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Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 316–329

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Defining moments: Developing culturally responsive dispositionsand teaching practices in early childhood preservice teachers

Julie K. Kidd�, Sylvia Y. Sanchez, Eva K. Thorp

College of Education and Human Development, George Mason University, MSN 4B3, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA

Received 28 July 2006; received in revised form 22 May 2007; accepted 4 June 2007

Abstract

This paper reports the results of a study that examined preservice teachers’ perceptions of which program experiences

contributed to shifts in their culturally responsive dispositions and teaching practices. At the time of the study, participants

were engaged in a teacher preparation program designed to prepare teachers to work with culturally, linguistically, socio-

economically, and ability diverse young children and their families. The findings suggest that five types of experiences,

interacting with each other, were instrumental in effecting changes in dispositions and teaching practiced. The experiences

included material resources, diverse internship experiences, interactions with diverse families, critical reflection, and

discussion and dialogue.

r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Culturally relevant education; Culturally responsive dispositions; Diversity; Preservice teachers; Teacher education; Teacher

interns

1. Introduction

As teacher educators in an early childhoodeducation (ECE) program at a university in amulticulturally and multilingually diverse area inthe United States, preparing teachers who arecompetent to work with culturally, linguistically,socio-economically, and ability diverse young chil-dren and their families is our primary goal. Despiteour dedication to this goal, we find it is not an easytask to help preservice teachers develop the cultu-rally responsive dispositions and teaching practicesthat enable them to better support the learning of

ee front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

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ing author. Tel.: +1 703 993 8325;

4370.

ess: [email protected] (J.K. Kidd).

their diverse students. Although we have documen-ted the influence of a particular learning experience,getting to know families through their stories (Kidd,Sanchez, & Thorp, 2004a, 2004b, 2005), we have notuntil recently taken a systematic look at the varioustypes of program experiences that contribute topreparing preservice teachers who exhibit disposi-tions and teaching practices that are responsive tothe socio-cultural and linguistic backgrounds oftheir students. In the study we share here, weexamined preservice teachers’ narratives to deter-mine what types of experiences they believed openedtheir eyes and changed their attitudes and beliefsabout children and families with cultures differentfrom their own and increased their understanding ofthe social justice issues that affect children andfamilies.

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ARTICLE IN PRESSJ.K. Kidd et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 316–329 317

We know from research that preservice teachersenter teacher preparation programs with biases andassumptions about people with cultures differentfrom their own as well as with a limited under-standing of multicultural education (Kidd et al.,2004a, 2004b, 2005; Sleeter, 2001). Preserviceteachers often enter their programs lacking ‘‘con-ception of, interest in, and concern about culturaland racial diversity’’ (Milner, 2006, p. 352). Someadmit they are ignorant about their own culturesand unaware of the prejudices they hold towardother cultures (Kidd et al., 2005; Ukpokodu, 2002).Often, they do not understand the influence culturehas on families’ beliefs, attitudes, and values and theeffect these have on child-rearing practices (Kiddet al., 2004a). Many are unaware of or resist the ideaof White privilege and do not recognize socialinequalities that exist based on race and ethnicity(Ukpokodu). They often view others through adeficit hypothesis that ‘‘either implicitly or explicitlyblames children’s environmental, sociocultural, orlinguistic background for their failure in the class-room’’ (Minami & Ovando, 2004, p. 574). As Lesar,Cuk, and Pecek (2006) concluded, this view offamilies results in teaching practices that ‘‘pass theresponsibility for the child’s school results and hissocial inclusion onto the parents or the childhimself’’ (p. 396) and contributes to teacherattitudes that exclude rather than include ‘‘childrenfrom ethnic minority groups’’ (p. 396).

Recognizing that preservice teachers may havehad little to no personal contact with culturesdifferent from their own, teacher educators mustprovide experiences that will develop the awarenessand insights preservice teachers need to respond tothe diversity of their students. This focus ondeveloping culturally responsive dispositions andteaching practices is especially crucial when teachersand children do not share similar cultural, linguistic,and socio-economic backgrounds. When teachersand children come from similar cultural back-grounds, it is easier to provide instruction thattakes into account children’s prior knowledge andneeds (Cochran-Smith, 1995). However, whenteachers and students have different lived experi-ences, a mismatch between home and school canresult in the marginalization of students whosehome cultures and languages differ from thecultural and language practices of their teachers(Minami & Ovando, 2004). This cultural disconti-nuity between teachers and students can lead toinstruction that does not match the communication

or learning styles of the children and does not drawupon or support children’s cultural knowledge(Brice-Heath, 1983; Levinson, 2007).

Fortunately, it is possible for teachers withcultures different from their students to provideeffective instruction when they approach teaching ina way that is responsive to the cultural and linguisticdiversity of their students (Au & Kawakami, 1994;Gay, 2002). Gay defines culturally responsiveteaching ‘‘as using the cultural characteristics,experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diversestudents as conduits for teaching them moreeffectively’’ (p. 106). She explains that this approachrequires developing a ‘‘thorough knowledge ofspecific cultures of different ethnic groups, howthey affect learning behaviours, and how classroominteractions and instruction can be changed toembrace these differences’’ (p. 114). If this is tohappen, teacher educators must not only teach theskills and knowledge necessary to effectively in-crease the learning of young children, but also mustprovide experiences that enable preservice teachersto examine issues of culture, linguistic diversity,poverty, and social justice in critical and meaningfulways. Further, learning opportunities must becreated that enable preservice teachers to learnfrom and share their personal life experiences and toreflect on ways in which they may have benefitedfrom an unjust system that privileges some andcreates injustice for others (Darling-Hammond,French, & Garcia-Lopez, 2002).

