DOI: 10.4018/IJCBPL.2017100103

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

Copyright©2017,IGIGlobal.CopyingordistributinginprintorelectronicformswithoutwrittenpermissionofIGIGlobalisprohibited.

Domestication of Smartphones Among Adolescents in Brunei DarussalamAnnie Dayani Ahad, School of Business & Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam

Muhammad Anshari, School of Business & Economics, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam

Abdur Razzaq, Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah, Palembang, Indonesia

ABSTRACT

This article describes how smartphones have converged into multifunctional personal devices.SmartphonesareequippedwithfeaturessuchasInternetaccess,cameras(picturesandvideos)andMP3players.Whileamajorityofpreviousresearchinvestigatedtheuseandeffectsofmobilephonesandyoungpeople,thesestudiesfocusedontheWesterncontext.Aqualitativeresearchmethodwasusedtoinvestigatetheresearchquestions.Specifically,focusgroupsandin-depthinterviewswereusedtocollectdata.Nevertheless,whileagrowingnumberofstudieshasinvestigatedmobilephoneuse by teenagers in non-western countries, there is little research on smartphone uses and theirimplicationstoteenagersinanIslamiccontext.Thisarticleexaminestheusesofsmartphonesby,andtheirimplicationsto,Bruneianteenagers.Theresearchseekstomapandunderstandthecomplexforcesthatinfluenceandchallengethesocio-culturalvaluesandreligiousbeliefsofteenagersinanon-Western,Malay,IslamicsocietysuchasBrunei.

KeywoRDSBrunei Darussalam, Domestication of Media & Technology, Smartphone, Value

INTRoDUCTIoN

With rapid technological advancements, from a mere mobile talking device, smartphones haveconverged into a multi-purpose communication medium with progressively improved features,multiplefunctionsandlatestapplications(e.g.mobileInternet,mobilechat,social-networkingsites,etc.).Ingeneral,researchsuggeststhatyoungpeopletodayhavegrownupwithsmartphones.Theyarecommonlyregardedasthemostenthusiasticandextensiveusersofnewtechnologies;theyarequicktoadopt;andtheyarecreative,flexible,andubiquitouslyconnectedtotheworld(Ito,2005;Grinter,Goggin,2006;Ahad&Anshari,2017).Statisticsshowthatanacceleratedgrowthofmobilephoneuseishighestamongyoungpeopleoryouths.Theyconsumemoremediatechnologiesandinmanydifferentways(Hill-Wood,et.al.,2009).Hence,itbecomesapparentthatsmartphonesarecommonplaceandmostinfluentialinyoungpeoples’everydaylives.Inrelationtothis,amajorityofstudieshavepointedtothecomplexissuessurroundingmobilephoneuse(ornon-use)eitherintheWest(Green,2003;Kasesniemi,2003;Campbell,2005;Weerakkody,2008;Walsh,2009)orinthenon-westerncontext(Miyaki,2005;Ibahrine,2008;Hijazi-Omari&Ribak,2008);eitherforgoodorbad,orasopportunitiesorthreats(Mackay,1997;Weerakkody,2008;Ibahrine,2008).

26

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

27

Thesestudieshavedemonstratedthatsmartphonesarewidelyadoptedbyyoungpeopleoryouthsastheyallowedbetteraccessibility,mobilityandemancipation;mobilephonesalsofreedthemfromauthoritativefigures,particularlyparents.Butwhatdoesallthisentail?Smartphoneshavealsobeenassociatedwiththewaysteenagerscommunicateormicro-coordinate.Theyarealsousedforavarietyofentertainmentpurposesandforsharinginformation(Green&Singleton,2007;Wu,2008;Hill-Woodetal.,2009).Inaddition,thereareconcernsabouttheimpactofsmartphoneusesuchaspooracademicperformance(Campbell,2005),smartphoneaddictionordependency(Aoki&Downes,2003;Walsh,2009),andexposuretopornographiccontent(Ibahrine,2008;Al-Rasheed,2007;Rodzi,2009;Chew,2009).Alltheseareassociatedwiththeprevalentuseofmobilephonesbyyoungpeople.

Thisstudyhastheoreticalsignificance.Oneofthekeycontributionsofthestudyisthatitextendsourunderstandingoftheinteractionbetweenyoungpeopleandmobilephones.Itfurtheraddressespreviousresearchonyoungpeopleandmobilephonesandtherelevantissuessurroundingthem,inacontinuouslychangingglobalenvironment.Generally,Jacksonetal.(2006)reportedthatthenatureofchildren’stechnology-basedactivities,forinstance,isunclearbecausetherearealimitednumberofstudiesandhardlyanymeasuresofactualuse(comparedtoself-reporteduse).Alsouncleararetherelationshipsbetweenyoungpeople’ssocio-demographiccharacteristicsandtechnologyuse,eitherintheUnitedStatesorelsewhere(Jacksonetal.,2006).

The researchquestions examined in this studywere:What are the intendedandunintendedconsequencesofsmartphoneusebyBruneianteenagers?TowhatextentdoestheuseofsmartphonesbyBruneianteenagersupholdorchallengetheirsocio-culturalvalues,theirreligiousbeliefsandtheirculturalidentity?

LITeRATURe ReVIewS

Statisticsshowthatin2007,accordingtotheSoutheastAsiaMobileCommunicationsandMobileDatareport(citedinPrice2008),Brunei’smobilepenetrationratewasoneofthehighestinSouth-eastAsia,atapproximately114percentor0.4millionsubscribersintotal.Indeed,thisfigurecontinuestoriseandthereiswidespreaduseofmobilephones,particularlyamongyoungBruneians,justasinanyothercountry.AccordingtoHan(2009),thereisincreasingdemandformobilephonesamongtheyoungergenerations.Additionally,mobilephoneswhichboastthird-generation(3G)capabilitiessuchasmobileInternet,mobilecomputing,andmobilechat,amongothers(e.g.text,call,musicandcameraorvideo)arepopularamongBruneianteenagers(Han,2009)

AccordingtoHan(2007),bothteachersandstudentsinBruneiadmittedthatmobilephonesconstituteamajorproblematschoolasmanystudentstendtoabusethem,particularlyinclass,andthistendstoaffecttheirstudies.AnEnglishteacherfromapublicschoolreportedinHan’s(2007)articlesaidsomestudentswerecaughtusingmobilephonesinclasstochat,toplaymusicandgames.Thereportalsonotedthatstudentsusedtheirmobilephonesatschoolforthepurposeof‘showingoff’.Ateacheralsosaidthatparentstrustedtheirchildrentoomuchthattheybecamelessconcernedaboutthenegativeimplicationsofmobilephonessuchaspooracademicperformance.

