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A 1 minute summary of the article Key learnings: what information was new to

you? What surprised you How you can apply the information to your

professional life

Article Analysis

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Chapter 2

Individual Behavior, Personality, and Values

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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MARS Model of Individual Behavior

Individual behavior and

results

Situationalfactors

Personality

Values

Self-concept

Perceptions

Emotions & attitudes

StressRole

perceptions

Motivation

Ability

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Employee Motivation

Internal forces that affect a person’s voluntary choice of behavior• direction• intensity• persistence

R

BAR

SM

A

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Employee Ability

Natural aptitudes and learned capabilities required to successfully complete a task

Competencies - personal characteristics that lead to superior performance

Person - job matching• selecting• developing• redesigning

R

BAR

SM

A

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Role Perceptions

Beliefs about what behavior is required to achieve the desired results:• understanding what tasks to perform• understanding priority of tasks• understanding preferred behaviors

to accomplish tasks

R

BAR

SM

A

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Situational Factors

Environmental conditions beyond the individual’s short-term control that constrain or facilitate behavior

Constraints – time, budget, facilities, etc Cues – e.g. signs of nearby hazards

R

BAR

SM

A

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Types of Individual Behavior

Maintaining Work Attendance

Attending work at required times

Joining/staying with the Organization

Agreeing to employment relationship; remaining in that relationship

Counterproductive Work Behaviors

Voluntary behaviors that potentially harm the organization

Organizational Citizenship

Contextual performance – cooperation and helpfulness beyond required job duties

Task PerformanceGoal-directed behaviors under the person’s control

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Defining Personality

Relatively enduring pattern of thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize a person, along with the psychological processes behind those characteristics• External traits – observable behaviors• Internal states – thoughts, values, etc inferred from

behaviors• Some variability, adjust to suit the situation

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Nature vs. Nurture of Personality

Influenced by Nature• Heredity explains about 50 percent of

behavioral tendencies and 30 percent of temperament

• Minnesota studies – twins had similar personalities

Influenced by Nurture• Socialization, learning• Personality stabilizes throughout

adolescence• Executive function steers behavior

guided by our self-concept

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Five-Factor Personality Model (CANOE)

Outgoing, talkative, energetic

Creative, nonconforming

Organized, dependable

Trusting, helpful, flexible

Anxious, self-conscious

Conscientiousness

Agreeableness

Neuroticism

Openness to Experience

Extraversion

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Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung Identifies preferences for perceiving the

environment and obtaining/processing information

Commonly measured by Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Jungian Personality Theory

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Personal type ? http://

www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/jtypes2.asp

MBTI

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Sensing (S)• Concrete• Realistic• Practical

Gettingenergy

Intuitive (N)• Imaginative• Future-focused• Abstract

Extraversion (E)• Talkative• Externally-focused• Assertive

Introversion (I)• Quiet• Internally-focused• Abstract

Thinking (T)• Logical• Objective• Impersonal

Feeling (F)• Empathetic• Caring• Emotion-focused

Judging (J)• Organized• Schedule-oriented• Closure-focus

Perceiving (P)• Spontaneous• Adaptable• Opportunity-focus

Perceivinginformation

Makingdecisions

Orienting to theexternal world

Jungian & Myers-Briggs Types

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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) Extroversion versus introversion

• similar to five-factor dimension

Perceiving information• Sensing – uses senses, factual, quantitative

• Intuition – uses insight, subjective experience

Judging (making decisions)• Thinking – rational logic, systematic data collection • Feeling – influenced by emotions, how choices affect

others

Orientation toward the external world• Perceiving – flexible, spontaneous, keeps options open • Judging – order and structure

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Values in the Workplace

Stable, evaluative beliefs that guide our preferences

Define right or wrong, good or bad

Value system -- hierarchy of value

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Schwartz’s Values Model

Openness to change – motivation to pursue innovative ways

Conservation -- motivation to preserve the status quo

Self-enhancement -- motivated by self-interest

Self-transcendence -- motivation to promote welfare of others and nature

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In Search of Congruent Values

Similarity of a person’s values hierarchy to another source

Person-organization value congruence Espoused-enacted value congruence Organization-community values congruence

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Utilitarianism

Individual Rights

Greatest good for the greatest number of people

Fundamental entitlementsin society

Distributive Justice

People who are similar should receive similar benefits

Three Ethical Principles

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Influences on Ethical Conduct

Moral intensity• degree that issue demands ethical principles

Ethical sensitivity• ability to recognize the presence and determine the

relative importance of an ethical issue

Situational influences• competitive pressures and other external factors

Mindfulness• actively evaluate whether action violates values

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Individualism

The degree to which people value personal freedom, self-sufficiency, control over themselves, being appreciated for unique qualities

Denmark

Taiwan

Italy

High IndividualismUSA

Low Individualism

India

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Collectivism

The degree to which people value their group membership and harmonious relationships within the group

India

USA

Taiwan

High Collectivism

Italy

Low Collectivism

Denmark

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Power Distance

High power distance• Value obedience to authority• Comfortable receiving

commands from superiors • Prefer formal rules and authority

to resolve conflicts Low power distance

• expect relatively equal power sharing

• view relationship with boss as interdependence, not dependence

Japan

IsraelDenmark

Venezuela

High Power DistanceMalaysia

Low Power Distance

USA

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Uncertainty Avoidance

High uncertainty avoidance• feel threatened by ambiguity

and uncertainty• value structured situations and

direct communication

Low uncertainty avoidance• tolerate ambiguity and

uncertainty

High U. A.

Low U. A.

