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    Policy Making

    At the end of the session, student is able to:

    1. Define policy and its characteristics,

    2. Explain policy questions, its aspects and paradox,

    3. Differentiate policy formation, policy decision, politicalanalysis of policy, & policy research and evaluation,

    4. Explain dilemmas influencing polity in terms of

    globalization, migration, individualism, political

    agency, and ecological problems, and5. Differentiate various polity approaches in policy

    making

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    What is Policy?

    Simply as a vision of where we want to goand guidelines for getting there (First, 1992:p. 14)

    It is wide rather than narrow, long term ratherthan short term, and that it involvesleadership

    The leader is needed to paint the vision that

    becomes the policy statements

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    Characteristics of Policy Statement

    1. Statement of position, not statement of

    procedure

    2. Apply to a clearly defined population

    3. No specific time reference

    4. Apply to a specific area whereby the policy

    making body has authority/ influence/

    control

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    Megatrends (John Naisbitt 1982)

    From Industrial To Information Age

    Force Technology High Tech/ Touch

    National Economy World Economy

    Short term Long term planning

    Centralization Decentralization

    Institutional help Self-help

    Representative Participatory

    Hierarchies Networking

    North South

    Either/ Or Multiple Option

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    Wawasan 2020(Sembilan Cabaran)

    1. Mewujudkan negara Malaysia bersatu yang

    mempunyai matlamat dikongsi bersama

    2. Mewujudkan masyarakat yang berjiwa bebas,

    tenteram dan maju dengan keyakinan terhadap diri

    sendiri, bangga dengan apa yang ada dan dicapai

    serta gagah menghadapi pelbagai masalah

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    Wawasan 2020(Sembilan Cabaran)

    3. Mewujud dan membangunkan masyarakat

    demokratik yang matang, mengamalkan satu

    bentuk persefahaman matang, demokrasi Malaysia

    berasaskan masyarakat yang boleh menjadi contoh

    kepada banyak negara membangun

    4. Mewujudkan masyarakat yang sepenuhnya bermoral

    dan beretika

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    Wawasan 2020(Sembilan Cabaran)

    5. Mewujudkan masyarakat liberal dan bertolak ansur, rakyat

    pelbagai kaum bebas mengamalkan idea, kebudayaan dan

    kepercayaan agama masing-masing dan pada masa yang sama

    meletakkan kesetiaan mereka kepada satu negara.

    6. Mewujudkan masyarakat saintifik dan progresif, mempunyaidaya perubahan tinggi dan memandang ke depan, yang bukan

    sahaja menjadi pengguna teknologi tetapi juga penyumbang

    kepada tamadun saintifik dan teknologi masa depan

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    Wawasan 2020(Sembilan Cabaran)

    7. Mewujudkan masyarakat penyayang dan

    budaya menyayangi, iaitu sistem sosial yang

    mengutamakan kepentingan masyarakat,

    kebajikan insan tidak akan berkisar kepadanegara atau orang perseorangan tetapi

    sekeliling sistem keluarga yang kukuh

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    Wawasan 2020(Sembilan Cabaran)

    8. Memastikan masyarakat yang adil dalam

    bidang ekonomi

    9. Mewujudkan masyarakat makmur yang

    mempunyai ekonomi bersaing, dinamik, giatdan kental.

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    Etiology of Policy Questions

    Arises from conflict among humans over the

    distribution of goods, i.e. conflicts of interest.

    But, it lies in the incompatibility of the actual

    goods that human beings seek.Ask how to allocate such goods?

    The allocation is the business of politics.

    No policy without politics nor politics withoutpolicy

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    Etiology of Policy Questions

    Policy questions is different from

    constitutional, moral questions, and questions

    aimed at forming the set of alternatives from

    which policies might be selected. Policy process involved policy analysis,

    formation, decision as well as the political

    analysis of policy

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    I. Policy Questions

    Is a request for a fairly stable, but modifiable,

    line of action aimed at securing an optimal

    adjustment of the conflict between different

    goods, all of which must be pursued, butwhich, taken together, cannot all be

    maximized (Green, 1994).

    Can only be formulated if we can state the set

    of values or goods from which the questionarises.

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    Policy Issues

    Nested within a set of mutually incompatible valuesor goods.

    Consider the issues surrounding the imposition ofUPUs entrance requirements:

    ~ Levels of attainment racially or ethnically balanced~ High academic achievement, and

    ~ Culturally pluralistic communities

    Maximizing any one of these goods, will inhibit the

    advancement of the others. The policy problem arises by accepting all aims of

    education, and yet they cannot all be maximized.