Anotherconcerninvolvingmobilephoneuseatschoolismobilephonethefts(Han,2007).DuringanIslamicReligiousKnowledgeTeachers’ foruminBrunei,Roslan(2008)reported thatdespiteschoolsprovidingtelephonesforstudents’useincaseofemergency,88percentofBruneianstudentsstilltooktheirmobilephonestoschool.Inanotherreportin2009byBruneiTimes,youngchildrenwereseentobeusingmobilephonesasmostparentssaidtheywerenecessary.Forexample,mobilephonewasseenasessentialforsecurity,astheneedaroseandforconvenience(BruneiTimes,2009).

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

28

There are worrying trends in regard to the younger generation misusing the Internet. Theirstudyfoundthatabout79percentoftheBruneipopulationwereonlineandthecountryhadthehighestFacebookpenetrationinAsia.Atthesametime,thereportnotedthatinternationalchat-roomplatformswerepopularwithyoungBruneiansbecausetheyusedtheplatformstomeetstrangers,fordatingoreventooffersexualservices.InMarch2012,theBruneiangovernmentrolledoutnewlegislationsconcerningtheInternet.Thelawsweredesignedtoprotecttheyoungandvulnerablefromusingtechnologytopursuedeviantbehaviourssuchaschildpornography,prostitution,andsexualactivitieswithminors,sexualgrooming,voyeurismandsexualexploitations(Bandial,2012).In2012,ataChildOnlineProtectionworkshopinBrunei,majorconcernswereexpressedaboutmisuseofpersonalinformation,personaladdressorlocationandalsosexualimagesonsocialnetworkingsitessuchasFacebook.Piri(2011)reportedastudybyBruneiWomenandChildAbuseInvestigationUnit,whichrevealedthat100percentofunderagerapeandunlawfulcarnalknowledgecaseswerecausedbyonlinemeetings(excludingcasesofabusingmodestyandincest).Thestudyshowedanumberof theperpetratorswerechildrenandsomevictimssaid theysoughtpartnersonlineviachat-roomsandFacebook,whichledtotheirmeetingwithstrangersandconsentingtosexualacts.Itmustbenotedthatfurtherresearchisneededbecauseotherrelevantfactorsmayalsobeinvolvedbehindthesexualassaults.

Inlightofall these, thisstudyexaminedhowBruneianteenagersconsumedorappropriatedmobilephones,includingtheunintendedconsequencesofmobilephoneusebytheteenagers.

DoMeSTICATIoN oF MeDIA AND TeCHNoLoGy

Thefirsttheoreticalframeworkusedinthisstudyisthedomesticationtheory.Domesticationfocusesonthesocialrelationshipssurroundinginformationcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs).ItinvolvesaprocessofunderstandingthecomplexityofhowICTsareexperiencedineverydaylife.AsICTsareacquired(consumed)inthepublicandprivatespheres,domesticationinvestigatestheirsymbolicmeanings,theinteractionsandnegotiationsthattakeplacebetweenindividualswithinthewidersocialnetworks(SilverstoneandHirsch,1994;Haddon,2004,2006).

Domesticationhasbeendescribedas‘tamingtheuntamed’(Berkeret.al.,2006).ItprovidesvaluableinsightsintohowICTsfitintothestructuresandroutinesofindividuals’dailylives,thosewho negotiate their use or non-use of ICTs in association with others within their wider socialenvironment.Whileithasbeencriticizedforneglectingthesocialprocessesofproductionandsomeaspectsofthetechnologicalcontent(Bakardjieva,2005),domestication’sbenefitslieinitsemphasisonseveralpoints.Theseincludetherecognitionthattechnologyisevolutionary,doublyarticulatedasobjectsymbolizedandasmediawithcontent;thefocusontheuser(ascreativeindividuals)involvinganon-linear,two-wayprocessintohowICTsareintegratedintotheirlivesthroughappropriation,objectification,incorporationandconversion.AspointedoutbyLieandSorensen(1996,p.2),‘weadoptandadapttechnologies,weshapeandareshapedbythem’.Domesticationtheoryisthususefultoinvestigatetheadoption,useandimplicationofmobilephoneusebyteenagersintheBruneiancontext.

WhilepastresearchstudiedthedomesticationofICTindomesticsettingssuchasthehousehold(Silverstone,1994;Bakardjieva,2006),Silverstone(1994)arguedtheneedtoconsiderdomesticationoutsidethiscontext,suchasintheworkplaceorineducationalinstitutions(e.g.,Pierson,2006;Hynes&Rommes,2006).Inanycase,accordingtoHaddon(1994),itisrelativelyimportanttoalsoconsiderthesecontexts inthewidersocialenvironment,suchasintheentiresocietyor indifferent typesofsociety(e.g.,Norwegiansociety,inSkog,2002;Chinesefamilies,inLim,2006).Furthermore,domesticationhasbeenappliedtoinvestigatenuclearfamilies,single-parenthouseholds,middle-classhouseholds,teleworkers,youngelderly,andyoungadults,evengroupsofindividuals;onvarioustypesofICTsinthehomeorbeyond,suchastelevision,personalcomputers,theInternetandmobilephones(Anshari,et.al,2016,2017;Low&Anshari,2013).Fewstudieshavebeenpublished,(Haddon,2007;Hijazi-Omari&Ribak,2008)tothebestofthisresearcher’sknowledge,investigatedtheprevalent

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

29

convergenceof technologyknownas ‘mobilemedia’, ormobilephoneuse and its implications,particularlyamongteenagerswhorepresentthelargestandmostactivegroupofthemobilephonepopulation(Green&Singleton,2007).Therefore,thisstudyextendspriorresearchintotheseareasthroughanunderstandingoftheimplicationsofmobilephoneusebyteenagersinanIslamic,non-westernsocietysuchasBruneiDarussalam.

Demographic ProfileBruneiDarussalamislocatedinSouthEastAsia,ontheislandofBorneo.Ithasalandareaof5,765sq.km,withanestimatedpopulationofabout406,200 in2009 (BruneiDarussalamNewsletter;InformationDepartment,n.d.),consistingpredominantlyofethnicMalays(67%)andChinese(15%).TherearealsoIndians(12%)andotherindigenousgroupssuchastheMuruts,DusunsandIbans(6%).TheofficiallanguagesareMalay,EnglishandChinese,andtheofficialreligionisIslam,butBuddhismandChristianityarealsopractised.Bruneihasfourdistricts;namelytheBrunei-Muara,Belait,TutongandTemburong.BandarSeriBegawan,thecapitalcityofBrunei,ismostdenselypopulatedandlocatedintheBrunei-Muaradistrict(BruneiPress,n.d.).

