i! $iited to io!ing " (ine o( ) to1, o+ " "6i) +i!on !enten'e o( !i6 onth!. A '"!e +e7)i+ing " he"#ie+ )ni!hent)!t *e +e(e++ed to the +o&n o)+t (o+ !enten'ing. The de(end"nt "% "e"$ to the +o&no)+t (o+ " +et+i"$ o+ to the =i#i!ion"$ o)+t o( the )een0! Ben'h =i#i!ion o( the :igh o)+t 0*%&"% o( '"!e !t"ted0. Thi! i! on the *"!i! th"t the "gi!t+"te! &e+e &+ong in $"& o+ in e6'e!! o(-)+i!di'tion. The "gi!t+"te! "+e +e7)i+ed to 0!t"te the '"!e0 Cgi#e +e"!on!D (o+ thei+ #e+di't. Thi!(o+ o( "e"$ i!, )n)!)"$$%, "#"i$"*$e to the +o!e')tion "! &e$$ "! the de(en'e. A ()+the+ "e"$to the :o)!e o( Lo+d! i! "#"i$"*$e in '"!e! in#o$#ing io+t"nt 7)e!tion! o( $"&.

Indi't"*$e o((en'e! "+e the o!t !e+io)! o((en'e!/ e6"$e! "+e )+de+, "n!$")ghte+, +"e"nd "+!on. The +o'ed)+e (o+ t+%ing the!e o((en'e! *egin! in the "gi!t+"te!0 'o)+t &ith0'oitt"$ +o'eeding!0. :e+e it i! the +o$e o( the "gi!t+"te! to 'ond)'t " +e$iin"+% en7)i+%into the +o!e')tion0! e#iden'e "nd to de'ide &hethe+ it (o+! " +i" ("'ie '"!e "g"in!t the"'')!ed. I( not, the '"!e &i$$ *e di!'h"+ged. Thi! i! not the !"e "! "n "'7)itt"$ "! the+o!e')ting ")tho+itie! '"n *+ing the '"!e *e(o+e the 'o)+t "g"in i( ()+the+ e#iden'e *e'oe!"#"i$"*$e/ " e+!on &ho h"! *een "'7)itted o( " 'h"+ge '"nnot *e t+ied (o+ the !"e o((en'e"g"in. I( " +i" ("'ie '"!e i! e!t"*$i!hed, " ()$$ t+i"$ &i$$ t"2e $"'e in the +o&n o)+t *e(o+e "-)dge "nd " -)+% o( t&e$#e o+din"+% eo$e. It i! the +o$e o( the -)dge in thi! ()$$ t+i"$ to +)$e onoint! o( $"& "nd, i( the de(end"nt i! (o)nd g)i$t%, to "!! !enten'e. The -)+% "!!e!!e! the ("'t!"nd +e"'he! " #e+di't. The de(end"nt "% "e"$ "g"in!t 'on#i'tion o+ !enten'e to the +iin"$=i#i!ion o( the o)+t o( Ae"$. Unde+ the +iin"$ )!ti'e A't 1, the+o!e')tion "% "$!o"e"$ to the o)+t o( Ae"$ (o+ the !enten'e to *e in'+e"!ed. A ()+the+ "e"$ to the :o)!e o(Lo+d! "% *e "$$o&ed on "n io+t"nt oint o( $"&.

O((en'e! t+i"*$e eithe+ &"% "+e o((en'e! &hi'h '"n *e 'oitted in " !e+io)! o+ ino+&"%. B)+g$"+% "nd the(t"+e e6"$e! o( the!e o((en'e!. The% "% *e t+ied !)"+i$% inthe "gi!t+"te!0 'o)+t o+ on indi'tent in the +o&n o)+t. The "gi!t+"te! &i$$dete+ine the ode o( t+i"$ t"2ing into "''o)nt !)'h ("'to+! "! the !e+io)!ne!! o( theo((en'e "nd the o!!i*$e "+o+i"te !enten'e. The "'')!ed '"n in!i!t on t+i"$ *% -)+% inthe +o&n o)+t *)t not on !)"+% t+i"$, i( the "gi!t+"te! de'ide th"t the '"!e !ho)$d*e t+ied on indi'tent. The t+i"$ +o'ed)+e &i$$ then (o$$o& the !)"+% o+ indi't"*$e(o+ "! di!')!!ed +e#io)!$%.

