Download - Marx German Ideology
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
Pa
rt I
(sel
ectio
ns)
Kar
l Mum
and
Frie
dric
h En
gels
In A
pril
of 1
845,
Eng
els
mov
ed to
Bru
ssel
s to
join
Mar
x Th
at su
mm
er th
e tw
o tr
avel
led
to E
ngla
nd to
stud
y ec
onom
ic th
eory
and
to m
ake
conn
ectio
ns
with
Ger
man
wor
kers
'gro
ups
in L
ondo
n. U
pon
thei
r re
turn
to B
russ
els,
they
un
dert
ook
a jo
int
wor
k, th
eir f
irst
, w
hich
had
two
chie
f aim
s: n
egat
ivel
y, to
cr
itici
ze a
nd "
settl
e ac
coun
ts w
ith"
vari
ous
of t
heir
ers
twhi
le Y
oung
Heg
elia
n co
lleag
ues a
nd c
lari
fi ho
w th
eir
new
ly e
mer
ging
view
s di
ffere
d fro
m t
he "
ide-
ol
ogie
s" o
f th
ese
othe
rs; a
nd p
ositi
vely
, to
dev
elop
thei
r ow
n m
ater
ialis
t the
- or
y of
his
tory
. Th
eir m
ain
targ
ets w
ere B
auer
, Feu
erba
ch, M
ax S
tirne
r, a
nd
Kar
l G
run
and
the
so-c
alle
d tr
ue o
r ut
opia
n so
cial
ists
. Th
e re
sult
of t
heir
ef
fort
s, w
hich
last
ed th
roug
h th
e su
mm
er o
f 18
46, w
as a
man
uscr
ipt o
f abo
ut
+
five
hund
red
page
s. Th
e lo
ng se
cond
and
thir
d pa
rts'
of th
e w
ork
cons
ist l
arge
ly
of s
atir
ical
pole
mic
s ag
ains
t the
ir o
ppon
ents
, esp
ecia
lly S
tirne
r, w
ho h
ad
rece
ntly
pub
lishe
d T
he E
go a
nd I
ts O
wn,
in w
hich
Mar
x an
d En
gels
had
be
en c
ritic
ized
. The
se pa
rts
are
little
rea
d to
day.
The
first
par
t, ho
wev
er,
whi
ch o
sten
sibl
y is
a c
ritiq
ue o
f Feu
erba
ch b
ut, m
ore
impo
rtan
t, is
the f
irst
sy
stem
atic
expo
sitio
n of
his
tori
cal m
ater
ialis
m, i
s on
e of
the
mos
t inf
uent
ial
of a
ll of
Mar
x's
wri
tings
. The
wor
k w
as n
ever
publ
ishe
d in
thei
r lif
etim
es,
how
evet
: As
Mar
x w
rote
in th
e Pr
efac
e to
'Y C
ontr
ibut
ion
to th
e C
ritiq
ue
of P
oliti
cal E
cono
my,
"* t
he se
cond
and
thir
d pa
rts
of t
he m
anus
crip
t had
"r
each
ed t
he p
ublis
hers
in
Wes
tpha
lia w
hen
we
wer
e in
form
ed th
at o
win
g to
ch
ange
d ci
rcum
stan
ces
it c
ould
not
be p
rint
ed.
We a
band
oned
the
man
uscr
ipt
to th
e gna
win
g cr
itici
sm o
f th
e m
ice
all t
he m
ore
will
ingl
y si
nce
we
had
achi
eved
our
mai
n pu
rpos
e-se
lf-c
lar$
catio
" It
was
pub
lishe
d fo
r th
e fir
st
time
in 1
932.
In
Par
t I o
f The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
, Mar
x an
d En
gels
atte
mpt
to c
lari
fi at
gr
eate
r len
gth
than
pre
viou
sly
how
thei
r th
eory
of h
isto
ry d
ifer
s fro
m t
hat o
f Fe
uerb
achi
an m
ater
ialis
m, o
n th
e on
e ha
nd, a
nd H
egel
ian
idea
lism
, on
the
othe
r. Th
eir v
iew
"is
not
dev
oid
of p
rem
ises
. It p
roce
eds f
rom
rea
l pre
mis
es
and
does
not
aba
ndon
them
for
a m
omen
t. Th
ese p
rem
ises
are
men
, not
in
any
fant
astic
iso
latio
n an
djix
atio
n, b
ut in
thei
r re
al, e
mpi
rica
lly pe
rcep
tible
pro
- ce
ss o
f dev
elop
men
t und
er c
erta
in c
ondi
tions
. . .
