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Policy Making
At the end of the session, student is able to:
1. Define policy and its characteristics,
2. Explain policy questions, its aspects and paradox,
3. Differentiate policy formation, policy decision, politicalanalysis of policy, & policy research and evaluation,
4. Explain dilemmas influencing polity in terms of
globalization, migration, individualism, political
agency, and ecological problems, and5. Differentiate various polity approaches in policy
making
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What is Policy?
Simply as a vision of where we want to goand guidelines for getting there (First, 1992:p. 14)
It is wide rather than narrow, long term ratherthan short term, and that it involvesleadership
The leader is needed to paint the vision that
becomes the policy statements
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Characteristics of Policy Statement
1. Statement of position, not statement of
procedure
2. Apply to a clearly defined population
3. No specific time reference
4. Apply to a specific area whereby the policy
making body has authority/ influence/
control
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Megatrends (John Naisbitt 1982)
From Industrial To Information Age
Force Technology High Tech/ Touch
National Economy World Economy
Short term Long term planning
Centralization Decentralization
Institutional help Self-help
Representative Participatory
Hierarchies Networking
North South
Either/ Or Multiple Option
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Wawasan 2020(Sembilan Cabaran)
1. Mewujudkan negara Malaysia bersatu yang
mempunyai matlamat dikongsi bersama
2. Mewujudkan masyarakat yang berjiwa bebas,
tenteram dan maju dengan keyakinan terhadap diri
sendiri, bangga dengan apa yang ada dan dicapai
serta gagah menghadapi pelbagai masalah
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Wawasan 2020(Sembilan Cabaran)
3. Mewujud dan membangunkan masyarakat
demokratik yang matang, mengamalkan satu
bentuk persefahaman matang, demokrasi Malaysia
berasaskan masyarakat yang boleh menjadi contoh
kepada banyak negara membangun
4. Mewujudkan masyarakat yang sepenuhnya bermoral
dan beretika
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Wawasan 2020(Sembilan Cabaran)
5. Mewujudkan masyarakat liberal dan bertolak ansur, rakyat
pelbagai kaum bebas mengamalkan idea, kebudayaan dan
kepercayaan agama masing-masing dan pada masa yang sama
meletakkan kesetiaan mereka kepada satu negara.
6. Mewujudkan masyarakat saintifik dan progresif, mempunyaidaya perubahan tinggi dan memandang ke depan, yang bukan
sahaja menjadi pengguna teknologi tetapi juga penyumbang
kepada tamadun saintifik dan teknologi masa depan
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Wawasan 2020(Sembilan Cabaran)
7. Mewujudkan masyarakat penyayang dan
budaya menyayangi, iaitu sistem sosial yang
mengutamakan kepentingan masyarakat,
kebajikan insan tidak akan berkisar kepadanegara atau orang perseorangan tetapi
sekeliling sistem keluarga yang kukuh
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Wawasan 2020(Sembilan Cabaran)
8. Memastikan masyarakat yang adil dalam
bidang ekonomi
9. Mewujudkan masyarakat makmur yang
mempunyai ekonomi bersaing, dinamik, giatdan kental.
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Etiology of Policy Questions
Arises from conflict among humans over the
distribution of goods, i.e. conflicts of interest.
But, it lies in the incompatibility of the actual
goods that human beings seek.Ask how to allocate such goods?
The allocation is the business of politics.
No policy without politics nor politics withoutpolicy
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Etiology of Policy Questions
Policy questions is different from
constitutional, moral questions, and questions
aimed at forming the set of alternatives from
which policies might be selected. Policy process involved policy analysis,
formation, decision as well as the political
analysis of policy
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I. Policy Questions
Is a request for a fairly stable, but modifiable,
line of action aimed at securing an optimal
adjustment of the conflict between different
goods, all of which must be pursued, butwhich, taken together, cannot all be
maximized (Green, 1994).
Can only be formulated if we can state the set
of values or goods from which the questionarises.
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Policy Issues
Nested within a set of mutually incompatible valuesor goods.
