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Based on analysis and collaboration with the International Council on Clean Transportation and the FIA Founda
Accelerating GlobalVehicle Efficiency
By Cecilia Springer, Pete Ogden, Nigel Purvis,
and Andreas Dahl-Joergensen June 2014
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Accelerating GlobalVehicle Efficiency
By Cecilia Springer, Pete Ogden, Nigel Purvis,
and Andreas Dahl-Joergensen June 2014
Based on analysis and collaboration with the International Council on Clean Transportation
and the FIA Foundation
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1 Introduction and summary
3 Why vehicle efficiency matters
7 The policy context
10 Potential opportunities and obstacles to implementatio
15 The path forward: An opportunity for U.S. global leader
22 Recommendations and conclusion
24 Endnotes
Contents
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Introduction and summary
Te U.S. governmen should lead a global effor o improve vehicle efficiency
hrough more sringen, long-erm uel-economy sandards or cars and rucks.
Doing so would align ineress in economic growh, energy securiy, public healh,
and climae proecion across a wide range o counries.
Oil consumpion rom road ranspor is increasing rapidly, conribuing o
increased emissions, especially in developing counries.1Many counries already
have efficiency policies o manage uel consumpion, bu hese policies need o bescaled up and expanded across a wider range o vehicles. Forunaely, consumer
and indusry accepance o vehicle-efficiency policies is growing, paving he way
or world leaders o se more ambiious efficiency sandards.
Improved vehicle-efficiency policies are a poliical opporuniy or world lead-
ers. Leaders should conclude a nonbinding global agreemen o increase he rae
o efficiency improvemen in vehicles. Leaders could srike his agreemen a a
number o upcoming global venues, including he U.N. Secreary-Generals 2014
Climae Summi and he 2014 G-20 Leaders Summi.
An agreemen among all major economies is possible bu may prove challenging
or move slowly due o he differences in domesic policies and regional markes
beween counries. In he meanime, he Unied Saes should pave he way or
a global agreemen on vehicle efficiency by negoiaing bilaeral deals wih key
counries such as China, India, and Mexico. Tanks o new sandards adoped
during he Obama adminisraion, he Unied Saes is now he world leader in
uel-economy sandards or cars and rucks,2and i should help oher counries
ramp up heir own vehicle-efficiency policies hrough bilaeral agreemens.
Doing so would demonsrae ha vehicle efficiency has many benefis or hesenaionssome o he worlds larges vehicle markesand could inspire oher
counries o join a global agreemen.
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In order o improve vehicle efficiency worldwide, global leaders should pursue he
ollowing mulilaeral acions:
Announce a leader saemen o ineresed counries a he U.N. Secreary-
Generals Climae Summi in Sepember.
Conclude a srong G-20 leaders saemen wih vehicle-efficiency goals. Forge a mulicounry alliance on vehicle efficiency wihin he Climae and
Clean Air Coaliion and oher mulilaeral venues.
Addiionally, he Unied Saes should pursue bilaeral agreemens wih he ol-
lowing counries:
China, o improve ruck efficiency hrough 2025. India, o expand efficiency sandards o cover more ypes o vehicles and
improve uel qualiy.
Mexico, o harmonize efficiency sandards or cars and exending sandardsor rucks.
Tese agreemens would demonsrae U.S. leadership while bringing significan
benefis o he involved counries. A he same ime, hey would help pave he way
or a global agreemen by demonsraing he benefis o early acion on vehicle
efficiency, including economic growh, energy securiy, improved healh, and
reduced climae impac.
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Why vehicle efficiency matters
Few policies nealy align ineress in economic growh and susainabiliy across
a wide range o counries. Ye, promoing vehicle efficiency3mees boh o
hese needs and more. Improving vehicle efficiency simulaneously benefis he
economy, energy securiy, public healh, and he climae.
The economy
Increased vehicle uel efficiency saves consumers and businesses money by reduc-
ing uel coss. Meanwhile, designing and manuacuring vehicles o mee new
uel-economy sandards could spur job growh in he manuacuring and clean
echnology secors. Te Global Fuel Economy Iniiaive, or GFEI, has esimaed
ha improved uel-economy policies or new passenger cars4could simulae $3
rillion in new vehicle echnology invesmens and creae $5 rillion in global sav-
ings on uel coss beween now and 2025. Tis would lead o poenial ne savings
o $2 rillion or he worlds drivers.5
Te Obama adminisraions new efficiency sandards are a case in poin. Tese
sandards will save consumers an esimaed $1.7 rillion in uel coss by 2025.6
In addiion, he firs phase o new U.S. uel-efficiency sandards proposed or
rucks ha wil l go ino effec or 2014 hrough 2018 will save consumers $50
billion a he pump.7
Esablishing long-erm uel-economy requiremens also provides he regulaory
cerainy needed or auomakers o inves in job-boosing efficiency echnology.
For example, he new U.S. uel-economy sandard or passenger cars will creae an
esimaed 50,000 new auo manuacuring jobs, ou o a oal 570,000 jobs gener-aed by 2030. Tese sandards creae jobs by saving drivers money on ranspora-
ion uel coss and allowing hem o spend ha money elsewhere.8In addiion,
markeing more efficien, low-cos vehicles will bolser he compeiiveness
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o individual auomakers by allowing hem o atrac consumers who are cos-
conscious abou he price o a car as well as is uel. Finally, manuacuring more
efficien cars can insulae auomakers rom gasoline price shockssuch as he
seep price increases seen in 2009which cause consumers o shif heir spend-
ing away rom less efficien vehicles.9
Energy security
Fuel-efficiency sandards can improve energy securiy by reducing dependence on
oreign oil impors, which play an ousized role in many naions rade deficis. For
example, oil impors accouned or more han hal o Indias 2013 rade defici.10
Chinawhose rapid growh has already made i he worlds larges car markeis
also highly relian on impored oil.11Te ransporaion secor is currenly respon-
sible or more han 40 percen o Chinas oil consumpion, and i will consume
wo-hirds o Chinas oil by 2035.12Spurred by a rapid growh in oil impors in2000, he Chinese governmen began drafing is firs uel-economy sandards,
which were issued in 2004.13Tese uel-economy sandards have reduced gaso-
line demand by 1 percen each year since hen.14Te Unied Saeshe worlds
larges imporer o oilalso issued new passenger car uel-efficiency sandards in
2012 ha will reduce U.S. oil consumpion a an almos idenical rae.15
Public health
Air polluion is a serious public healh issue across he world, in large par due
o vehicle polluion rom ailpipe emissions. Te mos harmul ypes o vehicle
air polluion are pariculae mater, nirogen oxides, and sulur dioxide. Diesel-
powered vehicles and rucks are he larges conribuors o such emissions.