. Whe
re sp
ecul
atio
n en
ds,
nam
ely
in a
ctua
l life
, the
re re
al, p
ositi
ve sc
ienc
e be
gins
as
the
repr
esen
tatio
n of
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
10
3
the p
ract
ical
act
ivity
and
pra
ctic
al p
roce
ss o
f the
dev
elop
men
t of
men
." Fr
om
this
beg
inni
ng po
int,
they
des
crib
e the
theo
retic
al pr
oces
s of
acc
ount
ingf
or
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f soc
ial i
nstit
utio
ns, i
nclu
ding
the
stat
e an
d th
e re
alm
of
cultu
re a
nd id
eas,
and
outli
ne th
e na
ture
of h
isto
rica
l evo
lutio
n. A
ll so
cial
in
stitu
tions
and
pra
ctic
es a
re to
be
unde
rsto
od in
term
s of
the p
reva
iling
m
ater
ial c
ondi
tions
. Con
scio
usne
ss, o
r id
eolo
gy, i
s a r
efec
tion
of m
ater
ial
rela
tions
, in
part
icul
ar, t
he re
latio
ns o
f pro
duct
ion.
Thu
s, to
und
erst
and
cont
empo
rary
Ger
man
philo
soph
y an
d la
w, o
ne m
ust u
nder
stan
d th
e ri
se o
f m
anuj
iictu
ring
, the
div
isio
n of
labo
r, tr
ade
rela
tions
, and
oth
er fa
ctor
s sh
ap-
ing
econ
omic
lif
Im
port
ant
rem
arks
abo
ut c
omm
unis
m a
re a
lso
scat
tere
d th
roug
h th
e m
anus
crip
t. Pa
rt I
of T
he G
erm
an I
deol
ogy
was
nev
erfin
ishe
d an
d w
as p
ut a
side
w
hen
the p
lans
for
publ
ishi
ng th
e se
cond
and
thir
d pa
rtsf
ell
thro
ugh.
It
does
not
, the
n, r
epre
sent
a p
olis
hed
wor
k, a
nd im
port
ant t
hem
es a
re n
ot sy
s-
tem
atic
ally
dev
elop
ed. A
lso,
com
pare
d to
late
r w
ritin
gs o
f Mar
x on
his
tory
, th
is w
ork
clea
rly s
uffe
rs fr
om a
lack
of t
he d
etai
led
know
ledg
e of
his
tory
th
at M
arx
wou
ld a
cqui
re in
the
1850
's. N
onet
hele
ss, a
ll o
f the
maj
or p
oint
s of
his
tori
cal m
ater
ialis
m a
re in
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
, if n
ot i
n a f
ully
w
orke
d-ou
tform
, and
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f the
doc
umen
t can
not b
e de
nied
.
Prefa
ce
Unt
il no
w m
en h
ave
cons
tant
ly h
ad f
alse
con
cept
ions
of
them
selv
es,
abou
t wha
t th
ey a
re o
r w
hat
they
oug
ht to
be.
The
y ha
ve r
elat
ed t
hem
- se
lves
to
one
anot
her
in c
onfo
rmity
with
the
ir id
eas
of G
od, o
f no
rmal
m
an,
etc.
The
pha
ntom
s of
the
ir i
mag
inat
ion
have
got
ten
too
big
for
them
. T
hey,
the
cre
ator
s, ha
ve b
een
bow
ing
to t
heir
cre
atio
ns.
Let
us
liber
ate
them
fro
m t
heir
chi
mer
as, f
rom
the
ir id
eas,
dogm
as, i
mag
inar
y be
ings
, und
er w
hose
yok
e th
ey a
re l
angu
ishi
ng. L
et u
s re
bel a
gain
st t
he
rule
of
thou
ghts
. Let
us
teac
h m
an, s
ays
one
pers
on, t
o ex
chan
ge th
ese
imag
inin
gs f
or t
houg
hts
that
cor
resp
ond
to m
an's
esse
nce;
let
us t
each
m
an t
o be
cri
tical
tow
ard
them
, say
s an
othe
r; le
t us
tea
ch m
an t
o ge
t rid
of
them
alto
geth
er, s
ays a
thir
d. T
hen-
-exi
stin
g re
ality
will
col
laps
e.
Such
inn
ocen
t an
d ch
ildlik
e fa
ntas
ies
mak
e up
the
cor
e of
rec
ent
You
ng-H
egel
ian
philo
soph
y w
hich
not
onl
y is
rec
eive
d w
ith h
orro
r an
d aw
e by
the
Ger
man
pub
lic,
but
is a
lso
prop
ound
ed b
y th
e ph
iloso
phic
Thi
s se
lect
ion
is t
he f
irst
part
of T
he G
erm
an I
deol
ogy
as t
rans
late
d fro
m t
he
Ger
man
by
Loyd
D. E
asto
n an
d K
urt H
. Gud
dat.
