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Human BiologyHuman Biology
Instructor Terry Wiseth
CELLCELLFUNCTIOFUNCTIO
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CELL DIVISIONCELL DIVISIONthe process of cell
division is essential to the growth and development of all organisms
growth and tissue repair are common occurrences
abnormal cell division is commonly called cancer
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DNA DNA REPLICATIONREPLICATION
parent cells must provide daughter cells with hereditary instructions and enough cytoplasmic machinery to start up with their own operation
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DNA DNA REPLICATIONREPLICATION
Cells divide DNA by:1) Mitosis
Occurs in somatic cellsMost of the cells of the body
2) MeiosisOccurs in germ cells
Sperm and egg cells
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CHROMOSOMECHROMOSOMESS
Chromosomes are the genetic material found inside the nucleus of the cell
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CHROMOSOMECHROMOSOMESS
Consist of condensed DNA and proteinsDNA controls protein synthesis
Controls the appearance of characters and metabolic activities of an organism
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CHROMOSOMECHROMOSOME
DNA loops
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CHROMOSOMECHROMOSOMESS
Each species has a fixed number of chromosomes in the nucleus of each of its cells
Chromosomes always exist in pairs in the body cells
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SOMATIC SOMATIC CELLSCELLSsomatic cells in each species of
organism will have the same number of chromosomes specific to that species
ex: humans = 46 gorillas = 48 pea plant = 14
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CELL CYCLECELL CYCLE
Mitosis M
Gap phase 1 G1
Synthesis phase S
Gap phase 2 G2
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CELL CYCLECELL CYCLE
M (M (mitosismitosis))
nuclear division
cytoplasmic division
GG1 1 ( (gap 1gap 1))
interval before the onset of DNA replication
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CELL CYCLECELL CYCLE
S (S (synthesissynthesis))
replication of DNA
GG2 2 ( (gap 2gap 2))
interval between completion of DNA replication and the onset of mitosis
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INTERPHASEINTERPHASE
usually the longest phase of the cell cycle
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INTERPHASEINTERPHASEconsists of the G1,S, and G2 phases of
the cell cycle
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INTERPHASEINTERPHASE
1) the cell increases in mass
2) chromosomes cannot be seen
3) chromosomes are duplicated
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INTERPHASEINTERPHASE
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STAGES OF STAGES OF MITOSISMITOSIS
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Interphase 19 hrs
Mitosis 1 hr
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PROPHASEPROPHASE
1) chromosomes start condensingchromatids twist and fold on one
another2) spindle fibers begin to form
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PROPHASEPROPHASE
3) centrioles are duplicated and begin to migrate to opposite polescentrioles later give rise to cilia and
flagella
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PROPHASEPROPHASE
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PROPHASEPROPHASE
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METAPHASEMETAPHASE
1) nuclear membrane disappears2) spindle fibers attach to
chromosome centromeres
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METAPHASEMETAPHASE3) spindle fibers from opposite poles
“pull” on the chromosomes orientating them at the equator
4) chromosomes become aligned at the cell equator
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METAPHASEMETAPHASE
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METAPHASEMETAPHASE
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ANAPHASEANAPHASE
1) the two sister chromatids of each chromosome are separated
2) chromatids move to opposite poles
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ANAPHASEANAPHASE
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TELOPHASETELOPHASE
1) the daughter chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
2) chromosomes begin to unwind and decondense to a threadlike DNA molecule
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TELOPHASETELOPHASE
3) nuclear membranes form, enclosing the DNA
4) each new daughter cell has the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell
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TELOPHASETELOPHASE
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INTERPHASEINTERPHASE
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DIVISION OF DIVISION OF THE THE
CYTOPLASMCYTOPLASMthe cytoplasm divides during
Telophasecytokinesis- cytoplasmic division
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DIVISION OF THE DIVISION OF THE CYTOPLASMCYTOPLASM
animal cells “pinch in two” by a process called cleavage
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DIVISION OF DIVISION OF THE THE
CYTOPLASMCYTOPLASMAbnormal cell division at this point can lead to physical deformities
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METABOLISMMETABOLISMMetabolism - the capacity to acquire
energy and use it to build, store, break apart and eliminate substances in controlled ways