Te World Healh Organizaion, or WHO, recenly esimaed ha air polluion
causes 7 million premaure deahs across he world each year, 2.6 million o which
are caused by oudoor air polluion.16Air polluion causes nearly 2 million deahs
per year in China alone,17and i has shorened lie expecancy by more han hree
years in Delhi.18
Beyond direc loss o lie, oher healh effecs o air polluion suchas chronic respiraory illness damage overall welare by reducing he produciviy
o he populaioncosing up o $300 billion per year in China.19
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While air polluion is wors in he ases-growing emerging economies, i is
also a significan problem in he Unied Saes and Europe. ransporaion is a
major source o air polluion in he Unied Saes, causing respiraory problems
and increasing he incidence o cancer and oher long-erm diseases.20Paris, or
example, banned hal o he passenger cars rom he roads in March o hal vehicle
air polluion afer five consecuive days o dangerous air polluion levels.21
I is imporan o noe ha vehicular air polluion depends largely on uel qualiy
and emission sandards, no jus on he uel economy o vehicles. Tus, vehicle-
efficiency policies should be paired wih clean uel and emission sandards ha
regulae he level o harmul polluans, such as sulur, in uel and ailpipe emis-
sions in order o capure he maximum benefi o new efficiency sandards.
Climate change
Te ransporaion secor currenly accouns or one-quarer o greenhouse gas
emissions. Tese emissions are growing a a aser rae han any oher secor
wih a ul l 80 percen o ha growh coming rom road vehicles.22Tis rend
has promped groups such as he GFEI o advocae or a global arge o 50
percen reducions in new car uel use by 2030 compared o 2005 levels and a
50 percen reducion o he global vehicle flee by 2050.23Tese arges have
also been proposed as par o he new Susainable Developmen Goalshe
global developmen goals ha naions are negoiaing o replace he Millennium
Developmen Goals afer 2015. Reaching he 2050 goal would preven an esi-
maed 33 billion ons o carbon dioxide emissions cumulaively beween 2015
and 2050.24Tis makes up nearly 3 percen o he required global soluion o
climae change during his period.25
Oher vehicle echnologies, such as uel cell and elecric cars, can also reduce
emissions. Bu upron invesmen in hese echnologies is currenly a barrier o
wider deploymen. While ransiioning o batery- or uel-cell-powered vehicles
will have emissions benefis in he long erm, efficiency sandards are he single
mos imporan soluion or reducing emissions rom vehicles now. In he
Inernaional Energy Agency policy scenario designed o limi global warmingo 2 degrees, uel-economy measures make up nearly hal o reduced demand by
2050 and are he primary climae soluion prior o 2035.26
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Tus, emissions reducions rom vehicle efficiency are a key componen o
naional sraegies o hal climae change. Tis holds rue or he Unied Saes,
where he Obama adminisraions new uel-efficiency sandards will have elimi-
naed 6 billion ons o carbon dioxide emissionsmore han he oal U.S. emis-
sions in 2013by 2025.27
aken ogeher, he benefis o vehicle-efficiency policies or he economy, energy
securiy, public healh, and he climae make such policies atracive o many
counries. Given he baseline appeal o hese policies, he nex secion analyzes
he marke rends and poliical orces shaping progress on vehicle efficiency.
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The policy context
What are the market trends?
Te markes or boh passenger vehicles and heavier reigh vehicles are expand-
ing rapidly. Mos o he growh comes rom emerging economies, such as India
and China, which accouned or 60 percen o vehicle sales profis in 2012.28
China is and wil l likely remain or some ime he worlds larges marke or
vehicle sales. W hile wealhier areas on Chinas easern coas could reach saura-
ion in vehicle ownership by 2020, sales will coninue o soar in less-developedinerior regions, especially as Chinas road inrasrucure coninues o expand
wesward.29In oher counries, auo manuacuring is expanding alongside sales.
Mexicos auo indusry has grown a a rae o 6 percen each year, riple he
growh rae o oher manuacuring secors here.30
A he same ime, his growh in he ransporaion secor, largely driven by
vehicle sales, is ransorming he global oil marke. Te ransporaion sec-
or accouns or some 75 percen o he growh in oal projeced oil demand
by 2035. Oil use in he ranspor secor will grow five-old over he nex wo
decades, mosly driven by consumpion in China, India, and he Middle Eas.
China is on course o surpass he Unied Saes as he larges oil consumer by
2030, and India will ake over as he larges source o oil demand growh by
2020, wih an average increase in demand o 3.6 percen per year. Diesel uel
will see he greaes increase in demand, reflecing uel preerences and he rapid
growh o he reigh secor in emerging economies.31
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What efficiency policies are currently in play?
Domesic uel-economy sandards or cars covered abou hree-quarers o all cars
sold globally in 2013. However, hese sandards represen a wide range o emis-
sions limis and have various compliance daes, rendering many o hem insu-
ficien o subsanially limi emissions or uel consumpion. Curren efficiency
sandards are on pace o improve global uel economy by 1.7 percen per year
hrough 2015 and hen decline o abou 1 percen per year rom 2016 o 2020.
o pu his in perspecive, meeing he GFEI 50 by 50 argewhich ses a goal
o halving uel use across he global passenger car flee by 2050will require an
average 3 percen annual global improvemen in uel economy or cars.32
For rucks, efficiency sandards are in a much earlier sage o developmen.
Currenly, only he Unied Saes, Canada, China, and Japan have uel-efficiency
sandards or rucks, alhough numerous counries, including Mexico, he
European Union, Brazil, and Korea are considering hem.33
Global oil demand by region Global oil demand by sector
2012 2020 2025 2030 2035 2012 2020 2025 2030 20
FIGURE 1
The transportation sector in Asia will drive global oil demand
Projected increase in global oil demand, 20122035, in millions of barrels per day
Bunkers, or marineand aviation fuel
Oceania
Europe
Americas
Other
Buildings
Other industries
Petrochemicals
Power generation
Transport
Eastern Europe and Eurasia
Africa
Latin America
Middle East
Asia
80
100
87.4
60
40
20
0
Source: International Energy Agency, "World Energy Outlook" (2013).