1. S
ee p
. 209
belo
w.
104
Writ
ings
on H
istor
ical
Mat
eria
lism
hero
es t
hem
selv
es w
ith a
cer
emon
ious
con
scio
usne
ss o
f it
s ca
tacl
ysm
ic
dang
erou
snes
s an
d cr
imin
al d
isre
gard
. T
he
firs
t vo
lum
e of
the
pre
sent
pu
blic
atio
n at
tem
pts
to u
nmas
k th
ese
shee
p w
ho c
onsi
der t
hem
selv
es a
nd
are
take
n to
be
wol
ves,
to s
how
how
the
ir b
leat
ing
only
fol
low
s in
phi
- lo
soph
y th
e co
ncep
tions
of
the
aver
age
Ger
man
citi
zen,
to
indi
cate
how
th
e bo
astin
g of
the
se p
hilo
soph
ic e
xege
tes
sim
ply
mir
rors
the
wre
tche
d-
ness
of
actu
al c
ondi
tions
in
Ger
man
y. T
his
publ
icat
ion
aim
s to
deb
unk
and
disc
redi
t tha
t phi
loso
phic
str
uggl
e w
ith s
hado
ws
of r
ealit
y w
hich
so
appe
als t
o th
e dr
eam
y, d
row
sy G
erm
an p
eopl
e.
A c
leve
r fe
llow
onc
e go
t th
e id
ea t
hat
peop
le d
row
n be
caus
e th
ey a
re
poss
esse
d by
the
idea
of g
ravi
ty.
If t
hey
wou
ld g
et th
is n
otio
n ou
t of
thei
r he
ads
by s
eein
g it
as r
elig
ious
sup
erst
itio
n, th
ey w
ould
be
com
plet
ely
safe
fr
om a
ll da
nger
of
wat
er. F
or h
is e
ntir
e lif
e he
fou
ght a
gain
st th
e ill
usio
n of
gra
vity
whi
le a
ll st
atis
tics
gave
him
new
and
abu
ndan
t ev
iden
ce o
f it
s ha
rmfu
l ef
fect
s. T
hat
kind
of
fello
w i
s ty
pica
l of
the
new
rev
olut
iona
ry
philo
soph
ers i
n G
erm
any.
I. Fe
uerb
ach:
Opp
ositi
on o
f Mat
eria
listic
an
d Id
ealis
tic O
utlo
ok ["I
,, G
erm
an i
deol
ogis
ts s
ay t
hat
Ger
man
y ex
peri
ence
d an
unp
rece
dent
ed
revo
lutio
n du
ring
the
past
few
yea
rs. T
he
deco
mpo
sitio
n of
the
Heg
elia
n ph
iloso
phy
that
beg
an w
ith S
trau
ss d
evel
oped
int
o a
ferm
ent
of w
orld
- w
ide
prop
ortio
ns a
ffec
ting
all
"pow
ers
of t
he p
ast."
G
igan
tic e
mpi
res
grew
in
the
gene
ral
chao
s, o
nly
to d
eclin
e ag
ain.
Her
oes
emer
ged
mo-
m
enta
rily
, on
ly t
o be
hur
led
back
aga
in i
nto
obsc
urity
by
bold
er a
nd
mig
htie
r riv
als.
Th
e F
renc
h R
evol
utio
n w
as c
hild
's pl
ay i
n co
mpa
riso
n w
ith t
his
revo
lutio
n w
hich
dw
arfs
eve
n th
at o
f th
e 'D
iado
chi
[suc
cess
ors
of A
lexa
nder
the
Gre
at].
Pri
ncip
les
oust
ed o
ne a
noth
er w
ith u
npre
ce-
dent
ed s
peed
. Her
oes
of t
he m
ind
spee
dily
ove
rthr
ew o
ne a
noth
er, a
nd
in t
hree
yea
rs,
1842
-45,
mor
e of
the
pas
t w
as s
wep
t aw
ay i
n G
erm
any
than
in th
ree
cent
urie
s at
oth
er p
erio
ds.
All
this
is s
aid
to h
ave
happ
ened
in
the
real
m o
f pu
re th
ough
t. W
e ar
e ce
rtai
nly
deal
ing
with
an
inte
rest
ing
phen
omen
on:
the
rott
ing
away
of
abso
lute
Spi
rit.
Its
last
spa
rk h
avin
g fa
iled,
the
var
ious
com
po-
nent
s of
th
is c
aput
mor
tuum
beg
an t
o de
com
pose
, en
tere
d in
to n
ew
com
poun
ds, a
nd f
orm
ed n
ew s
ubst
ance
s. T
he
indu
stri
alis
ts o
f ph
iloso
- ph
y, h
avin
g liv
ed o
ff t
he e
xplo
itatio
n of
abs
olut
e Sp
irit
, th
en s
eize
d on
th
e co
mpo
unds
. E
ach
of t
hem
ret
aile
d hi
s sh
are
with
all
poss
ible
zea
l.