Unfortunately, as Nieto (2002) notes, ‘‘discus-sions of stratification and inequity were largelyabsent until recently in teacher education courses’’and ‘‘power and privilege, and how they areimplicated in language, culture, and learning, alsotypically have been invisible in school discourse’’ (p.1). It is our hope that this is changing as teachereducators recognize the need to bring these issues tothe forefront. However, few existing studies showsignificant effects on preservice teachers’ knowledgeof or dispositions towards cultural diversity andsocial justice. In fact, program experiences exam-ined in recent studies ‘‘had modest or uneven effectsdepending on teachers’ backgrounds and quality ofsupervision and facilitation’’ (Cochran-Smith, Da-vis, & Fries, 2004, p. 957). Based on the limitedresearch in this area, we recognize there is still agreat deal of work ahead for those who are strivingto transform teacher education programs.

Our previous research that examined learningfrom families through gathering their family stories

ARTICLE IN PRESSJ.K. Kidd et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 24 (2008) 316–329318

suggested that well-designed assignments and ex-periences can contribute to shifts in preserviceteachers’ awareness and understanding of culturesdifferent from their own and increase their profes-sional skills so that these understandings are takeninto account when planning instruction for diverseyoung children and for working with families (Kiddet al., 2004a, 2004b, 2005). We found that whenpreservice teachers were engaged in gatheringstories from families, they perceived a greater senseof awareness of the socio-cultural context offamilies and noticed shifts in their assumptionsand biases about cultures different from their own(Kidd et al., 2002). Howard (2005) explains,‘‘Authentic engagement with the reality of thosewhose stories are significantly different from ourown can allow us to transcend, to some degree, thelimits of social positionality and help us seedominance in a clearer light’’ (p. 39).

Although our earlier research provides valuableinsights into one type of assignment that contrib-uted to preservice teachers’ cultural awareness andsensitivity and understanding of issues of socialjustice, we wondered what other program experi-ences were influencing shifts in culturally responsivedispositions and teaching practices. Therefore, inthe current study, we explored preservice teachers’perceptions of the types of program experiences thatcontributed to developing awareness and under-standing of cultures different from their own andteaching practices that respond to the diversity ofthe children. Specifically, we examined the followingresearch questions:

(a)
What types of program experiences did pre-service teachers cite as contributing to thedevelopment of culturally responsive disposi-tions and teaching practices?
(b)
In what ways did the preservice teachersperceive that the experiences interacted witheach other to influence the development ofculturally responsive dispositions and teachingpractices?
2. Method

2.1. Participants

Participants included 19 preservice teachers en-rolled in a full-time, 2-year master’s degree programat a state university in a large metropolitan area.

The ECE program was designed to prepare teacherswho are willing and competent to work withculturally, linguistically, socio-economically, andability diverse children and their families. Thepreservice teachers participated as a cohort, andtherefore, proceeded through the program in asystematic manner. They attended classes and wereengaged in non-paid internships throughout theprogram. At the completion of the program, theywere eligible for three initial licenses: early child-hood (preschool–third grade), early childhoodspecial education (birth–age 5), and English forspeakers of other languages (preschool–12th grade).Of the 19 preservice teachers in the cohort, 63%were White, 21% Black, 10% Asian, and 5%Latina. All were female. They ranged in age fromthe mid-20s to mid-40s.

2.2. Context

The ECE graduate program was designed aroundfour semesters of study. The first semester includedcourse work focused on preschool (ages 3–5) and aninternship in a diverse preschool classroom. Coursesfocused on four strands: curriculum, development,assessment, and language and literacy. Studentsattended classes 4 days of a week and then were attheir internship site for 6–8 hours a day for the next6 days. They continued with this alternatingschedule until the third month of the semester.Throughout the first 2 months of their internship,the preservice teachers worked under the mentor-ship of a cooperating professional (CP) who was ateacher employed by the school or center. Thepreservice teachers gradually took on many of theirCP’s responsibilities. During the third month, theystayed at their internship site full time and assumedfull responsibility for teaching. They returned tocampus to complete course work and final projectsduring the last 2 weeks of the semester. The secondand third semesters followed a similar schedule. Thesecond focused on infants and toddlers (birth toage 3) and included an internship in a day carecenter or an early intervention program for infantsand toddlers with disabilities. The third semesteremphasized kindergarten through grade three andinvolved an internship in a kindergarten, first-,second-, or third-grade classroom. The final seme-ster provided preservice teachers with an opportu-nity to specialize in an area of their choice. Theyengaged in a full-time internship throughout the


entire semester and attended classes two evenings aweek.

2.3. Program experiences

Throughout the 2 years of the program, a varietyof experiences were offered that were designed toencourage preservice teachers to learn about, reflecton, and dialogue about issues of race, culture,poverty, and social justice. It was expected thatpreservice teachers would act upon the issues inways that promote social justice and equity for allchildren and their families. Through scaffoldedexperiences that included readings, course assign-ments, diverse internships, and opportunities forreflection and discussion, we challenged the pre-service teachers to think about their own personalstories and cultural identities and use what theylearned about themselves to help them understandothers whose cultural backgrounds were differentfrom their own. Related assignments focused oncritical reflection; home visits and interactions withfamilies; gathering family stories as a way to learnfrom and with families; and planning and imple-menting culturally responsive curriculum and in-struction.

We began by focusing the preservice teachers’attention on sharing their own personal stories andreflecting on their cultural identities. Our goal wasto assist them in the examination of their owncultural lenses by helping them recognize the valuesand beliefs they bring to their interactions withothers and specifically to their teaching. In addition,we wanted them to realize how their values, beliefs,and teaching practices are shaped by their culturalbackgrounds and prior experiences. We also beganemphasizing the importance of getting to knowchildren by learning from the socio-cultural contextof their families and the value of learning from thestories families share about their children.