Brunei’sPoliticalandLegalPhilosophyisMalayIslamicMonarchy.BruneiDarussalamwasunderBritishProtectoratefrom1889tillitgaineditsfullindependencein1984.HisMajestySultanHajiHassanalBolkiahistheSultanofBrunei.HeistheheadofstateandalsoheadofgovernmentofBrunei’sMalayIslamicMonarchyor‘MelayuIslamBeraja’(MIB).TheMalayIslamicMonarchyisthecountry’sdistinctiveideologywhichguidesitslifeandgovernmentadministration,“promotingIslamasthestatereligionandmonarchicalruleasthesolegoverningsystem,upholdingtherightsandprivilegesoftheBruneiMalayrace”(U.SDepartmentofState,2008).ApartfromtheShari’a(Islamiclaw),applicableonlytoMuslimsinthecaseofdivorce,inheritanceorsexualcrimes(immoralactivitiessuchasadultery,closeproximitybetweensexesinsecludedareas,orillicitsexresultinginunlawfulpregnancy),BruneianjudicialsystempracticestheSecularlaw,originatingfromEnglishcommonlaw(U.SDepartmentofState,2008).MeanwhileinBrunei,theBruneigovernmentalsoprohibitsthesaleofalcohol.

Intermofeconomicdevelopment,Brunei’smainexportsincludecrudeoil,liquefiednaturalgasandpetroleumproducts,withpercapitagrossdomesticproduct(GDP)overUS$36,000(InternationalMonetaryFund,2009).Bruneigovernmentisalsokeentodiversifyitseconomythroughvariousaspects,particularlybystrengtheningitstourismandbankingsectors.Followingthis,Bruneihasavisioninhumanresourcesbuilding;itfocusesonareassuchasICTliteracyandfullICTintegrationineducation,skilledtrainingtowardsasustainableandqualifiedICTgenerationandtheelectronicgovernmentrealization(BruneiPress,n.d.)

While,TelekomBruneiBerhad(TelBru),DSTCommunications(DSTCom)andProgresifarethethreeleadingtelecommunicationsserviceprovidersinBrunei.In2007,theapproximatetotalnumberofInternetusersinBruneiwas45percentor180,000(U.SDepartmentofState,2008).Bruneianscanopttousebroadband,wireless,third-generation(3G)mobileordial-upInternetconnections.Accordingtothe2007SoutheastAsiaMobileCommunicationsandMobileDatareport(citedinPrice2008),Brunei’smobilepenetrationrateisoneofthehighestinSouth-eastAsia,atabout114percent.Establishedin2003,theAuthorityforInfo-communicationsTechnologyIndustry(AITI)isastatutorybodyresponsiblefortelecommunicationsandradiocommunicationsregulationandICTindustrydevelopment(AITIBrunei,n.d.).AITIandtheAttorney-General’sChambershavealsobeenappointedin2006toadviseInternetserviceproviders,whoareassumedtomonitoranycontentcontrarytopublicinterest,nationalharmony,socialmorals,traditionalandIslamicvaluesthroughitsnationalMalayIslamicMonarchyideology.(U.SDepartmentofState,2008).

TheBruneianvalues,attitudesandgeneralbehaviourarecommonlyinfluencedbytheMalayIslamicMonarchy,thecountry’sdistinctiveideology.Thetraditionalsocio-culturalvaluesandattitudesarehistoricallyshapedbytheBruneianidentity,beingaMalay(orChineseandotherindigenousethnics),andMuslim(orBuddhist,Christianor‘Free-thinker’)undertheSultanate’sMonarchy.Some

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

30

ofthesevaluesandattitudesincluderespectfortheelderly,goodmanners,honesty,trustworthiness,hardworkandobediencetoreligiouspracticesandobligationstoAllah(BruneiPress,n.d.).

MeTHoDS

Thissectionfocusesontherelevanceoftheseresearchstrategiestoachievetheresearchobjective.It includesadescriptionof thesamplingprocedureanddataanalysis techniquesusedduringthestudy.Thesectionlaterconcludeswiththejustificationsforthetriangulationofmethods.ThestudyexploredhowBruneianteenagersuse(domesticate)theirmobilephones,includingtheirmotivationsorfrustrationsinusingtheirmobilephones.Teachersandparentswereincludedinthisstudytoenabletheresearchertoinvestigateandunderstandtheirperspectivesonteenagers’useofmobilephonesinpublicplaces(schools)andinprivatespaces(homes).Atotalof143Bruneianteenagersbetweentheagesof13and19,involvingmalesandfemales,acrossthecountrywererecruited.Itisconveniencesamplingtechniquebyselectingparticipantsbecauseofeaseoftheirvolunteering,theiravailabilityandeasyaccess.The studydeployedconvenience samplingbecausegeographicallybetween thestatesinBruneiisincloseproximity.Theteenagersareeasytoreachandeasyforresearcherstocontactand,therefore,convenientinourresearch.Inaddition,conveniencesamplingoffersspeedatwhichdatacanbecollectedandcontactindividualsthatarerandomlyselectedtobeapartofthefocusgroupandin-depthstudy.TheteenagerswereselectedbecausetheyrepresentedthelargestpercentageoftheBruneipopulationandalsobecausetheyownedmobilephones(Salim,2008;Han,2009).Furthermore,theteenageyearsrepresentedanimportanttransitionperiodbetweenchildhoodandadulthood(Richter,2006).Thisprovidedanopportunityfortheteenagerstobeheard,tonarratehowtheynegotiatedtheirexperienceswithmobilephonesindividuallyorcollectively,whichcouldbedifferentfromtheadults(Kaufmanetal.,2002;Green&Hill,2005).Focusgroupsandin-depthinterviewswereusedinthisstudytoinvestigatetheBruneianteenagers’useofmobilephonesandthe implicationsofusingmobilephones.Wedividedparticipants intosomegroupswithsimilareducationalbackgroundsandgenderstohelpthemshareideasmoreeasily.Thesessioneachgroupwasnotlastmorethanaroundtwohourstoavoidparticipantsbecometiredandloseinterestafterthattime.Questionswereopen-endedtoallowparticipantsgoodscopefordiscussion.Thegroupstartedwithintroductoryquestionsthataddressthegeneraltopic.Themoderatorposedquestionsthatmovefromthegeneraltothespecific.Then,endingquestionswereusedtogettheparticipantstosummarizetheiropinions.

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIoN

ThissectionpresentstheresultsoffocusgroupdiscussionswithBruneianteenagers.Itillustratestheprocessesthroughwhichtheteenagersdecidetoappropriateorrejectmobilephones,theteenagers’mobilephoneusagepatterns,rulesandregulationsformobilephoneuse,andimplicationsofmobilephonesintheeverydaylivesoftheteenagers.Theinterviewquestionsexploredissuessuchaswhentheteenagersfirstownedtheirmobilephones,thenumberofmobilephonestheyowned,howandwhytheyadoptedorrejectedmobilephones,thesignificantfactorsinvolvedinthisprocess,howtheyusedmobilephones(e.g.athome,inschool),aswellaswhattheyperceivedastheimplicationsofusingmobilephonesintheBruneiancontext?

Mobile Phone ownership: Adopters and UsersThediscussionsshowedthat127ofthe143Bruneianteenagerswhoparticipatedinthefocusgroupssaidtheyownedmobilephones.Theyalsosaidtheirparentsboughtthemobilephonesforthemormadethedecisionwhetherornottheyshouldhavemobilephones.In2001,thewidespreaduseofmobilephonesinBruneihadbegunandastheyearspassed,thepricesofmobilephonesstartedtodrop.Consequently,itwasnotsurprisingtonotetheprevalentuseofmobilephonesbytheteenagers.