101.4 87.4 10
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In addiion o uel-economy sandards or cars and rucks, he carbon inensiy o
he uel plays an imporan role in deermining overall carbon emissions. Differen
sources o uel have differen carbon conen, so racking o uel carbon inen-
siy is also an imporan sep oward uure improvemens in vehicle efficiency.
Currenly, Caliornia and he European Union are racking carbon inensiy o
uels and deploying policies o discourage invesmens in high-carbon ossil uelsand o accelerae deploymen in low-carbon alernaives.
TABLE 1
Comparing vehicle sales and efficiency standards by country
Region
Share of world
vehicle sales
Car- ef ficie nc y standards Truck- eff icienc y standards
2015 2020 2015 2020
China 25%
European Union 20%
United States 19%
Japan 7%
Brazil 5%
India 5%
Russia 4%
Canada 2%
South Korea 2%
Australia 1%
Mexico 1%
Other 9%
= Policies in place = No policies
Source: International Council on Clean Transportation, Global passenger vehicle standards, available at http://www.theicct.org/info-tools/global-passenger-vehicle-
standards (last accessed May 2014).
http://www.theicct.org/info-tools/global-passenger-vehicle-standardshttp://www.theicct.org/info-tools/global-passenger-vehicle-standardshttp://www.theicct.org/info-tools/global-passenger-vehicle-standardshttp://www.theicct.org/info-tools/global-passenger-vehicle-standards -
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Potential opportunities and
obstacles to implementation
While he benefis o enhanced vehicle uel efficiency o he economy, energy
securiy, public healh, and he climae are well documened, obsacles o imple-
menaion sill remain ha need o be addressed.
Consumer acceptance
While consumers can save money over he liespan o a uel-efficien vehicle com-pared wih a sandard vehicle, one poenial obsacle o uel-economy sandards
is consumers willingness o make he upron invesmen in more cosly vehicles.
Forunaely, here is clear evidence ha consumer accepance is no a significan
obsacle o he adopion o sringen uel-economy sandards in mos counries.
Consumer willingness o pay or uel economy is increasing.34In he Unied Saes,
37 percen o consumers raed uel economy as he leading acor in heir choice
o heir nex car, compared wih 17 percen who chose qualiy and 16 percen who
chose saey.35In India, one sudy ound ha a majoriy o consumers atach even
greaer imporance o uel economy in heir vehicle-purchasing decisions han
simple economics would sugges.36Since 2006, uel economy has consisenly
ranked among he op hree prioriies or car buyers in India.37
Moreover, consumer demand or efficien vehicles is growing. In maure mar-
kes, consumers srongly suppor uel-economy sandards wih 85 percen o
Americans supporing Presiden Barack Obamas laes uel-economy sandards
or cars.38In emerging economies, consumers are increasingly aware o ranspora-
ion exernaliies such as air polluion and are demanding more inormaion on
he uel economy o he vehicles hey are considering.
Effecive policies can also simulae greaer consumer demand or efficien vehi-
cles. Tese policies include beter labeling and communicaion o liecycle con-
sumer savings, as well as economic incenives o help reduce differences in upron
cos hrough so-called eebae programs. Tese programs impose ees on highly
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polluing vehicles, and rebaes are issued or he mos efficien vehicles. Following
he implemenaion o Frances eebae program in 2008, he average vehicle size
in France decreased significanly, and carbon dioxide emissions dropped 6 percen
across he flee. As a resul, he French vehicle marke weahered he economic
downurn beter han comparable markes.39
Consumers play a large role in simulaing demand or more efficien vehicles.
Tis demand can drive invesmen in more efficien echnologies by auomakers.
Bu he ineress o he auo indusry are also an imporan par o he vehicle-
efficiency equaion.
Industry acceptance
While here is widespread recogniion ha uel-efficiency improvemens are
essenial or compeiiveness in an increasingly global marke, new efficiency san-dards will no always be me wih suppor rom he auo indusry. Companies ha
are unable o comply wih rapid uel-economy increases or ha compee in he
lowes cos markes will see hemselves as disadvanaged by rising uel-economy
sandards. ypically, hese auomakers operae in emerging economies and ear
having o buy expensive Wesern echnology o comply wih sandards.
Ye, many counries, including emerging economies, have managed o garner
suppor rom indusry or uel-efficiency sandards. Developing counries have
used innovaive, flexible compliance mechanisms o ensure ha efficiency policies
are simulaing innovaion in heir domesic markes. Te Brazilian Inovar-Auo
program, or example, inroduced a ax on passenger cars and ligh commercial
vehicles bu, a he same ime, provides equivalen ax discouns or auomakers
ha mee cerain efficiency guidelines. Te program will oser innovaion and
reduce uel consumpion in Brazil by abou 15 percen by 2017.40In addiion,
domesic auomakers in emerging economies are increasingly paraking in join
venures wih Wesern auomakers ha have he capaciy, echnological experise,
and poliical will o pursue vehicle efficiency.
Despie a lack o coordinaed global uel-efficiency policies, here has been someconvergence in efficiency improvemens across markes due o he globally iner-
conneced supply chains o major auomakers. All Organisaion or Economic
Co-operaion and Developmen, or OECD, markes, or example, improved
vehicle efficiency by beween 16 percen and 18 percena rae o nearly 2
percen per yearbeween 2002 and 2011.41Addiionally, counries wih a high
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share o impored cars or car pars end o adop he mos-advanced efficiency
improvemens wihin only a ew years ime.42In conras, here is a greaer ime
lag or efficiency discrepancy in markes wih significan domesic producion
primarily or he lowes-cos segmens o domesic markes, such as aa in India,
Lada in Russia, and Wuling in China. Tese findings sugges ha a saged, bila-
eral approach o encourage key markes o adop efficiency sandards can havea significan impac wihin he involved counries, as well as pave he way or a
broader mulilaeral agreemen.
Te compeiiveness o domesic versus oreign companies plays a key role in
geting poliical suppor or new sandards, bu he disincion beween domesic
and oreign is no sraighorward. Te auo indusries in emerging economies
are increasingly inegraed wih oreign auomakers, especially auomakers in he
Unied Saes, Europe, and Japan ha are more supporive o uel-economy san-
dards due o heir echnological advanage or experience wih sandards adoped
in oher key markes.