As we continued to encourage the preserviceteachers to examine their own cultural backgroundsand stories, we required that they gather storiesfrom a focus family at their internship site. Theirassignment was to tell the family’s story to theirclassmates as if it were their own. During the courseof gathering stories, we expected the preserviceteachers to spend time with the focus family andreflect on similarities and differences between theirbeliefs, values, and practices and those of their focusfamily. As they learned from the family, weencouraged them to use the knowledge gained to

create continuity between home and the educationalsetting. A final activity asked students to designclassroom curriculum that integrated family knowl-edge and culture into the curriculum. Their goal wasto implement culturally responsive curriculum andinstruction that better met the children’s diverseneeds.

2.4. Data source

Building on the use of stories as a way peoplerepresent themselves to others (Bruner, 1996; Gay,2000), we used our preservice teachers’ guidingprinciples narratives written in the final semester ofthe program as the basis for our analysis. As arequirement for one of their classes, the preserviceteachers wrote a 10-page or longer narrative thatdescribed the principles that guide and will guidetheir teaching. We encouraged them to reflectcritically on their journey through the programand to use stories to illustrate how their assump-tions about teaching and working with diversechildren and families were challenged, changed, orreinforced as their guiding principles emerged. Weasked them to discuss the insights they gained, howthey changed as a learner, and what influenced theirlearning. We also urged them to consider thequestions that remained as they concluded theirprogram. In essence, we asked them to share their 2-year story using their guiding principles as theframework for their narrative. At the end of theprogram, we collected their guiding principlesnarratives as part of their final program portfolio.

2.5. Data analysis

We used qualitative methodologies to analyze thepreservice teachers’ guiding principles narratives asa way of understanding the beliefs that are thefoundation for their interpretations of their 2-yearexperience in our program and as a way to tap intothe experiences that are the source of their beliefsor guiding principles (Bullough, 1998). We useda modified post-then-pre retrospective approach(Davis, 2003) to analyze the guiding principlesnarratives for reported changes in dispositionsacross the 2 years and to determine what programexperiences the preservice teachers cited as influen-cing those changes. This approach involved firstcoding the preservice teachers’ narratives into threecategories: (a) beliefs and attitudes held prior to orearly in the program, (b) dispositions held and


teaching practices valued at the completion of theprogram, and (c) specific program experiences ordefining moments identified as influencing disposi-tions and teaching practices across the program.Coding in this fashion allowed us to better seestories and connected narratives emerging from thestudent texts; essentially taking on the form, ‘‘once Ithought this, then I had this experience, now Ibelieve it is important to do this.’’

Once the coding mechanism created these con-nected narratives, we identified the passages orstories that specifically related to the preserviceteachers’ culturally responsive dispositions andteaching practices. These passages were furtheranalyzed using constant comparative analysis todetermine the types of experiences that werereported as contributing to the preservice teachers’culturally responsive dispositions and teachingpractices at the time of writing the guidingprinciples narrative. This involved highlighting keyideas, identifying categories that emerged, andcoding statements identified as experiences basedon the themes identified (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).We then looked specifically at the passages thatdescribed experiences the preservice teachers citedas influencing their dispositions toward culturally,linguistically, and socio-economically diverse chil-dren and families and culturally responsive teachingpractices. To maintain the richness of the datasituated within the stories shared, we examined therelationships among the experiences discussed with-in each passage (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Using aconnectivity approach allowed us to explore howthe experiences interacted to influence preserviceteachers’ culturally responsive dispositions andteaching practices.

2.5.1. Reliability

To ensure reliability, we began each codingsession by coding three guiding principle narrativestogether. Then each of us coded a third of theremaining narratives independently while the grad-uate research assistant, who was not involved in theresearch and who was trained to do the coding,coded all of the narratives. After each independentcoding session, we met to compare the coding andto discuss any differences in coding that occurred.This process was followed during the initial codingwhen statements were coded as ‘‘then,’’ ‘‘experi-ences,’’ and ‘‘now’’ statements. It was also usedwhen identifying the passages that related to thedevelopment of culturally responsive dispositions

and teaching practices and when coding the state-ments identified as experiences that contributed tothe development of these dispositions and teachingpractices.

2.5.2. Vailidity

To address issues of bias, a graduate researchassistant who had no involvement in the program orin the collection of data independently coded thedata. The results of her coding were compared anddiscussed. Consensus was reached where differencesarose. In addition, once the schemes were deter-mined, they were compared with the raw data todetermine whether the scheme accounted for mostof the raw data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998).

3. Findings

From our analyses of the experiences preserviceteachers cited as contributing to changes in theirdispositions and teaching practices, five types ofexperiences emerged: readings related to issues ofrace, culture, poverty, and social justice; internshipexperiences in diverse communities; interactionswith diverse families; critical reflection; and discus-sion and dialogue. The post-then-pre codingapproach we took enabled us to notice in thenarratives how each of these types of experiencesinteracted with and supported the impact of otherexperiences.

3.1. Readings on issues of race, culture, poverty, and

social justice

It was only after naming the beliefs that I haveabout life that I could begin to hear and explorenew ideas in a way that was relevant to me. Thisis the premise Nieto (1999) operates under as shestresses the fact that every child has valuableexperiences to pull from in their learning. The sadtruth is that often, the experiences of thedominant culture are valued and drawn uponmore, by default, than the experiences of other,equally valuable cultures.