JapanGreece

USA

Italy

Singapore

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Achievement-Nurturing

High achievement orientation• assertiveness• competitiveness• materialism

High nurturing orientation• relationships• others’ well-being

Achievement

Nurturing

Japan

USA

Sweden

China

Chile

France

Chapter 2

Perceiving Ourselves and Others in Organizations

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2013 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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Self-Concept Defined

An individual’s self-beliefs and self-evaluations “Who am I?” and “How do I feel about myself?” Compare perceived job with our perceived and ideal selves. Includes three self-concept dimensions and four “selves”

processes

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Complexity• People have multiple self-views

Consistency• Similar personality and values across multiple selves

Clarity• Clearly and confidently described, internally

consistent, and stable across time. People have better well-being with:

• multiple selves (complexity)• well established selves (clarity)• selves are similar and compatible with traits

(consistency)

Self-Concept Dimensions (3 C’s)

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Self-enhancement• Promoting and protecting our positive self-view

Self-verification• Affirming our existing self-concept

Self-evaluation• Evaluating ourselves through self-esteem, self-

efficacy and locus of control

Social self• Defining ourselves in terms of group membership

Four “Selves” of Self-Concept

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Drive to promote/protect a positive self-view • competent, attractive, lucky, ethical, valued

Positive self-concept outcomes:• better personal adjustment and mental/physical

health • inflates personal causation and probability of

success

Self-Concept: Self-Enhancement

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Motivation to verify/maintain our self-concept Stabilizes our self-concept People prefer feedback consistent with their

self-concept Self-verification outcomes:

• More likely to perceive information consistent with our self-concept

• We interact more with those who affirm/reflect our current self-concept

Self-Concept: Self-Verification

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Self-esteem• High self-esteem -- less influenced, more

persistent/logical

Self-efficacy• Belief in one’s ability, motivation, role perceptions,

and situation to complete a task successfully• General vs. task-specific self-efficacy

Locus of control• General belief about personal control over life events• Higher self-evaluation with internal locus of control

Self-Concept: Self-Evaluation

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Self-Concept: Social Self

• Social identity -- defining ourselves in terms of groups to which we belong or have an emotional attachment

• We identify with groups that support self-enhancement

Employees at other firms

People living in other countries

Graduates ofother schools

An individual’s

social identity

Edward Jones Employee

AmericanResident/Citizen

Indiana U.Graduate

Contrasting GroupsSocial Identity

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Perception Defined

The process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us• Determining which information

gets noticed• how to categorize this

information• how to interpret information

within our existing knowledge framework

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Selective Attention

Selecting vs ignoring sensory information

Affected by object and perceiver characteristics

Emotional markers attached to selected information

Confirmation bias• Information contrary to our

beliefs/values is screened out

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Categorical thinking• Mostly nonconscious process of organizing

people/things Perceptual grouping principles

• Similarity or proximity• Closure -- filling in missing pieces• Perceiving trends

Interpreting incoming information• Emotional markers automatically evaluate

information

Perceptual Organization/Interpretation

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Internal representations of the external world

Help make sense of situations• Fill in missing pieces• Help to predict events

Problem with mental models:• May block recognition of new

opportunities/perspectives

Mental Models in Perceptions

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Stereotyping

Social identity and self-enhancement reinforce stereotyping through:

Categorization -- Categorize people into groups

Homogenization -- Assign similar traits within a group; different traits to other groups

Differentiation process -- Assign less favorable attributes to other groups

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Stereotyping Problems• Overgeneralizes – doesn’t represent everyone in

the category• Basis of systemic and intentional discrimination

Overcoming stereotype biases• Difficult to prevent stereotype activation• Possible to minimize stereotype application

Stereotyping Problems/Solutions

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Attribution Process

Perception that behavior is caused by person’s own motivation or ability

Internal Attribution

External Attribution

Perception that behavior is caused by situation or fate -- beyond person’s control

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Fundamental Attribution Error• attributing own actions to internal and external

factors and others’ actions to internal factors

Self-Serving Bias• attributing our successes to internal factors and

our failures to external factors

Attribution Errors

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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Cycle

Supervisorforms

expectations

Expectationsaffect supervisor’s

behavior

Supervisor’sbehavior affects

employee

Employee’sbehavior matches

expectations

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Effect is Strongest... ...at the beginning of the relationship (e.g. employee joins the team) ...when several people have similar expectations about the person ...when the employee has low rather than high past achievement

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1. Awareness of perceptual biases

2. Improving self-awareness• Applying Johari Window

3. Meaningful interaction• Close, frequent interaction toward a shared goal• Equal status • Engaged in a meaningful task

Strategies to Improve Perceptions

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Known to Self Unknown to Self

Knownto Others

Unknownto Others

OpenArea Blind

Area

UnknownArea

HiddenArea

Know Yourself (Johari Window)

OpenArea

BlindArea

HiddenArea

UnknownArea

Disclosure

Feedback

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Meaningful Interaction at Herschend Family Entertainment

Herschend Family Entertainment

CEO Joel Manby worked incognito

along-side employees as part of

the television program Undercover

Boss. The experience helped

Manby improve his perceptions of

the workplace as well as his own

leadership behavior.

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An individual’s ability to perceive, appreciate, and empathize with people from other cultures, and to process complex cross-cultural information. • awareness of, openness to, and respect for other

views and practices in the world • capacity to empathize and act effectively across

cultures• ability to process complex information about novel

environments• ability to comprehend and reconcile intercultural

matters with multiple levels of thinking

Global Mindset

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1. Self-awareness activities – understand own values, beliefs, attitudes

2. Compare mental models with people from other cultures

3. Cross-cultural training

4. Immersion in other cultures

Developing a Global Mindset

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Discussion

Key learnings? Next weeks assignments.