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g"o$ed (o+ i$$eg"$ o!!e!!ion o( e6$o!i#e!. The 0G)i$d(o+d Fo)+0 "nd the 0Bi+ingh" Si60'$"ied th"t the% h"d *een *e"ten &hi$!t in o$i'e ')!tod% in o+de+ to o*t"in 'on(e!!ion! (+othe. The "g)i+e ("i$% 7)e!tioned the #"$idit% o( the (o+en!i' e#iden'e on &hi'h thei+'on#i'tion &"! *"!ed. A$$ tho!e 'on#i'ted "e"$ed th+o)gh the (o+"$ "e"$ +o'ed)+e!/ the!e&e+e di!i!!ed.In 1, "! " +e!)$t o( +e'ei#ing (+e!h e#iden'e, the :oe Se'+et"+% +e(e++ed the '"!e o( the

0G)i$d(o+d Fo)+0 *"'2 to the o)+t o( Ae"$. The o)+t o( Ae"$ (+eed the en "nd the :oeSe'+et"+% !et ) "n en7)i+% into thei+ '"!e "nd th"t o( the "g)i+e ("i$%, he"ded *% Si+ ohn"%. The $"tte+ '"!e h"! *een +e(e++ed to the o)+t o( Ae"$ *% the :oe Se'+et"+% &ho h"!!t"ted th"t thei+ 'on#i'tion! "+e )n!"(e "nd '"n no $onge+ !t"nd. The '"!e o( the 0Bi+ingh"Si60 h"! "$!o *een +e(e++ed *"'2 to the o)+t o( Ae"$.The "% en7)i+% +e#e"$ed !e+io)! &e"2ne!!e! in the !%!te o( '+iin"$ -)!ti'e &hi'h h"! $ed to'"$$! (o+ the e!t"*$i!hent o( "n indeendentt+i*)n"$ to +e"+e e#iden'e "nd to in#e!tig"te"e"$!. "n% o( the &e"2ne!!e! high$ighted *% the en7)i+% h"#e to !oe e6tent *een +eo#ed *%'h"nge! &hi'h h"#e t"2en $"'e !in'e the tie o( the o+igin"$ 'on#i'tion!/ the PS h"! t"2en o#e++o!e')tion! (+o the o$i'e "nd the +iin"$ E#iden'e A't 1> h"! $"'ed !t+i'te+ 'ont+o$! ondetention "nd inte++og"tion +o'ed)+e!, *)t o!t o( the!e +e(o+! "+e not "$i'"*$e to !)!e'tedte++o+i!t!. "n% eo$e *e$ie#e th"t the -)dge! "+e too &i$$ing to "''et +o!e')tion e#iden'e "nd the&ho$e "d#e+!"+i"$ !%!te o( -)!ti'e h"! *een 7)e!tioned. A 'h"nge to "n in7)i!ito+i"$ !%!te &o)$d

h"#e "n eno+o)! i"'t on the &ho$e !%!te o( -)!ti'e/ it i! not !oething &hi'h '"n *e)nde+t"2en $ight$% o+ !eedi$% *)t the +e!)$t! o( the "% en7)i+% indi'"te th"t )'h 'o)$d *e done toi+o#e the e6i!ting !%!te &itho)t )nde+t"2ing !)'h " +"di'"$ +e(o+ o( t+i"$ +o'ed)+e.

4.4 Tribunals and arbitration

The (o+"$ 'o)+t! "+e not the on$% e"n! o( !o$#ing di!)te!/ "d-)di'"tion in'+e"!ing$% t"2e! $"'eo)t!ide the 'o)+t !%!te. Thi! i! " ()+the+ +e($e'tion o( the need to !)it the (o+ o( di!)te +e!o$)tionto the n"t)+e o( the di!)te in#o$#ed. The t&o "in (o+! o( e6t+"?59'o)+t "d-)di'"tion "+e t+i*)n"$!"nd "+*it+"tion. Let )! $oo2 (i+!t "ttribunals.