Like the preservice teacher quoted above, all of thepreservice teachers cited readings related to issues ofrace, culture, poverty, and social justice as influen-cing their culturally responsive dispositions andteaching practices. Because of the nature of thedata, an academic narrative that required support-ing references, it is not surprising that all preserviceteachers cited a variety of readings. An analysis of


the resources cited most often was of greater interestto us. We discovered that Delpit’s (1995) Other

People’s Children: Cultural Conflicts in the Class-

room and McCaleb’s (1997) Building Communities

of Learners: Collaboration Among Teachers were theworks noted most often, with 12 preservice teachersciting each one. Delpit’s book focused on teachingin classrooms where the teacher and children do notshare the same cultural backgrounds. McCaleb’sbook shared ideas for building multicultural com-munities of learners within the classroom. Otherauthors cited frequently were Nieto (7) who wroteabout creating multicultural communities; Ovando,Collier, and Combs (7) who focused on multilingualeducation; Brookfield (6) who discussed criticalreflection; and deMelendez and Ostertag (6) whosework concentrated on teaching young children inmulticultural classrooms.

In addition to analyzing the frequency with whichresources were cited, we also examined how oftenparticular readings were cited as being instrumentalin transforming the preservice teachers’ thinkingabout culture, families, and culturally responsiveteaching practices. Reading Delpit’s (1995) Other

People’s Children: Cultural Conflicts in the Class-

room was cited most often (7) as a pivotalexperience followed by Nieto (4), McCaleb (3),and Tatum (3) whose book discussed issues of race.For example, one preservice teacher wrote, ‘‘InOther People’s Children, [Delpit’s] words reallystirred me up; therefore, I looked inside myself,analyzed my core values and made some realpersonal changes.’’ Others wrote about transforma-tions that occurred after reading Beverly Tatum’s(1997) Why Are All the Black Kids Sitting Together

in the Cafeteria? and Other Conversations About

Race. One preservice teacher’s statement echoedwhat others wrote: ‘‘The biggest surpriseywas torealize that I was White and that my Whiteness hasgiven me privileges and opportunities I never earnedby merit.’’ Another explained, ‘‘I am a Whiteteacher. Like the fish that is last to figure out shelives in water, I finally see that I am White. Several[program] experiences made this reality possible.My first exposure to the thought was in readingBeverly Tatum’s [book].’’ She later stated, ‘‘Tatumchallenged me to abandon individual racism and tooppose institutionalized and cultural racism.’’

For some preservice teachers, it was a combina-tion of readings rather than one specific reading thatbrought about changes in thinking and practices.Preservice teachers, like this one, explained the

effect that the interaction of two or more readingshad on her thinking: ‘‘Fortunately, Lisa Delpit’sOther People’s Children and Paulo Friere’s Peda-

gogy of the Oppressed provided concrete ideals thatI could begin to wrap my mind aroundy. Freire(1996) recognizes the anguish I feel as the oppressorbut warns me that anguish alone does not align mewith the oppressed.’’

3.2. Diverse internships

Previous to [this program], I did not take intoaccount the influence of family and culture on achild’s development. Yet, my internships haveshown me time and again that these influencesare primary to the ways in which individualchildren develop. The beliefs and values of onefamily can differ from another and two childrenwho may be in the same class will develop indifferent ways along the same basic path. For me,as an educator of young children, this intermin-gling between the universal and the diversity ofdevelopment is a fascinating relationship, andone I did not even identify. Now that I am awareof this duality, it is something that I will continueto examine in young children for the rest of mycareer.

Another theme supported by all preservice teacherswas the significant influence their diverse internshipshad on their culturally responsive dispositions andteaching practices. This included interacting withother professionals and working with children indiverse settings. When discussing internships ingeneral, one preservice teacher summed up thepreservice teachers’ feelings in her statement: ‘‘Ilearned a great deal from the [program] classes, butI believe that nothing can better prepare someonefor the classroom better than actually being in one.’’

Seven preservice teachers discussed how interac-tions with other professionals influenced their viewsof cultural diversity, families, and culturally respon-sive teaching practices. Those who cited experiencesthey perceived as being positive shared stories abouthow their interactions with other professionalshelped them form their own culturally responsivepractices. One preservice teacher related:

In my early [program] experiences, I wasfortunate to work with a cooperating profes-sional who conducted home visits every after-noon. My observation of her seasoned, respectfulapproach with the families and the information


gathered on those occasions convinced me thatthere is inherent value of building family relation-ships. My course work validated what I wit-nessed. When I was responsible in the subsequentsemesters for initiating relationships with fa-milies, I drew on the examples set for me in thefirst semester. I was respectful, resourceful,persistent, and genuine in my pursuit.

Those who cited experiences they perceived asbeing negative shared stories about attitudes,beliefs, and practices that they found to be contraryto what they believed about working with diversechildren and families. One wrote:

Even when the environment presented chal-lenges, such as an unwelcoming administration,to a set-in-her-ways CP [cooperating profes-sional], to teachers that easily wrote off childrenas ‘‘unteachable,’’ each and every experienceI had provided valuable learning. Even when Iwent home crying from frustration, I learned. Iwould even venture to say that when things wentwell, I didn’t learn as much as when they didn’t.

3.3. Interactions with diverse families

From the beginning days of my internship,Taylor y was always in his own little world.No matter what I did or said, I could not get hisattention let alone understand him. Whenever Ivisited his home, it was if I saw a totally differentchild. He was active, energetic, interacting andcommunicating with his mother. Their relation-ship was so strong and wonderful. I felt like,‘‘They don’t need my help.’’ What I failed torealize back then was that I was the one needingJennifer’s help. I lacked tapping into Taylor’sworld, which prevented me from helping him togrow as a learner.