In China, or example, mos domesic auomakers parner wih inernaional
firms o exchange marke access or echnological experise, a patern ha has
persised or several decades. During he Culural Revoluion, China haled pro-
ducion o cars. While promoing reorm and opening in he 1980s, he Chinese
governmen encouraged join venures wih oreign auomakers o fill he
vacuum o domesic research and developmen capaciy.43Te mos prominen
example o such join venures is he SAIC-General Moors-Wuling Auomobile
parnership in souhwesern China, which sells nearly 1.5 million cars in China
annually. SAIC-GM-Wuling is now expanding ino he Indian marke hrough
oher join venures and even ull acquisiions o Indian manuacurers.44
Currenly, China aces a very large echnology gap beween domesic-only manu-
acurers and companies in join venure manuacures. As a resul, join venure
manuacurers are driving uel economy in China.45
Spurred by an increasingly conneced global markeplace, he auo indusry is
growing progressively ambiious on uel economy. Bu, as discussed above, many
counries have uel-economy sandards or cars bu no rucks. Ye rucks are he
vehicle class wih he ases growh, and ruck efficiency could yield he greaesbenefis associaed wih reduced uel consumpion.
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Challenges and opportunities for trucks
New sandards or rucks could deliver he greaes reducions in uel consump-
ion globally, paricularly in developing counries. rucks use disproporionaely
more uel han cars per mile raveled. While rucks are responsible or 20 percen
o road ranspor emissions in developed counries, hey can accoun or as muchas 60 percen in developing counries.46
Alhough here is a clear opporuniy or progress, paricularly in emerging mar-
kes, many counries have sandards or cars bu no rucks. Te Unied Saes only
adoped is firs uel-efficiency sandards or rucks in 2011, and jus hree oher
counriesChina, Japan, and Canadacurrenly have heir own ruck sandards.
Even he European Union has ye o issue ruck sandards. Many sakeholders are
eager o leverage U.S. progress o promoe harmonizaion o sandards across he
world, bu his will require significan poliical persuasion.
Tere are clear hurdles or improving he uel economy o rucks. Firs, ruck
manuacurers are no beholden o consumer preerences or efficien, clean
vehicles. rucks are ofen operaed by small commercial flees, which may lag
behind privae consumers and large car auomakers in erms o undersanding he
benefis o vehicle efficiency. In addiion, such flees may have less access o capial
or upron invesmens in efficiency.47
Despie hese obsacles, here are reasons o believe ha improved sandards or
rucks are poliically easible.
Firs, ruck markes in emerging economies are increasingly inernaional.
Hisorically, local manuacurers have dominaed Chinas heavy-duy flee. In he
pas five years, however, oreign manuacurers have peneraed Chinas rapidly
growing ruck marke by parnering wih domesic manuacurers in join ven-
ures similar o hose o he passenger car marke. Conversely, Chinese ruck
manuacurers are now looking oward expor markes.48In India, Volvo has begun
o manuacure is mos efficien ruck engines. Greaer inegraion wih he
inernaional marke could help spur he sronger Chinese ruck sandards or he
adopion o new sandards in India. Jus as wih cars, ruck manuacurers have anincreasing sensiiviy o inernaional uel-economy sandards.
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Second, he prolieraion o so-called green reigh programs is esablishing an
imporan oundaion or uure sandards. Such programs collec exensive daa
on flees and echnologies o inorm bes pracices or improving ruck efficiency.
Green reigh programs aim o use public-privae parnerships raher han regula-
ion o simulae improved ruck efficiency. Daa sharing via hese programs can
help aciliae he adopion o ruck sandards in oher counries. In many cases,his daa has never been examined beore. Green reigh programs can accelerae
adopion o efficien echnologies, such as low rolling resisance ires and aero-
dynamic devices. Tese programs ensure ha he daa and echnology needed
o implemen uel-economy sandards or rucks are in place. Parners ha are
adminisraing green reigh programs include he Climae and Clean Air Coaliion,
Clean Air Asia, he Energy Foundaion, he World Bank, he German Inernaional
Cooperaion, and he U.S. Environmenal Proecion Agency, or EPA.
Consumer demand and indusry accepance or efficien vehicles are increasing.
Te inernaionalized marke means ha even ruck manuacurerswhich areno direcly subjec o consumer demandhave more access o efficiency-con-
scious markes and new efficiency echnologies. Tese rends are paving he way
or sronger policies on vehicle efficiency. Now, poliical leadership is needed o
move hese policies orward.
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The path forward: An opportunity
for U.S. global leadership
Te Unied Saes is currenly well posiioned o lead an inernaional effor o
increase vehicle efficiency. Is recenly enaced, robus uel-economy sandards
and clean uel sandards make i a global leader in his area. U.S. sandards or cars
require improvemens hrough 2025he longes-erm sandard o any coun-
ry excep Canada. In addiion, he adminisraion will issue a new ruck uel-
efficiency sandard by March 2016 ha exends regulaions beyond he curren
2018 imeline. Now is he momen or he Unied Saes o ranslae his domesic
leadership ino inernaionally coordinaed acion.
Near-term opportunities for an international deal
Inernaional progress on vehicle efficiency will ulimaely depend on inerna-
ional poliical will. Te Unied Saes is already engaged in mulilaeral parner-
ships and dialogues ha could serve as a good oundaion or scaled-up acion
on vehicle efficiency. Te inernaional diplomaic calendar provides wo key
opporuniies o reach an inernaional agreemen on vehicle efficiency among he
key se o counries ha make and buy he lions share o cars and rucks: he U.N.
Climae Summi and he G-20 Leaders Summi. G-20 counries, or example, are
responsible or 95 percen o he worlds vehicle producion and 91 percen o
vehicle sales. (see Figure 2)
Te U.N. Climae Summiwhich will ake place in New York in Sepember
will bring ogeher world leaders o discuss how o raise ambiion or a 2015
global climae agreemen and provide a plaorm or hem o announce new policy
commimens. I a selec group o counries commi o adoping bes pracice
sandards, hen he majoriy o global vehicle uel consumpion will be covered bysringen uel-economy sandards. (see Figure 3) An agreemen could be atracive
o Europe, Japan, and Canadawho are already poliically commited o raising
uel-efficiency sandardsas well as o India, Mexico, and China, where vehicle-
efficiency sandards are gaining racion.