Consider the issues surrounding the imposition ofUPUs entrance requirements:
~ Levels of attainment racially or ethnically balanced~ High academic achievement, and
~ Culturally pluralistic communities
Maximizing any one of these goods, will inhibit the
advancement of the others. The policy problem arises by accepting all aims of
education, and yet they cannot all be maximized.
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Policy Issues
No technical solution to policy questions.
It is practical questions, never theoretical.
It is a statement of what we should do.
Information and analyses can improve decision
of action.
But policy questions can be answered even
without such information.
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Aspects of Policy Questions
1. Scarcity
2. Conflict of goods
3. Policy, Politics, and Utopia
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1. Scarcity
Why we need a policy?
1. Increasing the satisfactions available to human
beings increased productivity
~ can be balanced by abundance.2. Doing something about their desires improved
moral and discipline
~ can be made to meet not by the satisfaction of
wants, but by their proper and harmoniouscomposition.
Thus, one source of policy questions is the mismatch
between human desires and satisfactions
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2. Conflict of Goods
Policy questions arise because the goods
that human beings seek to secure in the
world are interdependent and often jointly
discordant
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3. Policy, Politics, and Utopia
Human goods (values?) cannot all be present
sufficiently to satisfy human desires.
They cannot all be maximized.
They exist even when human interests do not.
Thus, a need for solution to policy problems in
utopian terms
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Presuppositions of Policy Questions
Policy questions are different from moral,
constitutional, and research questions:
1. Constraints of time;
~ the answer will be revised
~ have to be answered on time, though the
information needed for the answer is not on
time.
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Presuppositions of Policy Questions
2. Policy decisions and ethical decisions aredifferent because policies and moral rulesor principles differ.
~ Policies are drawn from within a set ofalternative actions all of which are eithermorally indifferent or capable of evokingmoral approval.
~ Defining the set of policy choices is theexpression of moral conviction andestimations of value, but selecting fromwithin that defined set is not.
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The Policy Process
1. Policy analysis
2. Policy formation
3. Policy decision
4. Political analysis of policy
5. Policy research and evaluation
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1. Policy Analysis
The rational or technical assessment of the net
marginal trade-offs between different policy choices.
To discover a balance between competing values.
An activity whose theory is the theory of marginalutilities exercise rationality.
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2. Policy Formation
An activity of gaining agreement on what form a specific
policy can or will take, as opposed to what form it ought
to take.
Involve conversation, persuasion, argument, endless
meetings.
Employ governmental management and rhetoric theory.
Example : at Federal, the theory of inter-agency politics;
Dont fight over turf, just take up space.
- For the interest of the nation.
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3. Policy Decision
The authoritative action of some office,
administrative, or legislative by which a line of action
is established.
Employ the theory of polity, the political and legal
theory by which authority is distributed, obligations for
decision are assigned throughout the structure of
political institutions, and agents of authority are
enjoined to act.
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4. Political Analysis
Is concerned with measuring the political
weight of a policy.
The aim is not so much to determine the net
social benefits of a particular policy, but todetermine its constituency.
Whether the best thing to do is the same as
the best thing to be done.
It estimates who will vote for it.
It employs the theory of political behavior
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5. Policy Research & Evaluation
R&E can contribute to each of those activities.
The rational of policy decision and political
analysis are the standards of political
judgment. The exercise of political judgment is a practical
and evaluation activities
Researcher can involve in these activities inthe context of government.