Eighteen of the 19 preservice teachers shared storiesof their work with diverse children and families thatchanged the way they thought about culturaldiversity, families, and culturally responsive teach-ing practices. The stories they shared, like the oneabove, not only discussed what they learned aboutchildren and families, but also what they learnedfrom children and families that helped them becomemore culturally aware teachers. The preserviceteachers cited observing and interacting withchildren, home visits, and gathering family storiesas the types of experiences that changed theirdispositions and teaching practices.

One type of experience that seemed to beespecially powerful was home visits. Preserviceteachers discussed how their interactions withfamilies on home visits helped them realize howmuch there was to learn from families that couldhelp them better meet the individual needs of thechildren. Other preservice teachers explained thathome visits were instrumental in prompting them toexamine their own cultural lenses and recognize thebiases and assumptions they possessed. One pre-service teacher wrote, ‘‘I grew up in Maryland andhad little interaction with people of colour. Myneighbourhoods were White, and the schools onlyhad a few minority students. News representationsand books colored my perspectives, but it changedafter the home visit to Timothy’s house.’’ She goeson to explain that she made assumptions that wereproven to be incorrect, and it was through her visitto the home that she was able to confront her biasesand stereotypes.

In addition, preservice teachers explained howtheir interactions with children and families causedthem to think about how their own values andbeliefs affected their teaching. One example wasshared by this preservice teacher who struggled withthe cultural mismatch between her and the family:

In working with one of my focus families, Itaught a child named Emily who had a physicaldisability. Due to her gross and motor coordina-tion, Emily would fall frequently and hurtherself. My first and natural instinct was to runto her rescue; however, Emily’s parents felt quitedifferently. They wanted her to be independentand strong. If she fell, she fell. They wanted theirdaughter to learn to get back up all on her own.As I examined my cultural lens, I realized howmy culture embodied interdependence. In ourculture, the idea of interdependence is frequentlyrepresented in our relationship with youngchildren. It is in our nature to want and needto tend to young children, especially if they aredistressed. To confess, there were several timeswhen I followed my cultural beliefs and helpedEmily up when no one was looking.

Gathering family stories was another experiencepreservice teachers cited as influencing the disposi-tions and teaching practices. They felt that, as theylistened to families, they learned the importance ofbuilding upon children’s cultural knowledge andprevious experiences, gained a greater understand-ing of other people’s perspectives, and implemented


curriculum and instruction that responded tochildren’s individual differences. For example, onepreservice teacher wrote, ‘‘Gathering the familystory from my focus family from Egypt solidified forme the value of family knowledge and added to myworldview.’’ Another explained:

I had never even fathomed finding out families’stories before. Truth be told, I had neverfathomed that I could learn something from thefamilies of the children I worked with. However,the first family I attempted to [gather familystories] with taught me their story of strength andresilience that helped me to see people immigrat-ing to this country today in a new light incomparison with all of the opportunities I takefor granted because of my own story.

Preservice teachers also discussed how gatheringfamily stories helped them examine their owncultural lenses and become aware of and understandbeliefs and values that were different from theirown. One preservice teacher shared this account ofthe power of listening to others’ stories:

One of the assignments that helped me under-stand other people’s perspectives and experiencesthrough their cultural lens was gathering familystories. My experience with gathering my focuschild’s family story gave me a whole picture ofthe child. It provided continuity between thehome and the classroom, as well as providing astronger I connection between family and theschool community. Learning about my focuschild’s family story gave me a sense of his life andwhat his parents went through in order toprovide him with a good life. It also providedme with an opportunity to establish rapport withthe family. The most important thing I learnedwhen gathering this family’s story was howpeople’s views change when they learn to trustyou.

Preservice teachers realized that incorporatingfamily stories in the classroom was also verypowerful. They noticed changes in the childrenwhen familiar stories were shared in the classroomand their home cultures and languages werevalidated. One preservice teacher shared a storythat exemplified classroom experiences noted byother preservice teachers:

As part of a project on family stories, one childand his father prepared a poster on Egypt to

share with the class. His attitude and hisexcitement about school visibly changed. I feltlike through these experiences, his cultural,linguistic, and family backgrounds were vali-dated. We learned a great deal about him, and hebegan to learn more about his family as well.

3.4. Critical reflection

I have to admit that I entered [the program]having read many of the articles recounting riskfactors and providing names for groups of peopletouting those risks. In fact, I entered the programwith the vision of learning how to save thoseparticular children—‘‘the disadvantaged’’—thatI had worked with throughout my undergraduatecareer in Psychology. Yes, I saw the positiveattributes in particular children, but I alwaysviewed them in light of their deficits. However,this program unexpectedly encouraged me toexamine and re-examine those biases that col-lared my vision of the children I had worked within the past and those I would work with in thefuture. Now, I not only hold fast to the beliefthat every child can learn, but I am alsoinfluenced by Skrtic’s (2003) assertion that‘‘educational equity is a precondition for creatingand sustaining educational excellence’’ (p. 52).

Seventeen preservice teachers, like this one, dis-cussed the role of critical reflection in changes intheir growth as culturally responsive practitioners.For example, one preservice teacher stated,‘‘Throughout the program, I have seen myselfchange and grow a great deal. I have really begunto examine my own cultural lens, which helps meinteract with my children and their families.’’ Theconsensus among the preservice teachers was thatcritically reflecting on their own beliefs and practicesas well as on experiences, whether they werereadings, field experiences, or dialogues and discus-sion, influenced their thinking about issues ofculture, race, poverty, and inequality as well astheir teaching practices. The importance placed oncritical reflection was evident in statements like thefollowing:

Because every person views the world through acultural lens that was shaped by their family,community, and personal experiences, I first needto recognize my own cultural lens through whichI view the world, and through my recognition, Ican begin the process ‘‘slowly, slowly, one by


one’’ to understand and embrace the culturally,linguistically, and ability diverse children andtheir families.