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

31

InBrunei,parentshavethreeoptionswhentheybuymobilephones.Theycandosobycash,bycreditorthroughacustomerproductloan.

Whentheteenagerswereaskedwhentheyfirstownedtheirmobilephones,ingeneral,thoseteenagerswhoownedmobilephonesreportedtheyacquiredtheirfirstmobilephonesattheageof11or12or13,specificallybetweenYear6andYear7ofschool.InBrunei,astudentcouldbe11,12or13yearsoldinYear6or7,dependingontheage(i.e.,3or4yearsold)whentheyfirststartschool.However,therewere10teenagerswhosaidtheyfirstownedtheirmobilephonesattheageof10orless,betweenYear3andYear5ofschool.ThesefindingsindicatethatBruneianparentshavenoobjectiontobuyingmobilephonesfortheirchildren.Thediscussionsrevealedthatinthepasttwotoeightyears,theteenagerswhoparticipatedinthefocusgroupsownedatleastoneormoremobilephones.Morethanhalf(127)ofthestudentssaidtheyownedtheirthirdorfifthmobilephone.Theysaidthiswasbecausetheyhadexperiencedaseriesof‘broken’mobilephones(astheyrefertoit;e.g.keypadandscreenfaults,cameraglitch,switchbuttonproblem).Thereweresomeotherteenagerswhoadmittedthat,owingtotechnologicaldevelopmentsandboredom,newmobilephonemodelsinthemarketseemtoattracttheirattentionbecausethenewmodelswere‘advanced,’‘attractive,’‘fun’and‘cooler.’Thisraisesanimportantquestionabouthowtheteenagersactuallyusetheirmobilephones.

ThestudyrevealedthatowingmobilephonesforteenagersareconsideredasappropriatesinceBruneianparentshavenoobjectiontobuyingmobilephonesfortheirchildren.Thus,appropriationcanbecomedependentontheindividualswhoultimatelymakethedecisiontoacquiremobilephones.

Factors Contributing to Mobile Phone Adoption and UseWhenaskedhowandwhytheyadoptedmobilephones,theysaidtheyweregiventheirmobilephonesbecausethephoneswereincorporatedwithpracticalbenefitssuchas:convenience,transportmicro-coordination(literallypermitsthemtoorganizetheirdailyactivities,particularlyintermsoftransportarrangementstoandfromschool),safetyandemergency,giftsforgoodacademicperformance,asbirthdaygifts,asgiveawaysfornoparticularreason,peerpressure,andsomethinginheritedfromsiblingsorhandedover.Conversion,astheoppositeofappropriation,isaprocesswheretechnologies(meanings and uses) are converted or re-enter the public (outside) from the private (domestic)sphere.Mobilephonesconversamessageoftenwithanobjectiveofshapingasocialstatusorsocialperceptiontotheoutsideworld.

Domesticationinthatregarduncoversthemeaningsandpracticesofmobilephonesbyteenagers,thepatternsofspaceandtime,aswellasthewidersocialnetworks.Domesticationtheorythereforeisausefultounderstandauser’sacceptanceofmobilephones.Domesticationbecomesthecentralframeworkofthisresearch.Mobilephonesasamediaanditscontentsareobjectifiedintheindividual’sgrouporhouseholddiscussion.Green(2002,p.45)referstothisasthepracticeoflocatingmobilephoneinaspecifieddomesticspaceorenvironment,involvingrearrangementsofotherobjects.Inaddition,theincorporationphaseofdomesticationlooksathowthemobilephonesareappropriatelyadjustedtoteenagers’everydaylifeandroutines.

Different Contexts of Mobile Phone UseThereareseveraltypesofusesidentifiedbytheteenagers.Theseareclassifiedintofourcategories:social networking; entertainment and personal; communication; and education. This study alsoidentifiedhowteenagersusetheirmobilephonesathome,atschoolandinotherpublicplaces.

Whenaskedtoexplainhowtheyusetheirmobilephones,theteenagerssaidtheirmajorusewastoaccessthesocialnetworkingsite,‘Facebook’&WhatsApp.Theyalsomentioned‘Twitter’buttheyuse‘Facebook’or‘WhatsApp’morefrequently.Morethanhalfoftheteenagerssaidtheywereactivesocialnetworkingwhoconstantlyconnect,chatorexchangemessageswiththeirfriends,partnersandfamilies.Inanotherfocusgroupdiscussion,ateenageboy(School2,StudentGroup1)reported

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

32

thatanearlymorningroutinewastoaccesshissocialnetworkingaccount:tochat,checkandreplyinboxmessages.Accordingtohim,thesesocialnetworkingactivitieskeephimawakeandenergetic.

AnotherpopularuseofmobilephonesidentifiedbyBruneianteenagerswhoparticipatedinthefocusgroupswasentertainment.Thestudents frequentlymentionedplayinggamesand listeningtomusicastwoofthemostcommonusesoftheirmobilephones.Often,theteenagerssaidtheydownloaded their favorite music or MP3 (Media Player 3) songs to their mobile phones. Thesedownloadedsongswerethensettothemobilephone’sringtonesormessagetones.Theteenagersalsodownloadedmobilegames,commonly‘Tibia’,wheretheycanplayaswellaschatwithothergameplayers.Otherdownloadableitemsweremobilethemes(fortheirmobilephonedisplayimages)suchasimagesoffavoriteartistesoridolsandimagesoftheirhobbies(e.g.cars,scenes,cartoons).Additionally,theteenagerssaidtheywerealsointerestedinbrowsingtheInternetthroughtheirmobilephonesforleisureactivitiessuchasYouTube-ing,watchingmusicvideo,andsearchingforrecentnews,sports,hobbies,dramaandfavoriteartists.

Although the teenagers used their mobile phones for accessing social networking and forentertainmentpurposes,theyalsodescribedthefunctionaluseoftheirmobilephonesasalarmclocks,organizers,remindersandasadevicetorecordmemoriesbytakingpicturesandvideos.Althoughtheteenagersusedmobilephonesasremindersororganizers, itdidnottranslateintoaction,nordiditnecessarilyresultintoapositiveoutcome.Inanotherfocusgroupdiscussion,threeteenagersexplainedthattheyusedtheirmobilephonesastheir‘watches’.

Mobilephoneswerealsocommonlyusedby the teenagers for interpersonalcommunicationpurposes.Theteenagerssaidthemobilephonesenabledthemto‘contact’theirnetworks,particularlyviaWhatsAppCallortexting,regardlessoftime,spaceandlocation.Thestatementsdemonstratethattheteenagerswere‘selective’whentheymakeorreceivecallsandwhentheysendorreplytotextmessages,dependingonthecircumstances.Thesituationsincludeurgentmatters,ifthepersonistheirpartner,parentsorfriendsanditcouldalsobeseasonal(e.g.duringschoolholidays,eventsandexaminationsorannouncementofresults).