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Jus wo monhs laer, he leaders o he worlds larges economies will convene
again, his ime a he G-20 Summi in Brisbane, Ausralia. Te G-20 has dem-
onsraed an ineres in his opic in he pas: I asked he Inernaional Energy
Agency wih producing an impac analysis o clean energy and energy-efficiency
policies, including uel economy, a is 2011 meeing in Cannes, France. Tis
repor ound ha ambiious uel-economy sandards would cu uel use andcarbon emissions ar more han elecric vehicle deploymen could over he nex
decade. Te repor also recommended ha counries adop fiscal measures o
send marke signals o poenial purchasers o more efficien vehicles.49Prior G-20
ineres and acion has paved he way or agreemens on vehicle efficiency, and his
years G-20 gahering could provide anoher such opporuniy.
Number of vehicles produced
Number of vehicles registered and sold
Number of
vehicles produced
Number of vehicles
registered and sold
FIGURE 2
A G-20 agreement would capture almost the entire global vehicle market
G-20 share of global vehicle market, 2013
87,300,115
85,393,803
G-20 countries total
Rest of world
South Africa
United States
Canada
Mexico
Brazil
Argentina
China
Japan
South Korea
India
Indonesia
Russia
Turkey
European Union
Germany
France
United Kingdom
Italy
Saudi Arabia
Australia
G-20 countries total
Rest of worldWorld total
545,913
11,045,902
2,379,806
3,052,395
3,740,418
791,007
22,116,825
9,630,070
4,521,429
3,880,938
1,208,211
2,175,311
1,125,534
6,469,984
5,718,222
1,740,000
1,597,433
658,207
-
215,926
82,613,531
4,686,58487,300,115
650,620
15,883,969
1,779,860
1,100,542
3,767,370
948,858
21,984,100
5,375,513
1,543,564
3,241,209
1,218,900
2,950,483
893,124
4,620,991
3,257,718
2,201,068
2,595,713
1,419,494
740,000
1,136,227
77,309,323
8,084,48085,393,803
G-20 countries total
Rest of world
Source: International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers, "World Motor Vehicle Production" (2013), available at http://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics; Internation
Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers, "World Motor Vehicle Sales" (2013), available at http://www.oica.net/category/sales-statistics.
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Potential targets and actions
A he U.N. Climae Summi, he G-20 Leaders Summi, and oher venues, here
are a number o possible oucomes ha could significanly advance vehicle-effi-
ciency policies. In order o capure he opporuniy ha he Climae Summi and
he G-20 meeings presen, he Unied Saes and oher counries should workoward he ollowing inernaional arges and accompanying acions.
For cars, counries should commi o gradually increasing vehicle-efficiency
perormance. Such a commimen should be underpinned by a arge or aspira-
ional goal o reducing carbon dioxide emissions per disance raveled by a leas
5 percen per year. Tis rae o improvemen is possible wih known and emerg-
ing cos-effecive echnologies. Carbon dioxide emissions sandards will apply
o hree-quarers o he worlds passenger car flee sales hrough 2015, bu hese
sandards will only apply o one-hird o he world flee hrough 2020. Currenly,
U.S. uel-economy sandards or cars will reduce average carbon dioxide emissionsa a rae o more han 4 percen per year hrough 2025, making hese sandards he
mos ambiious in he world. I he world adoped uel-economy sandards ha
encouraged improvemen on a more ambiious rae and imeline, he uel savings
would be monumenal. In he Unied Saes alone, a 4 percen rae o improve-
men or cars hrough 2050alongside improved echnologieswould reduce
oil consumpion by up o 80 percen.50
Similarly, counries should commi o gradually increasing vehicle-efficiency
perormance or rucks, underpinned by a arge or aspiraional rae o a leas a
4 percen reducion in carbon dioxide emissions per disance raveled each year
hrough 2050. As one o only a ew counries wih ruck uel-economy sandards,
he Unied Saes can help oher counries by drawing atenion o he benefis o
acion and encouraging naions o move orward in andem. Te Unied Saes
can help spur his progress hrough echnical assisance. Such assisance is needed
o esablish sandards ha deliver he appropriae echnologies or differen ypes
o rucks, given he variey in his ype o vehicle. Using is exising venues, such
as he EPAs SmarWay program, he Unied Saes can couple a push or global
sandards wih effecive echnical assisance.
Te G-20 or he U.N. Secreary-General should also ask addiional work on
vehicle efficiency o a echnical body ha could suppor heir effors. Building on
he Inernaional Energy Agencys, or IEAs, 2011 repor, or example, he G-20
could ask IEAis energy secreariao convene sandard-seting agencies
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and aciliae he exchange o inormaion and proven policy approaches. Te IEA
could also serve he imporan role o reporing back o he G-20 on wha prog-
ress counries are making oward heir goals.
An inernaional vehicle-efficiency agreemen could be suppored by ongoing
mulilaeral work as well. Te Climae and Clean Air Coaliion, or CCAC, orexample, is a group o 38 counries, insiuions, and nongovernmenal organiza-
ions ocused on eliminaing shor-lived climae polluans, poen greenhouse
gases ha persis or a relaively shor ime in he amosphere. Cars and rucks are
a significan source o black carbon, a shor-lived climae polluan ha has serious
warming effecs, as well as derimenal healh impacs. Te Unied Saes is a lead
parner on he CCAC iniiaive or reducing polluion rom rucks.
A mulilaeral agreemen wih srong arges or cars and rucks, plus plaorms
or echnical exchange, would ransorm he vehicle efficiency landscape. Such an
agreemen would provide lasing poliical imperaive or acion. However, balanc-ing he needs o many differen counries in a global venue can
be difficul. Swifly negoiaing an ambiious vehicle-efficiency
agreemen has a low guaranee o success bu, i negoiaed,
would be very high impac. Te Unied Saes can help ensure
he success o a global agreemen by paving he way wih one or
more bilaeral agreemens wih key counries.
Bilateral agreements
Tere are also a number o imporan bilaeral opporuniies
in he area o vehicle efficiency ha can be seized in he com-
ing monhs. Tese opporuniies no only have benefis uno
hemselves, bu will also help build he oundaion or a larger
mulilaeral agreemen.
Several key counries have already demonsraed poliical will o
regulae vehicle uel economy. Some o hese counries are also
large vehicle markes ha are responsible or significan porionso global uel consumpion. I he Unied Saes worked wih jus
a ew key counries o improve vehicle efficiency, hen he major-
iy o he worlds uel consumpion or road ranspor would be
regulaed by ambiious uel-economy sandards. (see Figure 3)
Poenial parners or he Unied Saes are discussed below.