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    Policy Issues

    No technical solution to policy questions.

    It is practical questions, never theoretical.

    It is a statement of what we should do.

    Information and analyses can improve decision

    of action.

    But policy questions can be answered even

    without such information.

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    Aspects of Policy Questions

    1. Scarcity

    2. Conflict of goods

    3. Policy, Politics, and Utopia

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    1. Scarcity

    Why we need a policy?

    1. Increasing the satisfactions available to human

    beings increased productivity

    ~ can be balanced by abundance.2. Doing something about their desires improved

    moral and discipline

    ~ can be made to meet not by the satisfaction of

    wants, but by their proper and harmoniouscomposition.

    Thus, one source of policy questions is the mismatch

    between human desires and satisfactions

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    2. Conflict of Goods

    Policy questions arise because the goods

    that human beings seek to secure in the

    world are interdependent and often jointly

    discordant

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    3. Policy, Politics, and Utopia

    Human goods (values?) cannot all be present

    sufficiently to satisfy human desires.

    They cannot all be maximized.

    They exist even when human interests do not.

    Thus, a need for solution to policy problems in

    utopian terms

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    Presuppositions of Policy Questions

    Policy questions are different from moral,

    constitutional, and research questions:

    1. Constraints of time;

    ~ the answer will be revised

    ~ have to be answered on time, though the

    information needed for the answer is not on

    time.

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    Presuppositions of Policy Questions

    2. Policy decisions and ethical decisions aredifferent because policies and moral rulesor principles differ.

    ~ Policies are drawn from within a set ofalternative actions all of which are eithermorally indifferent or capable of evokingmoral approval.

    ~ Defining the set of policy choices is theexpression of moral conviction andestimations of value, but selecting fromwithin that defined set is not.

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    The Policy Process

    1. Policy analysis

    2. Policy formation

    3. Policy decision

    4. Political analysis of policy

    5. Policy research and evaluation

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    1. Policy Analysis

    The rational or technical assessment of the net

    marginal trade-offs between different policy choices.

    To discover a balance between competing values.

    An activity whose theory is the theory of marginalutilities exercise rationality.

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    2. Policy Formation

    An activity of gaining agreement on what form a specific

    policy can or will take, as opposed to what form it ought

    to take.

    Involve conversation, persuasion, argument, endless

    meetings.

    Employ governmental management and rhetoric theory.

    Example : at Federal, the theory of inter-agency politics;

    Dont fight over turf, just take up space.

    - For the interest of the nation.

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    3. Policy Decision

    The authoritative action of some office,

    administrative, or legislative by which a line of action

    is established.

    Employ the theory of polity, the political and legal

    theory by which authority is distributed, obligations for

    decision are assigned throughout the structure of

    political institutions, and agents of authority are

    enjoined to act.

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    4. Political Analysis

    Is concerned with measuring the political

    weight of a policy.

    The aim is not so much to determine the net

    social benefits of a particular policy, but todetermine its constituency.

    Whether the best thing to do is the same as

    the best thing to be done.

    It estimates who will vote for it.

    It employs the theory of political behavior

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    5. Policy Research & Evaluation

    R&E can contribute to each of those activities.

    The rational of policy decision and political

    analysis are the standards of political

    judgment. The exercise of political judgment is a practical

    and evaluation activities

    Researcher can involve in these activities inthe context of government.

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    Dilemmas Influencing

    the Context of Polity

    (Anthony Giddens, The Third Way 1998)

    1. Globalization

    2. Migration

    3. Individualism

    4. Political Agency

    5. Ecological Problems

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    1. Globalization

    Understood as an economic term;

    More countries are involved in mutual trading

    Create economic area that spills national

    boundaries Expanded role of world financial markets

    Global impact of individual needs

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    Effects of Globalization

    Creates new demands for regenerating local

    identities

    Regional and transnational groups contribute

    governance Transforms the institutions of societies in

    which we live rise of new individualism

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    2. Migration

    Import of new systems of values

    Enculturation of host values

    Unskilled work load to skilled labor ratio

    Education divide

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    3. Individualism

    Associated with retreat of tradition and custom

    New individualism often associated with

    pressures of democracy

    Challenge to find new means of productionsolidarity and social cohesion

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    4. Political Agency

    Representation of diverse interests Reconcile the competing claims of these interests