Whentheteenagerswereaskedwhoboughtthemobileprepaidcredits, theysaidrepeatedly‘mum’,‘dad’and‘parents’.Thediscussionsshowedthattheteenagersweremostlydependentontheirparentsfortheirphonecredits.Buttheteenagersalsosaidthat,sometimes,theywouldbuytheirmobilecreditsthroughtheirownpocketmoneyorallowances,oftenmeantfordailymealsatschool.Theteenagerssaidthatincertainsituations,theirparentsgivethemafixed‘mobilecredit’budgeteverymonth.Asaresult,whentheyrunoutofcredit,theysaidtheirmobilephonescouldbecomeuselesstothem.Thisrevelationdemonstratesthatwhentheteenagersaredesperate,theycoulduse theirparents’mobilephones (even friends’mobilephones, as shownbelow) for theircommunicationpurposes.

Anotheruseofmobilephoneswas toaccess the Internet for thepurposeof schoolworkorinformation search. Though rarely mentioned throughout the discussions, this pattern of mobilephoneusewasparticularlyobviousamongteenagerswhosaidtheydidnothaveanyothermeansofaccessingtheInternetexceptwiththeuseoftheirmobilephones.Theappropriateuseofmobilephonesforthepurposeofeducation,asanalternativelearningtoolatschool,shouldbeencouraged.

DISCUSSIoN

Indomesticationtheory,informationandcommunicationtechnologies(ICTs)areinvolvedineveryaspectofthefollowingfourprocesses:appropriation,objectification,incorporationandconversion(Silverstone,HirschandMorley,1994,p.21;Figure1).Theseprocessesofdomesticationinvestigatetheintegrationofnewtechnologiesintotheeverydaylifeofanindividualorgroupofindividuals:fromthemomentthetechnologiesareappropriatedintotheprivatespacefromthepublicsphere,to themomentwhere the technologies’meaningsandpractices are continuously renegotiated intheprocess,orre-entersthepublicspherefromtheprivatespace.Green(2002,p.43)arguesthat

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

33

thedomesticationprocessisamulti-stageprocesswhere“astechnologyisdomesticatedwithinthehousehold,thehouseholdiscorrespondinglytechnologized”.Detailsofeachoftheseprocessesareelaboratedinsubsequentparagraphs.

InrelationtotheadoptionofmobilephonesbyBruneianteenagers,thisstudyfoundthatoneoftheimportantfactorsthatfacilitateorhindertheuseofmobilephoneswastheteenagers’parentsandtheirattitudestowardmobilephones.Thisstudyfoundthatparentscreatedtheirownmeaningsofmobilephones(e.g.asnecessities,astrends,asgifts)andhowaccess(suchasaffordability)andperceivedusefulness(suchasforconvenienceincommunication,safetyandemergency)wereequallycrucial to mobile phone adoption. This conforms to the appropriation process of domesticatingtechnologieswhere,accordingtoPierson(2006),theindividuals’creativeoracceptedmeaningsofthetechnologiesaswellasaccessandperceivedusefulnessofthetechnologiesarecrucialbeforeanyappropriationcanoccur.

Nevertheless,whilemostparentssaidtheyhadnoobjectiontobuyingmobilephonesfortheirchildren, someothers said theywouldnotallow theirchildren toownmobilephones.Thus, theownershipofmobilephonethereforedependsontheindividualparentwhoultimatelymakesthedecisionwhetherornottoallowtheirchildrentoadoptoruseatechnology(Green,2002).However,whiledomesticationtheoryarguesthispoint,theappropriationofmobilephonescanalsobedependentonotherindividuals,suchasan‘aunt’inthecaseofoneteenagerinthisstudy.Thisfindingissomewhatsimilartopreviousstudies(e.g.Hijazi-Omari&Ribak,2008)inwhichitwasreportedin2003thatPalestiniangirlsinIsraelownedmobilephonesasasymbolof‘havingaboyfriend’orasasignofaromanticrelationship.Thus,theappropriationofmobilephoneswassignificantlydependentonthePalestiniangirls’‘partner’or‘boyfriend’,notontheirparentsorthemselves.Thissituationwasparticularlyinevitableduetotheconservative,strictMuslimparentswhocontrolledtheirdaughters’behaviour,aswellaswhorejectedandperceivedthemobilephoneasatechnologythatcancauseliberalizationeffects.InBrunei,therearealsostrictMuslimparents.However,thisstudyfoundthatamajorityoftheparents,regardlessoftheirracialorreligiousbackground,allowedtheirteenagechildrentoownmobilephonesdespitetheirconcernsoverthenegativeinfluencethatmobilephonesmighthaveonthechildren.Amajorityofparentsinthisstudyreportedthattheytrustedtheirteenagechildrentousetheirmobilephonesinappropriateandresponsibleways.

Appropriationimpliestheprocesswhereanobjectortechnologyisacquiredandappropriateduponownershipandusebyanindividualorthehousehold.Itinvolvestheindividual’sdecisiontoadoptornottoadoptthetechnology,fromthepublic(outside)totheprivate(domestic)sphere(Green,

Figure 1. Mobile phone usage in domestication theory

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

34

2002)orthatformaltomoraleconomytransferwherecommodityturnsintoobject(Silverstone,1994,p.22).Through‘commodification’,ICTsobtaintheirpublicmeanings,thematerialandsymbolicmeaningsfromrelevantindustriesandcommercialnetworks.TheseinturndependontheindividualwhowillsimilarlyconstructtheirowncreativeICTmeaningsbut‘access’tothenewtechnologiesandtheirperceivedusefulnessarealsocrucialbeforeanyappropriationcanoccur(Pierson,2006,p.211).HynessandRommes(2006,p.128)arguethatappropriationcanonlyoccurwhenindividualshaveacceptedthepublicmeaningsofthenewtechnologiesandtransformedthemintotheirownobjectsofdesire(ornon-desirable),whichsometranslateintothedecisiontoappropriatewhilesomedon’tseetherelevancetotheirlives.Appropriationthuscanbecomedependentontheindividualswhoultimatelymakethedecisiontoacquirethenewtechnologies.

Haddon(2006)furtherdescribeshowdomesticationprocesseshaveinfactalsoincludedthemomentevenbeforetechnologygetsappropriated,whereprimarydiscussionoccursaboutthedecisiontoacquirethetechnologyornot.ThisperspectivefundamentallyexaminesthechangingrelationshipsoftheindividualwithICTinthelongrun.Domesticationinthatregardisanon-goingprocess,notjustaone-offevent(Haddon,2006).Itisatheoreticalframeworkthatuncoversthemeaningsandpracticesoftechnologybyindividuals,thepatternsofspaceandtime,aswellasthewidersocialnetworks.Domesticationtheorythereforeisauseful,non-lineartheoreticalframeworktounderstandanindividual’sacceptance,usageorrejectionofICTs.