['Titl
e in
the
eld
er E
ngel
s's h
andw
ritin
g on
the
last
man
uscr
ipt p
age
of P
art I.]
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
10
5
Com
petit
ion
had
to a
rise
, an
d in
the
beg
inni
ng i
t w
as r
athe
r bo
urge
ois
and
trad
ition
al.
Lat
er w
hen
the
Ger
man
mar
ket
was
glu
tted
and
the
com
mod
ity c
ould
not
be
sold
on
the
wor
ld m
arke
t de
spite
all
effo
rts,
bu
sine
ss w
as s
poile
d in
typi
cally
Ger
man
fas
hion
by
mas
s pr
oduc
tion
or
pseu
do-p
rodu
ctio
n, b
y a
low
erin
g of
qua
lity,
adu
ltera
tion
of r
aw m
ate-
ria
ls,
fals
ific
atio
n of
lab
els,
fic
titio
us p
urch
ases
, bi
ll-jo
bbin
g, a
nd a
cre
dit
syst
em l
acki
ng a
ny r
eal
basi
s. T
he
com
petit
ion
turn
ed i
nto
bitt
er f
ight
- in
g, w
hich
is
now
int
erpr
eted
and
ext
olle
d as
a r
evol
utio
n of
wor
ld-
hist
oric
al si
gnif
ican
ce a
nd a
s pr
oduc
ing
the
mos
t tre
men
dous
res
ults
and
ac
hiev
emen
ts. I
f w
e ar
e to
rec
ogni
ze f
ully
this
phi
loso
phic
al c
harl
atan
ry
whi
ch a
wak
ens
even
in
the
brea
st o
f th
e ho
nest
Ger
man
citi
zen
a w
arm
fe
elin
g of
nat
iona
l pr
ide,
and
if
we
are
to p
oint
out
the
pet
tines
s, t
he
paro
chia
l na
rrow
-min
dedn
ess
of t
he e
ntir
e Y
oung
-Heg
elia
n m
ovem
ent,
and
part
icul
arly
the
tra
gico
mic
al c
ontr
ast
betw
een
the
actu
al a
ccom
- pl
ishm
ents
of
thes
e he
roes
and
the
illu
sion
s th
ey h
ave
abou
t th
eir
achi
evem
ents
, we
have
to
exam
ine
the
who
le s
pect
acle
fro
m a
sta
ndpo
int
outs
ide
of G
erm
any.
A. I
deol
ogy
in G
ener
al, P
artic
ular
ly G
erm
an Id
eolo
gy
Rig
ht u
p to
its
mos
t rec
ent e
ffor
ts, G
erm
an c
ritic
ism
nev
er le
ft th
e re
alm
of
phi
loso
phy.
Far
fro
m e
xam
inin
g it
s ge
nera
l ph
iloso
phic
pre
mis
es,
all
of i
ts i
nqui
ries
wer
e ba
sed
on o
ne p
hilo
soph
ical
sys
tem
, th
at o
f H
egel
. T
here
was
mys
tific
atio
n no
t on
ly i
n th
e an
swer
s bu
t al
so e
ven
in t
he
ques
tions
them
selv
es. T
his
depe
nden
ce o
n H
egel
is th
e re
ason
why
non
e of
the
se m
oder
n cr
itics
eve
n at
tem
pted
a c
ompr
ehen
sive
cri
ticis
m o
f th
e H
egel
ian
syst
em,
thou
gh e
ach
of t
hem
cla
imed
to
have
gon
e be
yond
H
egel
. The
ir p
olem
ics
agai
nst H
egel
and
aga
inst
one
ano
ther
are
rat
her
limite
d. E
ach
criti
c pi
cks
one
aspe
ct o
f th
e H
egel
ian
syst
em a
nd a
pplie
s it
to th
e en
tire
sys
tem
as
wel
l as
to t
he a
spec
ts c
hose
n by
oth
er c
ritic
s. I
n th
e be
ginn
ing
they
took
up
pure
and
unf
alsi
fied
Heg
elia
n ca
tego
ries
suc
h as
"Su
bsta
nce"
or
"Sel
f-co
nsci
ousn
ess.
" L
ater
they
des
ecra
ted
such
cat
- eg
orie
s by
giv
ing
them
mor
e m
unda
ne n
ames
suc
h as
"Sp
ecie
s,"
"the
U
niqu
e,"
"Man
," e
tc.
