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A 1 minute summary of the article Key learnings: what information was new to
you? What surprised you How you can apply the information to your
professional life
Article Analysis
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Chapter 2
Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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MARS Model of Individual Behavior
Individual behavior and
results
Situationalfactors
Personality
Values
Self-concept
Perceptions
Emotions & attitudes
StressRole
perceptions
Motivation
Ability
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Employee Motivation
Internal forces that affect a person’s voluntary choice of behavior• direction• intensity• persistence
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Employee Ability
Natural aptitudes and learned capabilities required to successfully complete a task
Competencies - personal characteristics that lead to superior performance
Person - job matching• selecting• developing• redesigning
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BAR
SM
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Role Perceptions
Beliefs about what behavior is required to achieve the desired results:• understanding what tasks to perform• understanding priority of tasks• understanding preferred behaviors
to accomplish tasks
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BAR
SM
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Situational Factors
Environmental conditions beyond the individual’s short-term control that constrain or facilitate behavior
Constraints – time, budget, facilities, etc Cues – e.g. signs of nearby hazards
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Types of Individual Behavior
Maintaining Work Attendance
Attending work at required times
Joining/staying with the Organization
Agreeing to employment relationship; remaining in that relationship
Counterproductive Work Behaviors
Voluntary behaviors that potentially harm the organization
Organizational Citizenship
Contextual performance – cooperation and helpfulness beyond required job duties
Task PerformanceGoal-directed behaviors under the person’s control
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Defining Personality
Relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics• External traits – observable behaviors• Internal states – thoughts, values, etc inferred from
behaviors• Some variability, adjust to suit the situation
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Nature vs. Nurture of Personality
Influenced by Nature• Heredity explains about 50 percent of
behavioral tendencies and 30 percent of temperament
• Minnesota studies – twins had similar personalities
Influenced by Nurture• Socialization, learning• Personality stabilizes throughout
adolescence• Executive function steers behavior
guided by our self-concept
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Five-Factor Personality Model (CANOE)
Outgoing, talkative, energetic
Creative, nonconforming
Organized, dependable
Trusting, helpful, flexible
Anxious, self-conscious
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness to Experience
Extraversion
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Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung Identifies preferences for perceiving the
environment and obtaining/processing information
Commonly measured by Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
Jungian Personality Theory
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Personal type ? http://
www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/jtypes2.asp
MBTI
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Sensing (S)• Concrete• Realistic• Practical
Gettingenergy
Intuitive (N)• Imaginative• Future-focused• Abstract
Extraversion (E)• Talkative• Externally-focused• Assertive
Introversion (I)• Quiet• Internally-focused• Abstract
Thinking (T)• Logical• Objective• Impersonal
Feeling (F)• Empathetic• Caring• Emotion-focused
Judging (J)• Organized• Schedule-oriented• Closure-focus
Perceiving (P)• Spontaneous• Adaptable• Opportunity-focus
Perceivinginformation
Makingdecisions
Orienting to theexternal world
Jungian & Myers-Briggs Types
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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Extroversion versus introversion
• similar to five-factor dimension
Perceiving information• Sensing – uses senses, factual, quantitative
• Intuition – uses insight, subjective experience
Judging (making decisions)• Thinking – rational logic, systematic data collection • Feeling – influenced by emotions, how choices affect
others
Orientation toward the external world• Perceiving – flexible, spontaneous, keeps options open • Judging – order and structure
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Values in the Workplace
Stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences
Define right or wrong, good or bad
Value system -- hierarchy of value
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Schwartz’s Values Model
Openness to change – motivation to pursue innovative ways
Conservation -- motivation to preserve the status quo
Self-enhancement -- motivated by self-interest
Self-transcendence -- motivation to promote welfare of others and nature
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In Search of Congruent Values
Similarity of a person’s values hierarchy to another source
Person-organization value congruence Espoused-enacted value congruence Organization-community values congruence
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Utilitarianism
Individual Rights
Greatest good for the greatest number of people
Fundamental entitlementsin society
Distributive Justice
People who are similar should receive similar benefits
Three Ethical Principles
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Influences on Ethical Conduct
Moral intensity• degree that issue demands ethical principles
Ethical sensitivity• ability to recognize the presence and determine the
relative importance of an ethical issue
Situational influences• competitive pressures and other external factors
Mindfulness• actively evaluate whether action violates values
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Individualism
The degree to which people value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control over themselves, being appreciated for unique qualities
Denmark
Taiwan
Italy
High IndividualismUSA
Low Individualism
India
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Collectivism
The degree to which people value their group membership and harmonious relationships within the group
India
USA
Taiwan
High Collectivism
Italy
Low Collectivism
Denmark
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Power Distance
High power distance• Value obedience to authority• Comfortable receiving
commands from superiors • Prefer formal rules and authority
to resolve conflicts Low power distance
• expect relatively equal power sharing
• view relationship with boss as interdependence, not dependence
Japan
IsraelDenmark
Venezuela
High Power DistanceMalaysia
Low Power Distance
USA
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Uncertainty Avoidance
High uncertainty avoidance• feel threatened by ambiguity
and uncertainty• value structured situations and
direct communication
Low uncertainty avoidance• tolerate ambiguity and
uncertainty
High U. A.
Low U. A.