Anothervaluabledimensionofdomestication is that it recognizes technologynot justasanobjectbeingsymbolizedbutalsoasamediathatcarrieswithitfunctionalvalues,rolesandmeanings.Technologiesarethus‘doublyarticulated’(SilverstoneandHirsch,1994)carryingpublicmeaningsintotheprivaterealmofthehousehold(Hartmann,2006).Thisimpliesacomplexmeaning-makingprocesswhenconsumingtechnologies.Itisthusimportanttonotethatthetypeofresearchmethodsadoptedshouldbecriticallyjustifiedinordertoinvestigatethiscomplexityoftechnologyormediaintermsofbothcontentandcontext.Forexample,whilequantitativeresearchprovidesusefuldevelopmentandbehaviortrends,qualitativeresearchstudiesrevealevenvaluableor‘differentiated’information(Hartmann, 2006). An analysis of these issues has been presented in the research methodologysection.Thus,insupporttoGreen’s(2002)argument,thisstudyalsodemonstratesthatinamulti-stageprocessofdomestication,notonlythehouseholdorhomeistechnologisedortechnologicallyaffected,buttheinstitutionssuchastheschoolswasalsotechnologisedortechnologicallyaffected.

Symbol of StatusInrelationtotheimplicationsofmobilephoneuseforcommunicationpurposes,thisstudyisalsoinagreementwithearlierstudies(Geser,2006;Oksman&Rautiainen,2002;Ling&Yttri,2002;Kasesniemi&Rautiainen,2002;Yoon,2003;Hijazi-Omari&Ribak,2008)whichfoundthatmobilephoneshelped tostrengthen,maintainandextendsocialandromantic relationships. Indeed, thisparticularfindingisconsistentwithBonevaetal.’s(2006)study,whichfoundthatmobilephonesallowedaprivateandpersonalspacetosocialiseintheconfinementofpeople’sowntime.Thisstudyfoundthatwhile the teenagersused theirmobilephoneswhereverandwheneverathome,eitherinthefamilyroom,orinfrontoftheirparents,however,somefemaleteenagerssaidtheywouldbemorecomfortableusing theirmobilephones in theirownspace, forexample, theirbedroom,oranywherebeyondtheirparents’knowledge.Thishighlightshowsimilaryoungpeopleusetheirmobilephonesforemancipation,tocommunicatewithpeerswithoutparents’knowledgeorcontrol(Green,2001;Skog,2002;Ling,2004;Taylor&Harper,2002;Oksman&Rautiainen,2003;Miyaki,2005;Ito,2005;Ling&Yttri,2006;Ibahrine,2008;Hijazi-Omari&Ribak,2008;Karim,etal.,2010;Kumjonmenukul,2011).SimilartoIto(2005),likeJapaneseparents,Bruneianparentsdonotallowromanticrelationshipsamongschoolchildren,althoughsomeparentsdo.Butmobilephonesprovidethemeanstocommunicatebetweenpartners,withouttheirparentsorsiblingsmonitoring.

Overall,thisstudyvalidatestheusefulnessofdomesticationtheoryasatheoreticalapproachforunderstandingthecomplexityofeverydaylifeandtechnology’splacewithinitsdynamics,rituals,

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

35

rules,routinesandpatterns(Berkeretal.,2006,p.1).However,thisstudyalsocorroborateswiththefindingsofHartmann(2006)andWard(2006),whereinnegotiatingtechnologicaluseornon-use,itisoftennotwithoutproblemsorchallenges.TheresultsofthisstudyalsopointtowhatSilverstone’s(citedinLally,2000)andHaddon(2004)described,thatdomesticationasaprocessinvolvesmakingtechnology,inthiscasethemobilephones,ontheteenagers’ownruleorpower.Asevidenced,.someteenagers,particularlyamongboyswhoadmittedhowtheyusemobilephonestowatch,distributeandrecordsexuallyexplicitcontents,thusmakingtechnologytotheirownrules(needsordesires)orpower(abilities)whichcontradictstheirreligiousbeliefsandpractices.However,incontrast,thisnegotiationdoesnotnecessarilysignifytheteenagers’identitiesastheyclaimedthattheyarestillBruneianMalaysandMuslims.Theresultsthusrevealedthattheimplicationsofmobilephoneusehavethuschallengedtheteenagers’ownsocial-culturalvaluesandreligiousbeliefsandpractices.Domesticationisindeedauser-centredconceptusedtofocusonBruneianteenagersinthisstudyandtheiruseofmobilephonesathomeandatschool.ThissupportsBakardjieva’s(2006)andSilverstone’s(2006)arguments.

Whilethisstudyconfirmspreviousfindingsintheliteratureondomesticationtheoryintermsofhowthemobilephoneasatechnologyrepresentsteenagers’status,incertaincases,someteenagerssaidmobilephoneswasnotnecessarilyassociatedwithone’sstatus.Forexample,urbanteenagersreported how there could be many factors that must be considered before making assumptionsaboutone’sstatussuchaswhattheywear,includingwhereorhowtheyboughtthemobilephones.Thisstudyalsocontradictsintermsofhowdomesticationisplacingtechnologysuchasthemobilephonesintoritualsandroutines,becauseinthisstudy,theteenagersalsousedtheirmobilephonesinunconventionalwayssuchastheuseofSMSmessagesinshortabbreviations,with‘emoticons’oremotions,theuseofmobilephonesaswatchesandalsotheuseofmobilephonesformakingmisscallsassociatedwithcodes.

CoNCLUSIoN

The theoretical frameworks of this thesis is domestication, which focuses on understanding thecomplexityofteenagersandtheiruseofmobilephones,aswellastheirinteractionsandnegotiationsbetweenthem,particularlywithinthewidersocialnetworks(SilverstoneandHirsch,1994;Haddon,2004).ThefindingsofthisstudyextendpriorresearchintotheseareasthroughanunderstandingoftheusesofmobilephonesbyBruneianteenagersinaMalay,Islamicsociety.Thefindingsofthisstudyhaveanumberofimportantimplicationsforthetheoreticalframeworksofdomestication.Theresultsofthisstudyprovideanewunderstandingoftheindividualsinvolvedinmakingtheultimatedecisiontoadoptornottoadopttechnologyforyoungpeople.ThisstudyhasshownthatintheprocessofdomesticatingmobilephonesbyBruneianteenagers,theuseofthetechnologybytheteenagersdependsontheparents’willingnesstopermittheteenagerstoownandadoptmobilephones.