Others, like this preservice teacher, discussed thechallenges associated with recognizing their ownbiases and assumptions and acting to change them:

It is difficult to share my previous mentalitytowards people with special needs and nonEnglish speakers. I feel ashamed and embar-rassed that I could have been so obtuse as tothink I couldn’t work with children who were not‘normal’ (Brookfield, 1987). The program haschanged my life and perspective in more waysthan I could possibly express. I am now able tosee the errors of my past thoughts and actions aswell as critically think and reflect upon my totallife experiences with a new frame of reference inwhich I attempt to view all people as deserving ofequality in every aspect of the word.

In addition, reflecting on their own culturalbackground helped preservice teachers realize theimpact their upbringings and beliefs had on theirteaching practices. They remarked on how theywere amazed to discover the effect their back-grounds and experiences have on their approach toteaching. One preservice teacher captured this view:‘‘In further delving into my socialization, I amfascinated to discover how much of my Koreanculture impacted my teaching style.’’ Anotherexpanded on this idea:

Being a multicultural educator is especiallydifficult when there is a cultural mismatchbetween my teaching practices and the family’sbeliefs. I am still in the process of refining myskills in learning how to dialogue with familiesand embrace their cultural values. I strivetowards reflecting upon my socialization andcultural lens as I continue to work with childrenand families different from my cultural back-ground.

Others discussed how critical reflection helped themimprove their teaching practices:

Reflection, in the course of my [program]experience, has taught me to include my owndiversity into the classroom. In order to bestserve culturally, linguistically, and ability diversechildren and their families, I must know whattheir individuality means to me and proceed towork together with them. It is important to

remember that both the families and I mustremain true to one’s self-identity. In order for meto do this, constant reflection and self-awarenessis crucial in building an authentic relationshipwith the families. This is perhaps the mostchallenging, yet pivotal part of the [program]philosophical base for me to grasp.

3.5. Dialogue and discussion

Because I am white, I will never understand fullywhat it is to be a person of colour. However, theidea that I was racist so challenged me that Icouldn’t glean from Tatum’s work where Ishould begin and I didn’t know how to begin adialogue about it. The experience of attendingNational Coalition Building Institute reallyopened my eyes and ears to the reality of otherpeople’s experiences. The ‘‘things I never want tohear you say again’’ activity exposed the raw painfelt by many different groups of people present.The group that exposed me inwardly for myracial attitude were the thoughts that YoungBlack Women never want to hear again. State-ment after statement convinced me of my blindarrogance and white privilege. I left that day soaware of my whiteness and all the pain that itcaused that I was raw. Yet, I still couldn’tmentally find a place to begin. There were toomany choices and I needed directions.

Thirteen preservice teachers discussed how activitiesbased on dialogue and discussion like the onedescribed above influenced their culturally respon-sive dispositions and teaching practices. Theyindicated that their interactions with classmates,professors, and other professionals served as a formof critical reflection that helped them clarify orchange their thinking about families from culturesdifferent from their own and their teaching prac-tices. For example, one preservice teacher wrote:

Another method of reflection in which I havebenefited greatly is through dialogue with myprofessors, classmates, and cooperating profes-sionals. There have been times when putting myreflective thoughts into words while speaking hashelped me to process and learn more about myexperiences (Brookfield, 1987). I have had manyopportunities to share my stories, get opinionsand suggestions, as well as to communicate whatI have learned to others in their reflectivepractices.


Another preservice teacher, like others, expandedon this idea by explaining how the dialogues helpedher become aware of her cultural lenses and theeffects they have on her interactions with others andspecifically on her teaching:

From the first day in the program, the subject ofculture, and its effects on the many aspects of ourlives, has permeated our dialogues. I was askedto critically think and reflect upon my ownculture, family, and experiences to discover my‘‘cultural lens.’’ The idea that my teaching styleand ability, as well as how I interact with allpeople, is influenced by my personal lens, or viewof the world, was a pivotal moment in myconscious awareness. The concept was easilyaccepted by me. It seemed to be logical and itmade sense, yet I am still surprised at how suchan apparently simple idea has changed my entireoutlook in respect to myself and all people withwhom I come into contact.

When discussing the impact of dialogue anddiscussion, the preservice teachers also referred toseveral specific activities that helped them thinkabout issues of race, culture, and poverty and theirown biases and assumptions about people whosecultures are different from their own. The mostoften cited were activities that took place during thesemester orientations and the monthly seminars thatdrew from the work of the National CoalitionBuilding Institute.

3.6. Interaction among experiences

I came to this program ready to save childrenfrom their family and home situations. As I lookback in light of deMelendez and Ostertag (1997),I realize that I really wanted to save them fromthemselves—everything that made them whothey are and that caused them not to fit themold of success. One of my first journal entriesread: ‘‘Believing families have the motivation todo what is best for their children will be achallenge for me as I work with families,especially families from underprivileged back-grounds who seem to me not to realize what’sbest for their children.’’ Later I confessed that ‘‘Itend to think that my way of being raised iscorrect and others are questionable.’’ The dis-connect between what I read in deMelendez andOstertag and my own lens coming into the

program jolted me, priming me for what I wouldexperience later.