All
Ger
man
phi
loso
phic
al c
ritic
ism
from
Str
auss
to S
tirn
er is
con
fine
d to
cri
ticis
m o
f re
ligi
o~~
s conc
eptio
ns.
Th
e cr
itic
s pr
ocee
ded
from
rea
l re
ligio
n an
d ac
tual
theo
logy
. As
they
wen
t on
, the
y de
term
ined
in v
ario
us
way
s w
hat
cons
titut
es r
elig
ious
con
scio
usne
ss a
nd r
elig
ious
con
cept
ions
. T
heir
pro
gres
s co
nsis
ted
of
thei
r su
bsum
ing
the
alle
gedl
y do
min
ant
met
aphy
sica
l, po
litic
al,
juri
dica
l, m
oral
, an
d ot
her
conc
epts
und
er t
he
106
Wri
tings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
clas
s of
rel
igio
us o
r th
eolo
gica
l con
cept
s. S
imila
rly, t
hey
decl
ared
pol
itica
l, ju
ridi
cal,
and
mor
al c
onsc
ious
ness
to
be r
elig
ious
or
theo
logi
cal
con-
sc
ious
ness
, and
the
pol
itica
l, ju
ridi
cal,
and
mor
al m
an,
"Man
" in
the
last
re
sort
, to
be
relig
ious
. T
hey
pres
uppo
sed
the
gove
rnan
ce o
f re
ligio
n.
Gra
dual
ly e
very
dom
inan
t rel
atio
nshi
p w
as h
eld
to b
e re
ligio
us a
nd m
ade
into
a c
ult,
such
as
the
cult
of l
aw, t
he c
ult
of s
tate
, et
c. E
vent
ually
ther
e w
as n
othi
ng b
ut d
ogm
as a
nd b
elie
f in
dog
mas
. Th
e w
orld
was
mor
e an
d m
ore
sanc
tifie
d un
til o
ur h
onor
able
Sai
nt M
ax [
Stir
ner]
was
abl
e to
sa
nctif
y it
en b
loc
and
dism
iss
it on
ce f
or a
ll.
The
Old
Heg
elia
ns h
ad c
ompr
ehen
ded
ever
ythi
ng o
nce
they
red
uced
it
to a
Heg
elia
n lo
gica
l cat
egor
y. T
he
You
ng H
egel
ians
cri
ticiz
ed e
very
thin
g by
im
putin
g re
ligio
us c
once
ptio
ns t
o it
or d
ecla
ring
eve
ryth
ing
to b
e th
eolo
gica
l. T
he
You
ng
Heg
elia
ns
are
in
agre
emen
t w
ith
the
Old
H
egel
ians
in b
elie
ving
in t
he g
over
nanc
e of
rel
igio
n, c
once
pts,
a u
nive
r-
sal p
rinc
iple
in t
he e
xist
ing
wor
ld. B
ut o
ne p
arty
atta
cks
this
gov
erna
nce
as u
surp
atio
n w
hile
the
othe
r pa
rty
prai
ses
it as
legi
timat
e.
Sinc
e th
e Y
oung
Heg
elia
ns r
egar
d co
ncep
ts,
thou
ghts
, id
eas,
and
all
prod
ucts
of
cons
ciou
snes
s, to
whi
ch t
hey
give
ind
epen
dent
exi
sten
ce, a
s ""
the
real
fet
ters
of
man
-whi
le
the
Old
Heg
elia
ns p
rono
unce
d th
em t
he
true
bon
ds o
f hu
man
soc
iety
-it
is o
bvio
us t
hat
the
You
ng H
egel
ians
ha
ve t
o fi
ght
only
aga
inst
the
illu
sion
s of
con
scio
usne
ss.
In t
he Y
oung
H
egel
ians
' fa
ntas
ies
the
rela
tions
hips
of
men
, al
l th
eir
actio
ns,
thei
r ch
ains
, and
thei
r lim
itatio
ns a
re p
rodu
cts
of t
heir
con
scio
usne
ss. C
onse
- qu
ently
they
giv
e m
en t
he m
oral
pos
tula
te o
f ex
chan
ging
the
ir p
rese
nt
cons
ciou
snes
s fo
r hu
man
, cr
itica
l or
ego
istic
con
scio
usne
ss t
o re
mov
e th
eir
limita
tions
. Thi
s am
ount
s to
a d
eman
d to
int
erpr
et w
hat
exis
ts in
a
diff
eren
t way
, th
at i
s, to
rec
ogni
ze i
t by
mea
ns o
f a
diff
eren
t in
terp
reta
- tio
n. T
he
You
ng-H
egel
ian
ideo
logi
sts
are
the
stau
nche
st c
onse
rvat
ives
, de
spite
the
ir a
llege
dly
"wor
ld-s
haki
ng"
stat
emen
ts.