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

36

ReFeReNCeS

Ahad,A.D.,&Anshari,M.(2017).Smartphonehabitsamongyouth:Usesandgratificationtheory,JournalofCyberBehavior.Psychology and Learning.,7(1),65–75.doi:10.4018/IJCBPL.2017010105

Al-Rasheed,A.(2007,April25).PorndominatesSaudimobileuse.BBC News.Retrievedfromhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/6592123.stm

Anshari,M.,Alas,Y.,Sabtu,N.I.,&Yunus,N.(2016).ASurveyStudyofSmartphonesBehaviorinBrunei:AProposalofModellingBigDataStrategies.International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and Learning,6(1),60–72.doi:10.4018/IJCBPL.2016010104

Anshari,M.,Almunawar,M.N.,Shahrill,M.,Wicaksono,D.K.,&Huda,M.(2017).Smartphonesusageinthe classrooms:Learning aidor interference?Education and Information Technologies,22(6), 3063–3079.doi:10.1007/s10639-017-9572-7

Aoki,K.,&Downes,E. J. (2003).Ananalysisofyoungpeople’suseof andattitudes towardcellphones.Telematics and Informatics,20(4),349–364.doi:10.1016/S0736-5853(03)00018-2

Bakardjieva,M.(2005).Internet Society: The internet in everyday life.London:SagePublications.

Bakardjieva,M.(2006).Domesticationrunningwild.Fromthemoraleconomyofthehouseholdtothemoresofaculture.InT.Berker,M.Hartmann,W.Punie,&K.Ward(Eds.),Domestication of media and technology(pp.62–78).London:OpenUniversityPress.

Bandial,Q.A.(2012,December26).Nodfornewlawstobetterprotectpublic.The Brunei Times.Retrievedfromhttp://www.bt.com.bn/news-national/2012/12/26/nod-new-laws-better-protect-public

Berker,T.,Hartmann,M.,Punie,W.,&Ward,K.(2006).Domestication of media and technology.London:OpenUniversityPress.

Boneva,B.,Quinn,A.,Kraut,R.,Kiesler,S.,&Shklovski,I.(2006).Teenagecommunicationintheinstantmessagingera.InR.Kraut,M.Brynin,&S.Kiesler(Eds.),Computers, phones and the internet: Domesticating.

BruneiPress.(n.d.)About Brunei.RetrievedJuly17,2009,fromhttp://www.bruneipress.com.bn/brunei/brunei.html#Population

Campbell,M.A.(2005).Theimpactofthemobilephoneonyoungpeople’ssociallife.RetrievedSeptember25,2012,fromhttp://eprints.qut.edu.au/3492/

Chew,C. (2009,September20). InSingapore,more teensgetpornviamobilephones.The Sunday Times.Retrievedfromhttp://www.techxav.com/2009/09/20/in-singapore-more-teens-get-porn-via-mobile-phones/

Geser,H.(2006,March).Isthecellphoneunderminingthesocialorder?Understandingmobiletechnologyfromasociologicalperspective.Knowledge, Technology & Policy,19(1),8–18.doi:10.1007/s12130-006-1010-x

Goggin,G.(2006).Cell phone culture: Mobile technology in everyday life.NewYork:Routledge.

Green, E., & Singleton, C. (2007). Mobile selves: Gender, ethnicity and mobile phones in the everydaylivesofyoungPakistani-Britishwomenandmen.Information Communication and Society,10(4),506–527.doi:10.1080/13691180701560036

Green,N.(2003).OutwardlyMobile:YoungPeopleandMobileTechnologies.InJ.E.Katz(Ed.),Machines that become us: The social context of personal communication technology(pp.201–217).NewBrunswick,N.J:TransactionPublishers.

Grinter, R. E., Palen, L., & Eldridge, M. (2006). Chatting with teenagers: Considering the place of chattechnologiesinteenlife.Journal of the ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction,13(4),423–447.doi:10.1145/1188816.1188817

Haddon,L.(2004).Information and communication technologies in everyday life: A concise introduction and research guide.Oxford:Berg.

Han,F.(2009,April24).Risingdemandfor3Gmobilephones.Brudirect.com.Retrievedfromhttp://www.brudirect.com/DailyInfo/News/Archive/Apr09/24/nite22.htm

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

37

Hijazi-Omari, H., & Ribak, R. (2008). Playing with fire: On the domestication of the mobile phoneamong Palestinian teenage girls in Israel. Information Communication and Society, 11(2), 149–166.doi:10.1080/13691180801934099

Hill-Wood,E.,Wellington,P.,&Rossi,L.(2009).Media & Internet: How teenagers consume media.RetrievedOctober14,2009,fromhttp://media.ft.com/cms/c3852b2e-6f9a-11de-bfc5-00144feabdc0.pdf

Hynes,D.,&Rommes,E.(2006).‘Fittingtheinternetintoourlives’:ITcoursesfordisadvantagedusers.InT.Berker,M.Hartmann,W.Punie,&K.Ward(Eds.),Domestication of media and technology(pp.125–142).London:OpenUniversityPress.

Ibahrine, M. (2008). Mobile communication and socio-political change in the Arab world. In J. E. Katz(Ed.), Handbook of mobile communication studies (pp. 257–272). Cambridge: MIT Press. doi:10.7551/mitpress/9780262113120.003.0019

Ito,M.(2005).Mobilephones,Japaneseyouth,andthere-placementofsocialcontact.InR.Ling&P.E.Pedersen(Eds.),Mobile Communications: Re-negotiation of the Social Sphere(pp.131–148).London:Springer-Verlag.doi:10.1007/1-84628-248-9_9

Jackson,L.A.,Eye,A.V.,Biocca,F.A.,Barbatsis,G.,Zhao,Y.,&Fitzgerald,H.E.(2006).Children’shomeInternetuse:Antecedentsandpsychological,social,andacademicconsequences.InR.Kraut,M.Brynin,&S.Kiesler(Eds.),Computers, Phones, and the Internet: Domesticating Information Technology(pp.145–166).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.

Karim, N. S. A., Oyebisi, I. O., & Mahmud, M. (2010). Mobile phone appropriation of studentsand staff at an institution of higher learning. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 27(4), 263–276.doi:10.1108/10650741011073806

Kasesniemi,E.L.(2003).Mobile Messages: Young people and a New communication culture.Tampere:TampereUniversityPress.

Kasesniemi,E.L.,&Rautiainen,P.(2002,January).MobilecultureofchildrenandteenagersinFinland.InJ.E.Katz&M.Aakhus(Eds.),Perpetual contact: Mobile communication, Private talk, Public performance(pp.170–192).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.doi:10.1017/CBO9780511489471.014

Kaufman,N.H.,Rizzini,I.,Wilson,K.,&Bush,M.(2002).TheImpactofglobaleconomic,political,andsocialtransformationsonthelivesofchildren;Aframeworkforanalysis.InN.H.Kaufman,I.Rizzini,K.Wilson,&M.Bush(Eds.),Globalization and Children: Exploring Potentials for Enhancing Opportunities in the Lives of Children and Youth(pp.3–18).NewYork:PlenumPublishers.

Kumjonmenukul,P.(2011).TheBehaviorofYoungpeoplewhenusingmobilephonesanditsimpactonThaicultureandlifestyle:AcasestudyofKalasinMunicipalityinKalasinProvince.American Journal of Scientific Research,22,57–64.

Lim,S.S.(2006).Fromculturaltoinformationrevolution.ICTdomesticationbymiddle-classChinesefamilies.InT.Berker,M.Hartmann,W.Punie,&K.Ward(Eds.),Domestication of media and technology(pp.185–201).London:OpenUniversityPress.