Pre"reading chec

22. Think about the following questions*

aWhat is the purpose of tribunals#

bWhy has there been a rapid growth in the use of tribunals over recent years#cWhy do you think that the writer believes that tribunals are the most important courts in

the country for the ordinary citi9en#

8o) &i$$ !ee th"t 0"dini!t+"ti#e0 t+i*)n"$! "+e '+e"ted *% !t"t)te to +e!o$#e di!)te! "+i!ing (+o the+e$e#"nt !o'i"$ $egi!$"tion. In 'ont+"!t,arbitrationi! " +i#"te e"n! o( "d-)di'"tion, "++"nged "nd"g+eed *et&een the "+tie! in#o$#ed. It i! )!ed in "n% di((e+ent !it)"tion! (+o the +e!o$)tion o(

'o$e6 'oe+'i"$ di!)te! to tho!e in#o$#ing 'o"+"ti#e$% ino+ di!"g+eeent! *et&een the!)$ie+! o( good! "nd !e+#i'e! "nd the 'on!)e+. The "d#"nt"ge! o( "+*it+"tion "+e !ii$"+ to tho!e o(t+i*)n"$!; !eed, $o&e+ 'o!t!, ($e6i*i$it%, in(o+"$it% "nd "d-)di'"tion *% "n e6e+t. The!e "d#"nt"ge!)!t o( 'o)+!e *e *"$"n'ed "g"in!t the di!"d#"nt"ge!. The+e i! the "+g)ent th"t 'he"e+, 7)i'2e+ "nd$e!! (o+"$ he"+ing! +e!)$t in " oo+ 7)"$it% !e+#i'e "nd " t&o9tie+ !%!te o( "d-)di'"tion, "nd th"t the$eg"$t+"ining o( -)dge! "nd the (o+"$ +)$e! o( 'o)+t +o'ed)+e h"#e *een de#e$oed to en!)+e "("i+ t+i"$. Ne#e+the$e!! the in'+e"!ing )!e o( t+i*)n"$! "nd "+*it+"tion !ee! to indi'"te th"t the%"+e " o)$"+ &"% o( +e!o$#ing di!)te!. On " &ide+ oint, the% "$!o in'+e"!e th oint! o( "''e!!to -)!ti'e (o+ the o+din"+% e+!on.

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ocabular% review

9elow are three different e%ercises to help you remember some of the vocabulary.

-3. Complete the table below

Verb Noun Adjective

arbitrate aUUUUUU V

bUUUUUU...

cUUUUU.. claimant V

dUUUUUUU

eUUUUUUU fUUUUUUU.. V

ad!udication

gUUUUUUUU administrator iUUUUUU.

hUUUUUU..

!UUUUUUUU. UUUUUUU.. lUUUUUUU.

intimidated

-0. 5n Chapter 3 four common negative prefi%es were practised 'un"# in"# N1"# im"(. Three other

negative affi%es are "less# e.g. hopeless# dis"# e.g. dissatisfied# and mis"# e.g. misread '@ read inaccurately(.

Try and use the correct affi% to form opposites of the words below. 5n some cases you will have to mae

other changes.

auseful dagree

bconduct ecolourful

cencourage fpersuade

-2. Complete the sentences below using one or two words

aThe claimWWWWWWWWWWWWWG>#III 'i.e. was for more than G>#III(.b, person who appeals is called"""""""""""""""""""""""""

c+oney which is owed is called"""""""""""""""""""""""""""

dWWWWWWWWWWWWWhas a similar meaning to compulsory.

e,WWWWWWWWWWWWWis a person involved in a civil case.

f, WWWWWWWWWWWWWW magistrate is paid# whereas a """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""

magistrate is not.

g+inor motoring offences areWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWoffences but murder is

WWWWWWWWWWoffence.

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e!earch

-6. -hat facilities for the ad!udication of disputes outside the formal court system are available in your

country

/egal e&erci!e!

-4. Choose two teams from your group to debate the following propositionThe civil courts in the English legal system do not provide an adequate means ofad!udication in the ma!ority of disputes.

*ollow the instructions for the preparation and performance of the debate which areprovided at the end of Chapter 2. /ou will need to reread carefully the sections in thischapter on the civil courts# tribunals and arbitration. The relevant issues areaThe aims of the civil !ustice system# bThe e%isting machinery of the system# c0owadequate is it for the ma!ority of disputes d-ill the reforms contained in the Courtsand )egal Services ,ct improve the system

5f you are woring on your own# prepare a written argument for each side of the debatetaing into account the preceding points.

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eference!

?ussell B )oce '2II1( nglis8 La' and LanguageCassell

8a&ario '1DDI( &treet La' -est

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