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Dilemmas Influencing
the Context of Polity
(Anthony Giddens, The Third Way 1998)
1. Globalization
2. Migration
3. Individualism
4. Political Agency
5. Ecological Problems
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1. Globalization
Understood as an economic term;
More countries are involved in mutual trading
Create economic area that spills national
boundaries Expanded role of world financial markets
Global impact of individual needs
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Effects of Globalization
Creates new demands for regenerating local
identities
Regional and transnational groups contribute
governance Transforms the institutions of societies in
which we live rise of new individualism
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2. Migration
Import of new systems of values
Enculturation of host values
Unskilled work load to skilled labor ratio
Education divide
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3. Individualism
Associated with retreat of tradition and custom
New individualism often associated with
pressures of democracy
Challenge to find new means of productionsolidarity and social cohesion
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4. Political Agency
Representation of diverse interests Reconcile the competing claims of these interests
Provide diversity of public goods
Regulate markets in public interests and foster market
competition Foster social peace through control of the means of
violence and through the provision of policing
Promote active development of human capital through
education system Foster regional and transnational alliance to pursue
global goals
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5. Ecology
Pollution
Global warming
Sustainable development
Ecological modernization
- science, technology, political will, political censor
- partnership between industries and government
- international agreements
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Lifelong Learning
Learning to know: the mastery of learning tools ratherthan the acquisition of structured knowledge
Learning to do: education to equip people to do thetypes of work needed in the future
Learning to live together with others: education toavoid conflict or peacefully resolve it
Learning to be: education that contributes to apersons complete development
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Education for the Future
i. Skills and knowledge to prepare for the eventuality of
job diversification and job flexibility. This ensures
resiliency in employability of citizens
ii. Engagement and commitment in active citizenry
roles vis a vis professional activism, communityactivism and national agenda activism. This
ensures a high level of citizenry participation
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Education for the Future
iii. A high tolerance for change. As globalization sets in,
the rapid flow of information precipitates
transformation of life cultures, work cultures,
relationships, and identities.
iv. Integrity of positive values that are receptive ofprogress, change, and continuous development. The
result of this enlightenment is the people sense of
being empowered in their quest for a better living
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Social Principles in
Educational Policy Making Individual rights
Unity
Expansionism Utilitarianism
Diversification
Entrepreneurialism
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Individual Rights
And WHEREAS it is considered desirable thatregard shall be had so far as it is compatiblewith policy (National Educational Policy) withthat provision of efficient instruction and
avoidance of unreasonable publicexpenditure, to the general principle thatpupils are to be educated in accordance withthe wishes of their parents:
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Unity
Education Act 1996 (Act 550)
An act to provide for education and for mattersconnected therewith.
And WHEREAS education plays a vital role in
achieving the countrys vision of attaining the statusof a fully developed nation in terms of economicdevelopment, social justice, and spiritual, moral andethical strength, towards creating a society that isunited, democratic, liberal and dynamic.
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And WHEREAS the above (National EducationalPolicy) is to be executed through a national system ofeducation which provides for the national language tobe the main medium of instruction, a NationalCurriculum and common examinations, the education
provided being varied and comprehensive in scopeand which will satisfy the needs of the nation as wellas promote national unity through cultural, social,economic and political development in accordancewith the principles ofRukunegara.
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Utilitarian, Entrepreneurialism
And WHEREAS it is the mission to develop a
world class quality education system which
will realize the full potential of the individual
and fulfill the aspiration of the Malaysiannation
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Utilitarian, Entrepreneurialisim,
Diversification
WHEREAS the purpose of education is to
enable the Malaysian society to have a
command of knowledge, skills and values
necessary in a world that is highly competitiveand globalize, arising from the impact of rapid
development in science, technology and
information
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Polities in Policy Making
Environment
Populist
Democratic populist
Democracy
Liberal Conservative
Socialist
Capitalist
Federalist
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Populist
As representative of the people in various
sects and creed
Preference for local culture and values
Focused on local needs Local employment market
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Democratic Populist
Representative of a larger section of thepopulation sharing similar culture, values,mission or purpose
Regional interests
Exhibit more tolerance and readiness toaccept variations and differences betweenculture and values within the group
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Democracy
Dominance of the majority
Representatives from all major and sub groups
Recognition of individual differences and differingneeds
Equitable development of potential Dialogical democracy
Guided democracy
Pluralist-democracy (organized interest groups)
Liberal democracy
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Liberal
Favor individualism
Individualist initiative
Low state control on all fronts
Difficulty in balancing conservative values inprivate lives and market fundamentalism in
employment
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Conservative
Adherence to a class structure in the system
Hegemony of value systems and culture
Selective opportunities to elite
Privileged authority in decision making Supports market freedom but wants strong
state control over issues such as the family,drugs, abortion
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Socialist
Obligation to the development of the publicgood rather than the individual
The welfare state instead of open marketcompetition
Tight bloc of self contained entities
Faced with challenge to develop new identityin socially and culturally more diverse
environment