Policies that encourage cleaner fuels are als
critical for reducing air pollution and carbo
emissions. Clean fuel policies typically limit
sulfur and/or carbon content of fuels. Some
countries and citiesincluding Canada, Au
and Koreaalready have ultra-low sulfur fustandards, and the United States has the w
most stringent standards for sulfur emissio
from trucks. However, some countries whos
zens would benefit the most from the air qu
benefits of reducing sulfursuch as China,
Brazil, and Mexicohave yet to adopt low-
fuel standards.
Only California and the European Union cur
track the carbon intensity of fuels, but doin
important for understanding emissions from
unconventional fuels. These tracking effort
be expanded internationally, and clean fue
cies can be adopted within bilateral or mul
eral agreements on fuel economy.
Clean fuels
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China
China is devoing significan resources o reducing air polluion
in and around is ciies, and vehicles are a significan source o
ha polluion. o mee his challenge, China has sough o limi
he number o cars on he road and has promoed uel-economysandards. Bu more mus be done.
o ha end, he Unied Saes and China are well posiioned
o ac ogeher on uel efficiency. Te Chinese auo indusry
has never been more ouward acing as i srives o be a glob-
ally compeiive indusry, wih srong join venures beween
Chinese and American auomakers. A he same ime, he U.S.
Deparmen o Sae, U.S. Deparmen o ransporaion, and
EPA are working wih China on an iniiaive o reduce emissions
rom rucks and oher vehicles. Te curren cooperaionunder he umbrella o he U.S.-China Climae Change Working
Groupconsiss o echnical suppor on uel qualiy, uel effi-
ciency, and green reigh.
Te Unied Saes and China could agree o subsanially improve
heir respecive vehicle-efficiency policies or rucks over he nex decade beween
2015 and 2025. On he par o he Unied Saes, his would require robus, new
ruck sandards, which he Obama adminisraion has commited o issuing by
March 2016. China could make curren sandards more sringen or all ypes o
rucks and agree o sep up enorcemen. For cars, he Unied Saes can also provide
assisance o help bring Chinas passenger car flee up o a more sringen rae o
efficiency improvemen hrough 2025. Te nex U.S.-China Sraegic and Economic
Dialogue, expeced o ake place in July, provides one opporuniy or securing such
an agreemen.
India
India released is firs-ever efficiency sandards or cars in January, which are effec-ive or new cars saring in 2017. Imporanly, he new sandards have suppor
rom domesic producers. In ac, Indian auomakers paricipaed in he ormaion
o he sandards and approved consulaion papers hroughou he process.51
China
Mexico
India
Canada
United
States
European
Union
FIGURE 3
Agreements between a few G-20
countries would cover a majority of
global vehicle fuel consumption
Road sector fuel consumption, 2011,
kilotons of oil equivalent
Source: International Council on Clean Transportation, Globalpassenger vehicle standards, available at http://www.theicct.org/info-tools/global-passenger-vehicle-standards (last accessed May 201The World Bank, "Road sector energy consumption (kt of oilequivalent)," available at http://data.worldbank.org/indica-tor/IS.ROD.ENGY.KT (last accessed May 2014).
Rest of world
Rest of G
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Te Unied Saes should explore he poenial or cooperaion in his area.
For insance, India could expand is uel-economy sandards o cover no only
passenger cars, as is currenly he case, bu also rucks and buses. India aces
many challenges in achieving is uel-economy sandards due o widespread
uel mixing. Subsidized uels in India, such as kerosene, are requenly mixed
wih gasoline o creae cheaper mixed uels. Tis can lead o higher emissionso polluans and greenhouse gases. Alongside cooperaion on uel-economy
sandards, he Unied Saes should provide echnical assisance o help rack
uel qualiy. Te EPA should work wih he Indian Peroleum and Naural Gas
Regulaory Boardunder he Minisry o Peroleum and Naural Gaso
coordinae his effor.
Tere are muliple bilaeral racks hrough which such bilaeral cooperaion could
occur, including he U.S.-India Energy Dialogue, he U.S.-India Climae Change
Dialogue, and he new Join Working Group on Susainable Growh.
Mexico
As Japan, Europe, and he Unied Saes lead on uel-economy sandards, Mexicos
auo indusry is eeling srong pressure o ac oo. Japanese and European auo-
makers are expanding vehicle assembly capaciy in Mexico o save on labor coss
and o serve he U.S. marke. As a resul, Mexico has developed a robus vehicle
pars expor marke, wih more han hal o hese expors going o he Unied
Saes.52o say compeiive and mainain marke share in he Unied Saes,
Mexico has already expressed a desire o harmonize is uel-economy sandards
wih hose o he Unied Saes hrough a regional approach along wih Canada.
Mexico adoped sandards in July 2013 or carbon dioxide emissions and uel
economy o new cars or 2014 o 2016 a levels ha mirror previous U.S. san-
dards. Now, he Unied Saes should work wih Mexico o harmonize is policies
wih U.S. sandards by exending his imeline and rae o improvemen hrough
2025. Given he close rade relaionship beween he Unied Saes and Mexico,
a bilaeral agreemen on car sandard harmonizaion should occur hrough he
Commission or Environmenal Cooperaion wihin he Norh American Freerade Agreemen, or NAFA.
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Te Unied Saes and Mexico can also work ogeher o reduce he uel consump-
ion o rucks. A he 2014 Norh American Leaders Summi, U.S., Canadian,
and Mexican leaders agreed on a call o acion o adhere o high sandards in
uel qualiy and efficiency or rucks.53Given his exising poliical will, here
is an opporuniy or progress wih he Mexican governmen. Boh counries
should improve heir curren uel-economy sandards or rucks by exending hesandards hrough 2025. Such a commimen will require high-level suppor and
could be announced a nex years Norh American Leaders Summi.
Te Unied Saes, by working wih hese counries on bilaeral agreemens, can
bring counries represening a significan porion o he global vehicles marke
ino alignmen on he imporance o vehicle efficiency. Doing so will pave he way
or a global agreemen on vehicle efficiency.