Th
e m
ost
rece
nt
amon
g th
em h
ave
foun
d th
e co
rrec
t ex
pres
sion
for
thei
r do
ings
in
sayi
ng
they
are
fig
htin
g on
ly a
gain
st "
phra
ses."
The
y fo
rget
, ho
wev
er, t
hat
they
fi
ght t
hem
onl
y w
ith p
hras
es o
f th
eir
own.
In
no w
ay a
re th
ey a
ttack
ing
the
actu
al e
xist
ing
wor
ld;
they
mer
ely
atta
ck t
he p
hras
es o
f th
is w
orld
. T
he o
nly
resu
lts t
his
philo
soph
ic c
ritic
ism
cou
ld a
chie
ve w
ere
som
e el
ucid
atio
ns o
n C
hris
tiani
ty,
one-
side
d as
the
y ar
e, f
rom
the
poi
nt o
f vi
ew o
f re
ligio
us h
isto
ry.
All
thei
r ot
her
asse
rtio
ns a
re o
nly
furt
her
em-
belli
shm
ents
of
thei
r ba
sic
clai
m th
at th
ese
unim
port
ant
eluc
idat
ions
are
di
scov
erie
s of
wor
ld-h
isto
rica
l sig
nifi
canc
e.
Not
one
of
thes
e ph
iloso
pher
s ev
er t
houg
ht t
o lo
ok i
nto
the
conn
ec-
tion
betw
een
Ger
man
phi
loso
phy
and
Ger
man
rea
lity,
bet
wee
n th
eir
criti
cism
and
the
ir o
wn
mat
eria
l env
iron
men
t.
The G
erm
an Id
eolo
gy
107
I. I
deol
ogy
in G
ener
al,
Espe
cial
ly G
erm
an P
hilo
soph
y..l*
l ((W
e kn
ow o
nly
one
scie
nce,
the
scie
nce
of h
isto
ry. H
isto
ry c
an b
e vi
ewed
fro
m tw
o si
des:
it
can
be d
ivid
ed i
nto
the
hist
ory
of n
atur
e an
d th
at o
f m
an.
Th
e tw
o si
des,
how
ever
, are
not
to b
e se
en a
s in
depe
nden
t ent
ities
. As
long
as
man
ha
s ex
iste
d, n
atur
e an
d m
an h
ave
affe
cted
eac
h ot
her.
Th
e hi
stor
y of
na
ture
, so-
calle
d na
tura
l his
tory
, do
es n
ot c
once
rn u
s he
re a
t al
l. B
ut w
e w
ill h
ave
to d
iscu
ss th
e hi
stor
y of
man
, sin
ce a
lmos
t all
ideo
logy
am
ount
s to
eit
her
a di
stor
ted
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
thi
s hi
stor
y or
a c
ompl
ete
abst
rac-
tio
n fr
om it
. Ide
olog
y its
elf
is o
nly
one
of t
he s
ides
of
this
his
tory
.))
Th
e pr
emis
es f
rom
whi
ch w
e st
art
are
not
arbi
trar
y; t
hey
are
no
dogm
as b
ut r
athe
r ac
tual
pre
mis
es f
rom
whi
ch a
bstr
actio
n ca
n be
mad
e on
ly in
imag
inat
ion.
The
y ar
e th
e re
al in
divi
dual
s, th
eir
actio
ns, a
nd th
eir
mat
eria
l con
ditio
ns o
f lif
e, th
ose
whi
ch th
ey f
ind
exis
ting
as w
ell a
s th
ose
whi
ch t
hey
prod
uce
thro
ugh
thei
r ac
tions
. T
hese
pre
mis
es c
an b
e su
b-
stan
tiate
d in
a p
urel
y em
piri
cal w
ay
Th
e fi
rst p
rem
ise
of a
ll hu
man
his
tory
, of
cour
se,
is t
he e
xist
ence
of
livin
g hu
man
ind
ivid
uals
. ((
The
fir
st h
isto
rica
l ac
t of
the
se i
ndiv
idua
ls,
the
act b
y w
hich
they
dis
tingu
ish
them
selv
es fr
om a
nim
als
is n
ot th
e fa
ct
that
the
y th
ink
but
the
fact
tha
t th
ey b
egin
to
prod
uce
thei
r m
eans
of
subs
isten
ce.))
Th
e fi
rst f
act t
o be
est
ablis
hed,
then
, is
the
phys
ical
org
ani-
za
tion
of t
hese
indi
vidu
als
and
thei
r co
nseq
uent
rel
atio
nshi
p to
the
res
t of
nat
ure.