Energy - the capacity to make things happen
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METABOLISMMETABOLISMcells secure, use and lose energy
cells cannot create energycells must get energy from
somewhere else
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METABOLISMMETABOLISM
Most energy available for energy conversion is stored in covalentcovalent bondsbondsglucose, starch, glycogen and fatty
acids are rich in covalent bondsWhen molecules are
broken apart there isa controlled releaseof energy which isavailable to makethings happen
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METABOLISMMETABOLISM
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CHEMICALCHEMICAL REACTIONSREACTIONS
Many reactions in the cell result in the production of ATP or the use of ATPex: Cellular respiration
CC66HH1212OO66 + O + O22 CO CO22 + H + H22OO
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REACTANTS REACTANTS & &
PRODUCTSPRODUCTS
reactants products or
products reactants
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METABOLIC METABOLIC PATHWAYSPATHWAYS
Orderly sequence of reactions with specific enzymes acting at each step
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REACTION REACTION SEQUENCESSEQUENCES
If the sequence is interrupted the pathway does not continue and by-products begin to accumulate
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BIOSYNTHETIC BIOSYNTHETIC PATHWAYPATHWAY
BiosyntheticBiosynthetic (anabolism) (anabolism) - small molecules are assembled into large molecules of higher energy content
Requires the input or use of ATP
ex: amino acids proteins
fatty acids lipids
glucose starch
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BIODEGRADATIVE BIODEGRADATIVE PATHWAYPATHWAY
BiodegradativeBiodegradative (catabolism) (catabolism) - large molecules are broken down to smaller molecules of lower energy contentex: starch glucose protein amino acids lipids fatty acids
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ENZYMES ENZYMES PROPERTIESPROPERTIES
Able to speed up reactionsspeed up reactions (million fold)described as catalytic molecules
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Enzymes function best within a certain temperature rangetemperature rangeEnzymes lose their 3-dimensional
shape when exposed to high heatex: human cell death - 112 degrees F
ex: Siamese cat – coloring pattern
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME ACTIVITYON ENZYME ACTIVITY
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Siamese cat-- ears and paws are the darkest part of the bodyHeat sensitive enzyme is less active
in warmer regions of the bodyEnzyme influences higher melanin
production
EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE ON ENZYME ACTIVITYON ENZYME ACTIVITY
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EFFECTS OF pH ON EFFECTS OF pH ON ENZYME ACTIVITYENZYME ACTIVITY
Enzymes function best within a certain pH rangepH rangemost function best at pH=7 (neutral)
exception: pepsinpepsin (a stomach cell enzyme) works best at low pH
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ATPATPATP is the energy
currency of the cellThe breakdown of
organic molecules by the cell releases energy which is converted to units of ATP energy
ATP energy is then utilized by the cell to perform a multitude of cell functions
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PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP FORMATIONFORMATION
1) Aerobic respiration1) Aerobic respiration2) Anaerobic respiration
Glucose
CO2 + H2O
O2
+ ATP
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PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP FORMATIONFORMATION
1) Aerobic respiration
2) Anaerobic respiration2) Anaerobic respiration
Glucose Pyruvat
e+
ATP
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PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP FORMATIONFORMATION
1) Aerobic respiration2) Anaerobic respiration
Glucose Pyruvat
e
CO2 + H2O
O2
+ ATP
+ ATP
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PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP FORMATIONFORMATION
1) Aerobic respirationrequires oxygenmost cells are able
to perform
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PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP FORMATIONFORMATION
2) Anaerobic respirationdoes not require oxygen
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PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP PATHWAYS LEADING TO ATP FORMATIONFORMATION
The amount of ATP energy produced by respiration variesAerobic respirationAerobic respiration
yields 36 ATP36 ATP from1 glucose
Anaerobic respirationAnaerobic respirationyields only 2 ATP2 ATPfrom 1 glucose
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AEROBIC AEROBIC RESPIRATIONRESPIRATION
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP energy
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ALTERNATIVE ENERGY ALTERNATIVE ENERGY SOURCES IN THE HUMAN SOURCES IN THE HUMAN
BODYBODY1) Carbohydrates
2) Fats
3) Proteins
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ENERGY SOURCESENERGY SOURCES
very little energy is stored as glucose by the body
Fats-------------------- 78%
Proteins-------------- 21%
Carbohydrates---- 1%
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ENDEND
CELL CELL FUNCTIONFUNCTION
SS