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Recommendations and conclusion
Tere are many opporuniies in he coming monhs o accelerae global vehicle
efficiency. Specifically, global leaders should pursue mulilaeral acions in a num-
ber o venues. A coaliion o willing counries could spearhead a leader saemen
a he U.N. Secreary-Generals Climae Summi in New York in Sepember, or a
he G-20 meeings in November. Oher mulilaeral racks, such as he CCAC,
could provide a plaorm or echnical exchange beween counries. Te Unied
Saes should use he srengh o is domesic acion on uel economy and vehicle
efficiency o lead in hese venues.
Te Unied Saes should also use is domesic leadership on vehicle efficiency o
orm bilaeral agreemens wih a number o like-minded counries ha are also
significan players in he vehicles marke. Te Unied Saes should work wih
China, he worlds larges vehicle marke, o improve ruck efficiency hrough
2025. Te Unied Saes should also work wih India on expanding efficiency
sandards o cover more ypes o vehicles, especially rucks, and o improve
uel qualiy. Finally, he Unied Saes should work wih Mexico, a close rading
parner or he U.S. auo indusry, o harmonize cars sandards and increase he
sringency o ruck sandards.
Tese bilaeral agreemens would cemen U.S. leadership on vehicle efficiency and
demonsrae o he res o he world ha some o he worlds larges auomakers
and vehicle markes are demanding more efficien vehicles. More efficien vehicles
will help counries save on uel coss and boos he economy, srenghen energy
securiy, and proec public healh. In addiion, uel-economy sandards will
help reduce greenhouse gas emissions ha drive global climae change. In shor,
vehicle efficiency nealy aligns poliical prioriies or naions seeking o grow heir
economies while promoing a healhy environmen or all.
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About the authors
Cecilia Springeris a senior associae a Climae Advisers, where she leads projecs
on low-carbon ransporaion, susainable finance or energy and agriculural com-
modiies, and carbon pricing. Previously, she served as a U.S. Fulbrigh scholar,
conducing research in ianjin, China, on planning and ranspor in ecociies.
Pete Ogdenis a Senior Fellow and he Direcor o Inernaional Energy and
Climae Policy a he Cener or American Progress. From 2012 o 2013, he
served on he W hie House naional securiy saff as direcor or climae change
and environmenal policy. Previously, he served on he Whie House Domesic
Policy Council as senior direcor or energy and climae change and a he
U.S. Sae Deparmen as chie o saff o he special envoy or climae change.
Beore joining he Obama adminisraion, he was Chie o Saff o he Cener or
American Progress.
Nigel Purvisis he ounder, presiden, and CEO o Climae Advisers. Previously,
Purvis direced U.S. environmenal diplomacy in he Clinon and George W. Bush
adminisraions, mos recenly as depuy assisan secreary o sae or oceans,
environmen, and science. Currenly, Purvis holds climae change and inernaional
affairs research appoinmens a Resources or he Fuure, he German Marshall
Fund o he Unied Saes, and he Brookings Insiuion. He also serves as he
execuive direcor o he biparisan Commission on Climae and ropical Foress.
Andreas Dahl-Joergensenis direcor o policy a Climae Advisers. Prior o join-
ing Climae Advisers, Dahl-Joergensen was wih he Norwegian governmens
Inernaional Climae and Fores Iniiaive, where he led Norways landmark $1
billion parnership wih Indonesia. He represened Norway in he inernaional
climae negoiaions. Dahl-Joergensen previously worked or he World Bank as a
carbon finance analys overseeing several large carbon unds.
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Endnotes
1 International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook2013 (2013).
2 The International Council on Clean Transportation,Global Comparison of Passenger Car and Light-commercial Vehicle Fuel Economy/GHG Emissions Stan-
dards (2014), available at http://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/info-tools/ICCT_PV_standard_Feb2014.pdf.
3 In this paper, efficiency is defined in terms of fuelconsumptionor carbon emissionsper distancetraveled.
4 Vehicles are typically split into two categories: light-duty vehicles and heavy-duty vehicles. Light-dutyvehicles include passenger cars, minivans, SUVs, andlight-commercial vehicles. Heavy-duty vehicles includemedium and heavy commercial vehicles as well asbuses. In this paper, for the sake of clarity, we call light-duty vehicles cars, and heavy-duty vehicles trucks.
5 Global Fuel Economy Initiative, Fuel Economy: Stateof the World 2014 (2014), available athttp://www.globalfueleconomy.org/Documents/Publications/
gfei_state_of_the_world_2014.pdf. GFEI is a partner-ship between the U.N. Environment Programme, theInternational Energy Agency, FIA Foundation, theInternational Council on Clean Transportation, andthe Institute of Transportation Studies at UC Davis andInternational Transport Forum.
6 The White House, Improving the Fuel Efficiency ofAmerican Trucks (2014), available at http://www.white-house.gov/sites/default/files/docs/finaltrucksreport.pdf.
7 Ibid.
8 BlueGreen Alliance, Gearing Up: Smart Standards Cre-ate Good Jobs Building Cleaner Cars (2012), availableat http://www.bluegreenalliance.org/news/publica-tions/document/AutoReport_Final.pdf.
9 Driving Growth, How Fuel Efficiency is Driving JobGrowth in the U.S. Auto Industry (2012), avail-able at http://drivinggrowth.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/How_Fuel_is_Driving_Growth_Octo-ber_revise.pdf.
10 Victor Mallet, Indias reliance on imported energythreatens long-term recovery, The Financial Times,September 12, 2013, available at http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/c20792e2-1b84-11e3-b678-00144feab7de.html#axzz33D7TBzyP.
11 U.S. Energy Information Administration, China (2014),available at http://www.eia.gov/countries/analysis-briefs/China/china.pdf.
12 International Energy Agency, Oil and Gas Security:Peoples Republic of China (2012), available athttp://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publica-
tion/China_2012.pdf.
13 Yuefu Jin and others, Development of Fuel Consump-tion Standards for Chinese Light-Duty Vehicles (2005),available at http://papers.sae.org/2005-01-0534/.
14 Hongyan H. Oliver and others, Chinas Fuel EconomyStandards for Passenger Vehicles (Cambridge, MA: Har-vard University, 2009), available at http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/2009_Oliveretal_Impacts_of_Chi-nese_Fuel_Economy_Standards.pdf.
15 Securing Americas Future Energy, A National Strategyfor Energy Security (2013), available at http://www.secureenergy.org/policy/national-strategy-energy-security-2013. Passenger car standards will reduce oilconsumption by 3.1 million barrels per day by 2030.Currently, the United States consumes nearly 19 million
barrels per day. Assuming a constant rate of decrease, a16 percent reduction in oil consumption over 16 years,U.S. oil consumption will decline by roughly 1 percenteach year.