    Provide diversity of public goods

    Regulate markets in public interests and foster market

    competition Foster social peace through control of the means of

    violence and through the provision of policing

    Promote active development of human capital through

    education system Foster regional and transnational alliance to pursue

    global goals

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    5. Ecology

    Pollution

    Global warming

    Sustainable development

    Ecological modernization

    - science, technology, political will, political censor

    - partnership between industries and government

    - international agreements

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    Lifelong Learning

    Learning to know: the mastery of learning tools ratherthan the acquisition of structured knowledge

    Learning to do: education to equip people to do thetypes of work needed in the future

    Learning to live together with others: education toavoid conflict or peacefully resolve it

    Learning to be: education that contributes to apersons complete development

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    Education for the Future

    i. Skills and knowledge to prepare for the eventuality of

    job diversification and job flexibility. This ensures

    resiliency in employability of citizens

    ii. Engagement and commitment in active citizenry

    roles vis a vis professional activism, communityactivism and national agenda activism. This

    ensures a high level of citizenry participation

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    Education for the Future

    iii. A high tolerance for change. As globalization sets in,

    the rapid flow of information precipitates

    transformation of life cultures, work cultures,

    relationships, and identities.

    iv. Integrity of positive values that are receptive ofprogress, change, and continuous development. The

    result of this enlightenment is the people sense of

    being empowered in their quest for a better living

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    Social Principles in

    Educational Policy Making Individual rights

    Unity

    Expansionism Utilitarianism

    Diversification

    Entrepreneurialism

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    Individual Rights

    And WHEREAS it is considered desirable thatregard shall be had so far as it is compatiblewith policy (National Educational Policy) withthat provision of efficient instruction and

    avoidance of unreasonable publicexpenditure, to the general principle thatpupils are to be educated in accordance withthe wishes of their parents:

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    Unity

    Education Act 1996 (Act 550)

    An act to provide for education and for mattersconnected therewith.

    And WHEREAS education plays a vital role in

    achieving the countrys vision of attaining the statusof a fully developed nation in terms of economicdevelopment, social justice, and spiritual, moral andethical strength, towards creating a society that isunited, democratic, liberal and dynamic.

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    And WHEREAS the above (National EducationalPolicy) is to be executed through a national system ofeducation which provides for the national language tobe the main medium of instruction, a NationalCurriculum and common examinations, the education

    provided being varied and comprehensive in scopeand which will satisfy the needs of the nation as wellas promote national unity through cultural, social,economic and political development in accordancewith the principles ofRukunegara.

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    Utilitarian, Entrepreneurialism

    And WHEREAS it is the mission to develop a

    world class quality education system which

    will realize the full potential of the individual

    and fulfill the aspiration of the Malaysiannation

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    Utilitarian, Entrepreneurialisim,

    Diversification

    WHEREAS the purpose of education is to

    enable the Malaysian society to have a

    command of knowledge, skills and values

    necessary in a world that is highly competitiveand globalize, arising from the impact of rapid

    development in science, technology and

    information

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    Polities in Policy Making

    Environment

    Populist

    Democratic populist

    Democracy

    Liberal Conservative

    Socialist

    Capitalist

    Federalist

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    Populist

    As representative of the people in various

    sects and creed

    Preference for local culture and values

    Focused on local needs Local employment market

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    Democratic Populist

    Representative of a larger section of thepopulation sharing similar culture, values,mission or purpose

    Regional interests

    Exhibit more tolerance and readiness toaccept variations and differences betweenculture and values within the group

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    Democracy

    Dominance of the majority

    Representatives from all major and sub groups

    Recognition of individual differences and differingneeds

    Equitable development of potential Dialogical democracy

    Guided democracy

    Pluralist-democracy (organized interest groups)

    Liberal democracy

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    Liberal

    Favor individualism

    Individualist initiative

    Low state control on all fronts

    Difficulty in balancing conservative values inprivate lives and market fundamentalism in

    employment

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    Conservative

    Adherence to a class structure in the system

    Hegemony of value systems and culture

    Selective opportunities to elite

    Privileged authority in decision making Supports market freedom but wants strong

    state control over issues such as the family,drugs, abortion

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    Socialist

    Obligation to the development of the publicgood rather than the individual

    The welfare state instead of open marketcompetition

    Tight bloc of self contained entities

    Faced with challenge to develop new identityin socially and culturally more diverse

    environment