Of
cour
se, w
e ca
nnot
dis
cuss
her
e th
e ph
ysic
al n
atur
e of
man
or
th
e na
tura
l co
nditi
ons
in
whi
ch
man
fi
nds
him
self-
geol
ogic
al,
oroh
ydro
grap
hica
l, cl
imat
ic, a
nd o
ther
s. (
(The
se r
elat
ions
hips
aff
ect n
ot
only
the
ori
gina
l an
d na
tura
l or
gani
zatio
n of
men
, es
peci
ally
as
to r
ace,
bu
t al
so h
is e
ntir
e fu
rthe
r de
velo
pmen
t or
non-
deve
lopm
ent
up t
o th
e pr
esen
t.))
All
hist
orio
grap
hy m
ust
proc
eed
from
the
se n
atur
al b
ases
and
th
eir
mod
ific
atio
n in
the
cou
rse
of h
isto
ry t
hrou
gh t
he a
ctio
ns o
f m
en.
Man
can
be
dist
ingu
ishe
d fr
om t
he a
nim
al b
y co
nsci
ousn
ess,
rel
igio
n,
or a
nyth
ing
else
you
ple
ase.
He
begi
ns t
o di
stin
guis
h hi
mse
lf f
rom
the
an
imal
the
mom
ent h
e be
gins
to pr
oduc
e hi
s m
eans
of
subs
iste
nce,
a s
tep
requ
ired
by
his
phys
ical
org
aniz
atio
n. B
y pr
oduc
ing
food
, man
ind
irec
tly
prod
uces
his
mat
eria
l lif
e its
elf.
T
he
way
in
whi
ch m
an p
rodu
ces
his
food
dep
ends
fir
st o
f al
l on
the
na
ture
of
the
mea
ns o
f su
bsis
tenc
e th
at h
e fi
nds
and
has
to r
epro
duce
. T
his
mod
e of
pro
duct
ion
mus
t no
t be
vie
wed
sim
ply
as r
epro
duct
ion
of
the
phys
ical
exi
sten
ce o
f in
divi
dual
s. R
athe
r it
is a
def
inite
for
m o
f th
eir
activ
ity, a
def
inite
way
of
expr
essi
ng th
eir
life,
a d
efin
ite m
ode
of 1%
A
s
['Thi
s he
adin
g an
d su
bseq
uent
mat
eria
l with
in d
oubl
e pa
rent
hese
s cr
osse
d ou
t in
the
man
uscr
ipt.]
108
Wri
tittg
s on
His
tori
cal M
ater
ialis
m
indi
vidu
als
expr
ess
thei
r lif
e, s
o th
ey a
re. W
hat
they
are
, the
refo
re,
coin
- ci
des
with
wha
t th
ey p
rodu
ce,
with
wha
t th
ey p
rodu
ce
and
how
the
y nr
oduc
e. T
he
natu
re o
f in
divi
dual
s th
us d
epen
ds o
n th
e m
ater
ial c
ondi
- r---
tions
whi
ch d
eter
min
e th
eir
prod
uctio
n.
Thi
s pr
oduc
tion
begi
ns w
ith p
opul
atio
n gr
owth
whi
ch i
n tu
rn p
resu
p-
pose
s in
tera
ctio
n [V
erke
hr] a
mon
g in
divi
dual
s. T
he
form
of
such
int
erac
- tio
n is
aga
in d
eter
min
ed b
y pr
oduc
tion.
l"l
The
rel
atio
ns o
f va
riou
s na
tions
with
one
ano
ther
dep
end
upon
th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
eac
h of
the
m h
as d
evel
oped
its
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
, the
di
visi
on o
f la
bor,
and
dom
estic
com
mer
ce.
Th
is p
ropo
sitio
n is
gen
eral
ly
acce
pted
. But
not
onl
y th
e re
latio
n of
one
nat
ion
to o
ther
s, b
ut a
lso
the
entir
e in
tern
al s
truc
ture
of
the
natio
n its
elf
depe
nds
on t
he s
tage
of
deve
lopm
ent
achi
eved
by
its p
rodu
ctio
n an
d it
s do
mes
tic a
nd i
nter
na-
tiona
l co
mm
erce
. How
far
the
pro
duct
ive
forc
es o
f a
natio
n ar
e de
vel-
oped
is s
how
n m
ost e
vide
ntly
by
the
degr
ee to
whi
ch t
he d
ivis
ion
of l
abor
ha
s be
en d
evel
oped
. Eac
h ne
w p
rodu
ctiv
e fo
rce,
inso
far
as it
is n
ot o
nly
a qu
antit
ativ
e ex
tens
ion
of p
rodu
ctiv
e fo
rces
alr
eady
kno
wn
(e.g
. cu
ltiva
tion
of l
and)
will
bri
ng a
bout
a f
urth
er d
evel
opm
ent o
f th
e di
visi
on o
f la
bor.