When we examined the stories the preserviceteachers shared throughout their guiding principlesnarratives and looked at how the experiences theycited were connected, we discovered that the stories,like the one shared above, often contained refer-ences to how two or more types of programexperiences interacted to influence their dispositionstoward culturally, linguistically, and socio-econom-ically diverse children and families and theirculturally responsive teaching practices. Accordingto the preservice teachers, their readings providedthe foundation for making sense of the experiencesthat followed. In addition, critical reflection, includ-ing self-examination and dialogue with others,helped them make the connections between thereadings and the experiences. This, in turn, led tochanges in dispositions and teaching practices thatenabled them to be culturally responsive teachers.One preservice teacher explained:

Tatum (1997) gives us a framework and helps usto see our experiences in the broader context of aWhite dominated society. In turn, the frameworkcan help us to look inward at things we may notwant to see in ourselves. We can listen toourselves and the record that plays in the backof our minds, repeating the messages of prejudicethat are infused in our culture. Only by listeningto this record can we work to change it. For mepersonally, it is very difficult to face thepossibility that I may have prejudice or may actin some biased way towards a person because oftheir ‘‘status’’ in the world. However, as a teacherand as a citizen, I feel it is my responsibility to tryin order to live in the world I wish for: one offreedom, equity, and democracy.

In a similar manner, preservice teachers discussedthe impact of materials read after an experience.They felt that the readings helped them look back atand critically think about earlier experiences. Theyindicated that the readings also provided a founda-tion for discussions with others about their experi-ences. Likewise, the preservice teachers discussedhow the combination of readings, reflection, anddialogue with others affected their future experi-ences.

Overall, the preservice teachers described theinteraction of program experiences as being trulytransformative. They recognized, like this one, that


regardless of their thinking and practices early in theprogram, the program experiences pushed them tore-evaluate their beliefs and attitudes toward issuesof culture, race, and poverty and resulted in new orrefined ways of thinking that contributed toteaching practices that took into account thediversity of individual children and their families:

When I first entered the program, I consideredmyself to be culturally sensitive. Little did I knowthat, through my [program] experiences, many ofmy ideas and pillars of belief would be challengedto the ground and rebuilt to include a breadthand depth of knowledge from and about diverseyoung children and their families I did not knowwas possible.

4. Discussion

Identifying the types of experiences influential inchanges or refinements in preservice teachers’dispositions toward diverse children and familiesand their commitment to culturally responsiveteaching practices is an important step in theprocess of determining what teacher educators cando to prepare teachers who possess dispositions thatlead to teaching practices that respect and buildupon the individual differences of children andfamilies. This is a significant step in a journey thatchallenges teacher educators to create programsthat infuse issues of race, culture, poverty, andsocial justice throughout their programs. Sleeter(2006) explains that although it is ‘‘not a bad thing’’to include multicultural courses or courses focusedon teaching English Language Learners in pro-grams, ‘‘the existence of separate courses too oftentakes the burden off the rest of the program todirectly focus teachers’ preparation to learning toteach diverse students well’’ (p. 1). This is an issuethat, as program faculty, we have taken to heart aswe have worked to develop and refine an approachto preparing culturally responsive teachers that isintegrated across courses, field experiences, andother program activities.

In this study, we chose to examine the storiespreservice teachers told as they wrote about theprinciples that guide and will guide their teaching.In relying on the preservice teachers’ stories, werecognize the limitations and realize that subjectiv-ity, legitimation, and representation can be causesfor concern when knowledge is based on thestoryteller’s constructed reality (Alvermann, 2000).

However, like Bruner (1996) and Gay (2000), webelieve that stories are the way people share whothey are and what they believe. Their narrativesserve as a way to understand their experiences(Bullough, 1998) and to capture the preserviceteachers’ perceptions of the way their programexperiences influenced their dispositions and teach-ing practices.

Through close examination of the stories sharedby preservice teachers, it was evident that theinteraction of five types of experiences contributedto changes in dispositions and teaching practices.These experiences included (a) readings focused onissues of race, culture, poverty, and social justice;(b) internships in diverse communities; (c) interac-tions with diverse families; (d) critical reflection; and(e) dialogue and discussion. One type of experiencethat formed a foundation upon which to buildculturally responsive beliefs and practices was theuse of purposefully selected readings. The frequencyof particular works cited across the preserviceteachers suggests that the selection of readings isan important consideration for teacher educators.Although many readings were assigned across the 2years of the program, it was interesting to see that afew particularly powerful readings emerged ashaving an influence on the greatest number ofpreservice teachers. These readings can all becharacterized as ones that challenged the preserviceteachers’ thinking and often created discomfort asthey interacted with the ideas and issues presented.These results suggest that the selection of readingsshould be considered carefully. Readings thatchallenge preservice teachers to consider difficultand uncomfortable issues related to issues of race,culture, poverty, and social justice need to be afundamental part of teacher education programs. Itshould also be noted that readings influencedstudents differently; this argues for the need to usemultiple readings throughout the program, ratherthan relying on one or two powerful readings.Student resistance and readiness factors might easilyinfluence when they are able to benefit from thechallenge inherent in a reading.

We also found that preservice teachers’ directengagement in diverse communities and interactionswith diverse families was instrumental in bringingabout changes in their dispositions and teachingpractices. As anticipated based on our previousresearch (Kidd et al., 2004a, 2004b, 2005), interac-tions with children and families, including homevisits and gathering family stories, had an impact on


the preservice teachers’ views of cultures differentfrom their own and their willingness to examinetheir own cultural lenses. This was apparent in thepreservice teacher’s story of her own upbringing in apredominately White neighborhood and school. Inthe story, she talked about how her perceptions ofpeople of color were based on media and books. Itwas not until she visited the home of one of herstudents that her assumptions were challenged andher perceptions began to change.