JapanGreece
USA
Italy
Singapore
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Achievement-Nurturing
High achievement orientation• assertiveness• competitiveness• materialism
High nurturing orientation• relationships• others’ well-being
Achievement
Nurturing
Japan
USA
Sweden
China
Chile
France
Chapter 2
Perceiving Ourselves and Others in Organizations
McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Self-Concept Defined
An individual’s self-beliefs and self-evaluations “Who am I?” and “How do I feel about myself?” Compare perceived job with our perceived and ideal selves. Includes three self-concept dimensions and four “selves”
processes
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Complexity• People have multiple self-views
Consistency• Similar personality and values across multiple selves
Clarity• Clearly and confidently described, internally
consistent, and stable across time. People have better well-being with:
• multiple selves (complexity)• well established selves (clarity)• selves are similar and compatible with traits
(consistency)
Self-Concept Dimensions (3 C’s)
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Self-enhancement• Promoting and protecting our positive self-view
Self-verification• Affirming our existing self-concept
Self-evaluation• Evaluating ourselves through self-esteem, self-
efficacy and locus of control
Social self• Defining ourselves in terms of group membership
Four “Selves” of Self-Concept
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Drive to promote/protect a positive self-view • competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, valued
Positive self-concept outcomes:• better personal adjustment and mental/physical
health • inflates personal causation and probability of
success
Self-Concept: Self-Enhancement
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Motivation to verify/maintain our self-concept Stabilizes our self-concept People prefer feedback consistent with their
self-concept Self-verification outcomes:
• More likely to perceive information consistent with our self-concept
• We interact more with those who affirm/reflect our current self-concept
Self-Concept: Self-Verification
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Self-esteem• High self-esteem -- less influenced, more
persistent/logical
Self-efficacy• Belief in one’s ability, motivation, role perceptions,
and situation to complete a task successfully• General vs. task-specific self-efficacy
Locus of control• General belief about personal control over life events• Higher self-evaluation with internal locus of control
Self-Concept: Self-Evaluation
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Self-Concept: Social Self
• Social identity -- defining ourselves in terms of groups to which we belong or have an emotional attachment
• We identify with groups that support self-enhancement
Employees at other firms
People living in other countries
Graduates ofother schools
An individual’s
social identity
Edward Jones Employee
AmericanResident/Citizen
Indiana U.Graduate
Contrasting GroupsSocial Identity
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Perception Defined
The process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us• Determining which information
gets noticed• how to categorize this
information• how to interpret information
within our existing knowledge framework
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Selective Attention
Selecting vs ignoring sensory information
Affected by object and perceiver characteristics
Emotional markers attached to selected information
Confirmation bias• Information contrary to our
beliefs/values is screened out
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Categorical thinking• Mostly nonconscious process of organizing
people/things Perceptual grouping principles
• Similarity or proximity• Closure -- filling in missing pieces• Perceiving trends
Interpreting incoming information• Emotional markers automatically evaluate
information
Perceptual Organization/Interpretation
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Internal representations of the external world
Help make sense of situations• Fill in missing pieces• Help to predict events
Problem with mental models:• May block recognition of new
opportunities/perspectives
Mental Models in Perceptions
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Stereotyping
Social identity and self-enhancement reinforce stereotyping through:
Categorization -- Categorize people into groups
Homogenization -- Assign similar traits within a group; different traits to other groups
Differentiation process -- Assign less favorable attributes to other groups
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Stereotyping Problems• Overgeneralizes – doesn’t represent everyone in
the category• Basis of systemic and intentional discrimination
Overcoming stereotype biases• Difficult to prevent stereotype activation• Possible to minimize stereotype application
Stereotyping Problems/Solutions
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Attribution Process
Perception that behavior is caused by person’s own motivation or ability
Internal Attribution
External Attribution
Perception that behavior is caused by situation or fate -- beyond person’s control
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Fundamental Attribution Error• attributing own actions to internal and external
factors and others’ actions to internal factors
Self-Serving Bias• attributing our successes to internal factors and
our failures to external factors
Attribution Errors
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle
Supervisorforms
expectations
Expectationsaffect supervisor’s
behavior
Supervisor’sbehavior affects
employee
Employee’sbehavior matches
expectations
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Effect is Strongest... ...at the beginning of the relationship (e.g. employee joins the team) ...when several people have similar expectations about the person ...when the employee has low rather than high past achievement
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1. Awareness of perceptual biases
2. Improving self-awareness• Applying Johari Window
3. Meaningful interaction• Close, frequent interaction toward a shared goal• Equal status • Engaged in a meaningful task
Strategies to Improve Perceptions
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Known to Self Unknown to Self
Knownto Others
Unknownto Others
OpenArea Blind
Area
UnknownArea
HiddenArea
Know Yourself (Johari Window)
OpenArea
BlindArea
HiddenArea
UnknownArea
Disclosure
Feedback
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Meaningful Interaction at Herschend Family Entertainment
Herschend Family Entertainment
CEO Joel Manby worked incognito
along-side employees as part of
the television program Undercover
Boss. The experience helped
Manby improve his perceptions of
the workplace as well as his own
leadership behavior.
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An individual’s ability to perceive, appreciate, and empathize with people from other cultures, and to process complex cross-cultural information. • awareness of, openness to, and respect for other
views and practices in the world • capacity to empathize and act effectively across
cultures• ability to process complex information about novel
environments• ability to comprehend and reconcile intercultural
matters with multiple levels of thinking
Global Mindset
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1. Self-awareness activities – understand own values, beliefs, attitudes
2. Compare mental models with people from other cultures
3. Cross-cultural training
4. Immersion in other cultures
Developing a Global Mindset
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Discussion
Key learnings? Next weeks assignments.