Ling,R.,&Yttri,B.(2002).Hyper-coordinationviamobilephonesinNorway.InJ.E.Katz&M.Aakhus(Eds.),Perpetual contact: Mobile communication, Private talk, Public performance(pp.139–169).Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.doi:10.1017/CBO9780511489471.013

Low,K.C.P.,&Anshari,M.(2013).Incorporatingsocialcustomerrelationshipmanagementinnegotiation.International Journal of Electronic Customer Relationship Management, 7(3/4), 239–252. doi:10.1504/IJECRM.2013.060700

Mackay,H.(1997).Consumption and everyday life: Culture, media and identities.London:SagePublications.

Miyaki,Y. (2005).Keitai use among JapaneseElementary and JuniorHighSchool students. InM. Ito,D.Okabe,&M.Matsuda(Eds.),Personal, Portable, Pedestrian: Mobile phones in Japanese life(pp.277–299).London:MITPress.

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

38

Oksman,V.,&Rautiainen,P.(2003).“Perhapsitisabodypart”:HowthemobilephonebecameanorganicpartoftheeverydaylivesofFinnishchildrenandteenagers.InJ.E.Katz(Ed.),Machines that become us: The social context of personal communication technology(pp.293–308).NewBrunswick,N.J:TransactionPublishers.

Pierson,J.(2006).Domesticationatworkinsmallbusinesses.InT.Berker,M.Hartmann,W.Punie,&K.Ward(Eds.),Domestication of media and technology(pp.205–223).London:OpenUniversityPress.

Piri,S.(2011,September6).Casesofunderagesexontherise.The Brunei Times.Retrievedfromhttp://www.bt.com.bn/news-national/2011/09/06/cases-underage-sex-rise

Price,J.(2008,May8).7.2Mbps!DST3G2cool2blieve–K?The Brunei Times.Retrievedfromhttp://www.bt.com.bn/en/science_technology/2008/05/08/7_2mbps_dst_3g_2_cool_2_b_lieve_k

Richter,L.M.(2006).Studyingadolescence.Science.New Series.,312(5782),1902–1905.PMID:16809526

Rodzi,N.H.(2009,September23).Hookedonphones;MalayMailsurveyshowstechnologyhasgotpeopledependentonit.The Malay Mail.Retrievedfromhttp://www.mmail.com.my/content/13906-hooked-phones

Roslan,H.(2008,November18).88percentofstudentsbringmobilephonestoschools.The Brunei Times.Retrievedfromhttp://www.bt.com.bn/home_news/2008/11/18/88_per_cent_of_students_bring_mobile_phones_to_schools

Salim,P.(2008).The role of mobile phones in the lives of young people in Brunei Darussalam[MastersThesis].Universiti Brunei Darussalam. Retrieved from http://202.160.7.83/cgibin/infoviewer/igp_infoviewer_cpe/load_framework?catalog_item_id=500a602e&sid=75cc4aae9b14407c4df0fd03d589083d&language=en

Silverstone,R.(1994).Television and everyday life.London:Routledge.doi:10.4324/9780203358948

Silverstone,R. (2006).Domesticatingdomestication:Reflectionson the lifeofaconcept. InT.Berker,M.Hartmann,W.Punie,&K.Ward(Eds.),Domestication of media and technology(pp.229–247).London:OpenUniversityPress.

Silverstone,R.,&Hirsch,E.(1994).Consuming technologies: Media and Information in Domestic Spaces.London:Routledge.

Skog,B.(2002).MobilesandtheNorwegianteen:identity,genderandclass.InJ.E.Katz(Ed.),Machines that become us: The social context of personal communication technology (pp.201–217).NewBrunswick,N.J:TransactionPublishers.doi:10.1017/CBO9780511489471.020

Sorensen,K.H.(2006).Domestication:theenactmentoftechnology.InT.Berker,M.Hartmann,W.Punieetal.(Eds.),DomesticationofMediaandTechnology.London:OpenUniversityPress.

Taylor,A.S.,&Harper,R.(2002,April).Age-oldpracticesinthe‘newworld’:astudyofgift-givingbetweenteenagemobilephoneusers.Paper presented at the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems: Changing our world, changing ourselves.ACM.

U.SDepartmentofState.(2008).BureauofDemocracy,HumanRights,andLabor.RetrievedNovember15,2009fromhttp://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2007/100514.htm

Walsh,S.P.(2009).A Psychosocial approach to understanding young Australians’ mobile phone behaviour[Doctoraldissertation].QueenslandUniversityofTechnology.Retrievedfromhttp://eprints.qut.edu.au/29799/1/Shari_Walsh_Thesis.pdf

Weerakkody,N.D.(2008).Mobilephonesandchildren:AnAustralianperspective.Issues in Informing Science and Information Technology,5,459–475.doi:10.28945/1021

Wu,J.(2008).Teens’ mobile activities.RetrievedNovember22,2009,fromhttp://s3.amazonaws.com/thearf-org-aux-assets/downloads/cnc/youth/2008-08-19_ARF_Youth_Wu.pdf

Yoon,K.(2003).RetraditionalizingtheMobile:Youngpeople’ssocialityandmobilephoneuseinSeoul,SouthKorea.European Journal of Cultural Studies,6(3),327–343.doi:10.1177/13675494030063004

International Journal of Cyber Behavior, Psychology and LearningVolume 7 • Issue 4 • October-December 2017

39

Muhammad Dayani Anshari is a researcher and lecturer. He received his BMIS (Hons) from International Islamic University Malaysia, his Master of IT (E-Business) from James Cook University Australia, and his PhD program from Universiti Brunei Darussalam. His professional experience started when he was an IT Business Analyst at Astra International. He earned a Research Fellowship from The Government Republic of China (Taiwan) at National Taiwan University 2014 and a Research Fellowship from King Saud University The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 2009. He was awarded Best Paper and Presenter Award International Conference on ASEAN Studies 2 (ICONAS2) at Chulalongkorn University Bangkok, Thailand in 2015. He won Best Paper and Presenter Award, ASEAN Graduate Business Economic Programs Doctoral Colloquium April 2013, at Gadjah Mada University Indonesia. He is a recipient of Graduate Research Scholarship PhD program at UBD.

Annie Dayani has served as a lecturer at the School of Business and Economics UBD since 2001. She graduated from UBD with a Bachelor of Business Administration. Under UBD study exchange program and earned a Diploma in European Management Science from University Kent, Canterbury, UK. Her Master’s Degree is in Applied Information Technology from Monash University Australia. In 2013, she completed her PhD in Communication Technology at University of Queensland, Australia. Her research interests include business and management, information systems and e-government as well as knowledge management.

Abdur Razzaq is senior lecturer and researcher at Universitas Islam Negeri Raden Fatah, Palembang - Indonesia. He is also active public speaker sharing his knowledge and expertise in social science, education and Area studies.