The preservice teachers felt that as they builtrelationships with families they became more awareof the important role families play in the develop-ment of their children and the impact the preserviceteachers’ own cultural backgrounds had on theirinteractions with others as well as their teachingpractices. Many of the preservice teachers sharedexperiences that they felt resulted in new under-standings of family cultures. One preservice teacherin particular shared the conflict she felt between herown upbringing in a family from Korea and thecultural values of her focus child’s White family.She described the mismatch between her upbringingthat valued dependence and the focus child’s familywho valued independence. In her story, sheacknowledged the importance of respecting andresponding to the family’s values and goals, butadmitted that it was a challenge to truly understandand act upon those values when working with thefamily’s child.

It was also evident that critical reflection andactivities that promoted dialogue and discussionplayed a major role in bringing about changes indispositions and teaching practices. The type ofdialogue and discussion referred to by the preserviceteachers went beyond the conversations typical inmany classrooms. It was through thinking aboutand discussing experiences in a critical and systema-tic manner that preservice teachers realized thesignificance of what they learned. As one preserviceteacher pointed out, critical reflection prompted her‘‘to examine and re-examine those biases’’ andenabled her to change from viewing children ‘‘inlight of their deficits’’ to believing that ‘‘every childcan learn.’’ Others talked about how sharing theirstories and reflecting on the stories of others helpedthem become aware of the cultural lenses andsensitive to the similarities and differences that existbetween themselves and others. Another preserviceteacher made the point that dialogues and discus-sions that were uncomfortable were often the onesthat effected the most change in her beliefs and her

view of the world. She talked about how in onediscussion in particular she became aware of her‘‘blind ignorance and white privilege.’’ She con-cluded, ‘‘I left that day so aware of my whitenessand all the pain that it caused that I was raw.’’

In this study, we initially set out to determine thedefining moments instrumental in bringing aboutchanges in dispositions and teaching practices.However, we discovered that, although there werevarious transformative moments like the onesdescribed above that changed or helped preserviceteachers refine their thinking or practices, thesedefining moments were influenced and supported byother program experiences and were not isolatedexperiences. In many cases, critical reflection onother program experiences led to changes indispositions and teaching practices. For example,the preservice teacher who ‘‘came to this programready to save the children’’ explained that it wasthrough an interaction of a reading focused onteaching in multicultural classrooms and criticallyreflecting in her journal on her own cultural lensesthat forced her to re-examine her beliefs aboutfamilies. For another preservice teacher, criticallyreflecting on Tatum’s (1997) book on racism causedher to recognize that she lived in a ‘‘Whitedominated society’’ and helped her to see her ownprejudices and biases towards people whose eco-nomic status differed from her own. For some, thereading itself was transformative and preserviceteachers attributed changes in their thinking andactions to reading and reflecting on the assignedmaterials. In other cases, they found that thereadings helped them initially think about issuesand then provided a foundation for interpreting,understanding, and learning from future experi-ences. Likewise, materials read after key experiencesprovided a framework for reflecting back onexperiences and making sense of what happened inways that helped them learn from the interactions.

As we analyzed the many ways the programexperiences interacted to influence the preserviceteachers’ culturally responsive dispositions andteaching practices, it became very clear that theimpact of the experiences varied from preserviceteacher to preservice teacher depending on theirpast experiences, where they saw themselves on thisparticular journey, the nature of the experience, andtheir openness or readiness for change. For some,the transformation appeared to happen as a resultof very particular experiences that opened their eyesand changed their thinking. For others, the changes


seemed to be more gradual and appeared to be theresult of their engagement with the issues on aconsistent and continual basis. This analysis helpedus see that although we could identify key types ofexperiences, we could not ensure that the experi-ences we provided had the same impact on each ofthe preservice students. In fact, it became clear thatthe strength of our program came from our multi-faceted approach that provided multiple opportu-nities for preservice teachers to interact with issuesof culture, race, poverty, and inequalities. Thisreinforced our belief that teacher educators canincrease the likelihood of preparing teachers whoare competent to work with diverse children andfamilies by providing readings focused on issues ofdiversity and social justice, field experiences indiverse communities, interactions with diversefamilies, and opportunities for critical reflection onand dialogue around issues of race, culture, poverty,and social justice.

5. Conclusion and implications

Although there is much more to explore, we areconfident that these findings provide insight forteacher educators who are working to create orrefine teacher preparation programs that focus onissues of race, culture, poverty, and social justice.The results of this research suggest that developingculturally responsive dispositions and teachingpractices is a developmental process that differsamong preservice teachers. It is clear that it is notalways an easy journey for the preservice teacher,nor is it a simple task for teacher educators who areplanning programs that support the transforma-tions that must occur. The promise of this researchis that it provides a window into the experiencesthat preservice teachers see as most influencing theirability to embrace teaching practices that respond tothe diversity of children and their families.

If this shift is to happen, it is important forteacher educators to systematically examine thetypes of experiences instrumental in contributing toculturally responsive dispositions and teachingpractices. Determining the types of experiences thatinfluence dispositions and teaching practices willincrease the likelihood that teacher educators willdesign program experiences that promote teachingpractices that enhance the development of diverseyoung children. This type of planning would entailfocusing on five broad types of experiences. Theseexperiences involve including a variety of readings

that focus on issues of culture, race, poverty, andsocial justice; offering internships in diverse com-munities; and providing opportunities to interactwith diverse families. However, these experiencesalone do not transform beliefs and practices,they appear to require the support of systematiccritical reflection and dialogue and discussion aboutissues of diversity. Likewise, these experiencesinfluence preservice teachers’ willingness and abilityto provide curriculum and instruction that isculturally responsive and relevant to the childrenthey teach.

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