16 World Health Organization, 7 million premature deathsannually linked to air pollution, Press release, March25, 2014, available athttp://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/air-pollution/en/.
17 Michael Greenstone and others, Background Materialfor Greenstone and Pande International New York
Times Op-Ed (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University,2014), available at http://www.hks.harvard.edu/var/ezp_site/storage/fckeditor/file/Background%20Mate-rial%20for%20Greenstone%20and%20Pande%20Feb%202014%20Op-Ed.pdf.
18 World Health Organization, Burden of Disease from
Ambient Air Pollution for 2012 (2014), available athttp://www.who.int/phe/health_topics/outdoorair/databases/AAP_BoD_results_March2014.pdf?ua=1.
19 The World Bank and the Development Research Centerof the State Council, the Peoples Republic of China,Urban China: Toward Efficient, Inclusive, and Sustain-able Urbanization (2014), available athttp://www.worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/EAP/China/WEB-Urban-China.pdf.
20 Union of Concerned Scientists, Cars, Trucks, and AirPollution, available at http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_vehicles/why-clean-cars/air-pollution-and-health/cars-trucks-air-pollution.html (last accessed May 2014).
21 BBC News, Paris car ban starts after pollution hits high,March 17, 2014, available at http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-26599010.
22 Stefan Nicola, Cars Become Biggest Driver of Green-house-Gas Increases, Bloomberg News, April 9, 2014,available at http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-04-08/cars-become-biggest-driver-of-greenhouse-gas-increases.html.
23 Global Fuel Economy Initiative, Fuel Economy: State ofthe World 2014.
24 Ibid.
25 This estimate was calculated by comparing annualemissions from 2015 to 2050 from the UNEP 2 degreesscenario to the estimated emissions reductions fromthe GFEI target from 2015 to 2050.
26 Global Fuel Economy Initiative, Fuel Economy: State ofthe World 2014.
27 The White House, Improving the Fuel Efficiency ofAmerican Trucks.
28 McKinsey & Company, The road to 2020 and beyond:Whats driving the global automotive industry? (2013),available at http://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/mck-insey/dotcom/client_service/automotive%20and%20assembly/pdfs/mck_the_road_to_2020_and_beyond.ashx.
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25 Center for American Progress | Accelerating Global Vehicle Efficiency
29 Oliver and others, Chinas Fuel Economy Standards forPassenger Vehicles.
30 Carlos Gomes, Global Auto Report (Scotiabank, 2014),available at http://www.gbm.scotiabank.com/English/bns_econ/bns_auto.pdf.
31 International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook2013.
32 Global Fuel Economy Initiative, Fuel Economy: State ofthe World 2014.
33 The International Council on Clean Transportation,Global Comparison of Passenger Car and Light-commercial Vehicle Fuel Economy/GHG EmissionsStandards.
34 David Greene, How Consumers Value Fuel Economy:A Literature Review (Washington: U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency, 2010), available at http://www.epa.gov/otaq/climate/regulations/420r10008.pdf.
35 Consumer Reports, High gas prices motivate drivers tochange direction, May 2012, available at http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/2012/05/high-gas-prices-motivate-drivers-to-change-direction/index.htm.
36 Randy Chugh, Maureen L. Cropper, and Urvashi Narain,The Cost of Fuel Economy in the Indian PassengerVehicle Market. Working Paper 16987 (National Bureau
of Economic Research, 2011), available athttp://www.nber.org/papers/w16987.pdf?new_window=1.
37 J.D. Power McGraw Hill Financial, Vehicle InteriorGains Importance as Driver of Satisfaction amongNew-Vehicle Owners in India, Press release, December21, 2012, available at http://www.jdpower.com/press-releases/2012-india-apeal-study#.
38 Consumer Federation of America, New Research:Consumers Embrace New Fuel Economy Standard, arePurchasing More High MPG Vehicles, and Plan to Sig-nificantly Increase Fuel Efficiency in Future Purchases,Press release, April 29, 2013, available at http://www.consumerfed.org/news/663.
39 John German and Dan Meszler, Best Practices for Fee-bate Program Design and Implementation (Washing-ton: The International Council on Clean Transportation,
2010), available athttp://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_feebates_may2010.pdf.
40 Global Fuel Economy Initiative, Fuel Economy: State ofthe World 2014.
41 Ibid.
42 Ibid.
43 Oliver and others, Chinas Fuel Economy Standards forPassenger Vehicles.
44 Edward Niedermeyer, Suicide, Scandal and ChinasAuto Market Power Grab, Bloomberg View, January 30,2014, available at http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2014-01-30/suicide-scandal-and-china-s-auto-market-power-grab.
45 Hui He and Jun Tu, The New Passenger Car Fleet in
China, 2010: Technology Assessment and I nternationalComparisons (Washington: The International Councilon Clean Transportation, 2010), available at http://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_New_Passenger_Car_Fleet_China_2010.pdf.
46 International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook2013.
47 Mike Roeth and others, Barriers to the IncreasedAdoption of Fuel Efficiency Technologies in the NorthAmerican On-Road Freight Sector ( Washington: TheInternational Council on Clean Transportation, 2013),available at http://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT-NACFE-CSS_Barriers_Report_Fi-nal_20130722.pdf.
48 KPMG International, Competing in the Global TruckIndustry: Emerging Markets Spotlight (2011), available
at http://www.kpmg.com/RU/en/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/Global%20Truck%20Industry.pdf.
49 International Energy Agency, G-20 Clean Energy, andEnergy Efficiency Deployment and Policy Progress(2011), available athttp://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/G20_paper.pdf.
50 National Research Council, Transitions to Alternative Ve-hicles and Fuels(Washington: The National AcademiesPress, 2013).
51 The Economic Times, Bureau of Energy Efficiency tosoon finalise fuel efficiency norms for cars, March5, 2012, available at http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2012-03-05/news/31124325_1_fuel-efficiency-fuel-economy-standards-for-new-cars.
52 Gomes, Global Auto Report.
53 The White House, FACT SHEET: Key Deliverables for the2014 North American Leaders Summit, Press release,February 19, 2014, available athttp://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/02/19/fact-sheet-key-deliv-erables-2014-north-american-leaders-summit.
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