The
div
isio
n of
lab
or in
a n
atio
n le
ads
firs
t of
all t
o th
e se
para
tion
of
indu
stri
al-c
omm
erci
al la
bor
from
agr
icul
tura
l la
bor
and
cons
eque
ntly
to
the
sepa
ratio
n of
tow
n an
d co
uatr
y an
d to
a c
lash
of
thei
r in
tere
sts.
Its
fu
rthe
r de
velo
pmen
t lea
ds to
the
sep
arat
ion
of c
omm
erci
al f
rom
ind
us-
tria
l lab
or. A
t the
sam
e tim
e, w
ithin
thes
e va
riou
s bra
nche
s, th
ere
deve
lop
----.
-
thro
ugh
the
divi
sion
of
labo
r fu
rthe
r va
riou
s di
visi
ons
amon
g th
e in
di-
vidu
als
coop
erat
ing
in s
peci
fic
kind
s of
lab
or.
Th
e re
lativ
e . po
sitio
n -.
of
thes
e in
divi
dual
gro
ups
is d
eter
min
ed b
y th
e m
etho
ds e
mpl
oyed
in
agn-
-
- cu
ltura
l, in
dust
rial
, an
d co
mm
erci
al l
abor
(pa
tria
rcha
lism
, sl
aver
y, e
s-
tate
s, c
lass
es).
Th
e sa
me
cond
ition
s ca
n be
obs
erve
d in
the
rel
atio
ns o
f va
rious
nat
ions
if c
omm
erce
has
bee
n fu
rthe
r dev
elop
ed.
Th
e di
ffer
ent s
tage
s of
dev
elop
men
t in
the
divi
sion
of
labo
r are
just
so
man
y di
ffer
ent
form
s of
ow
ners
hip;
tha
t is
, th
e st
age
in t
he d
ivis
ion
of
labo
r als
o de
term
ines
the
rela
tions
of
indi
vidu
als
to o
ne a
noth
er s
o fa
r as
th
e m
ater
ial,
inst
rum
ent,
and
prod
uct
of l
abor
are
con
cern
ed.
The
fir
st fo
rm o
f ow
ners
hip
is t
riba
l ow
ners
hip.
It
corr
espo
nds
to th
e un
deve
lope
d st
age
of p
rodu
ctio
n w
here
peo
ple
live
by h
unti
ng a
nd f
ish-
in
g, b
y br
eedi
ng a
nim
als
or,
in t
he h
ighe
st s
tage
, by
agri
cultu
re.
Gre
at
area
s of
unc
ultiv
ated
land
are
req
uire
d in
the
latt
er c
ase.
Th
e di
visi
on o
f
('Bre
ak i
n m
anus
crip
t te
xt i
ndic
ated
by
tripl
e in
dent
atio
n of
first
lin
e of
the
follo
win
g pa
ragr
aph.
In
all
the
text
to
follo
w s
ome
long
par
agra
phs
have
bee
n di
vide
d to
fac
ilita
te r
eadi
ng,
but
in s
uch
case
s' th
e fir
st l
ines
of
the
new
par
a-
grap
hs h
ave
ordi
nary
inde
ntat
ions
.]
The
Ger
man
Ideology
109
labo
r at
this
sta
ge is
stil
l ver
y un
deve
lope
d an
d co
nfin
ed t
o ex
tend
ing
the
natu
ral d
ivis
ion
of l
abor
in th
e fa
mily
. Th
e so
cial
str
uctu
re th
us is
lim
ited
to a
n ex
tens
ion
of t
he f
amily
: pat
riar
chal
fam
ily c
hief
tain
s, b
elow
the
m
the
mem
bers
of
the
trib
e, f
inal
ly t
he s
lave
s. T
he
slav
ery
late
nt i
n th
e fa
mily
dev
elop
s on
ly g
radu
ally
with
the
inc
reas
e in
pop
ulat
ion,
the
in-
cr
ease
of
wan
ts, a
nd t
he e
xten
sion
of
exte
rnal
rel
atio
ns in
war
as
wel
l as
in
bar
ter.
T
he
seco
nd f
orm
is t
he a
ncie
nt c
omm
unal
and
sta
te o
wne
rshi
p w
hich
pr
ocee
ds e
spec
ially
fro
m t
he u
nion
of
seve
ral t
ribe
s in
to a
city
by
agre
e-
men
t or
by c
onqu
est;
this
for
m is
stil
l acc
ompa
nied
by
slave
ry. A
long
side
co
mm
unal
ow
ners
hip
ther
e al
read
y de
velo
ps m
ovab
le,
and
late
r ev
en
imm
ovab
le,
priv
ate
prop
erty
, bu
t as
an
abno
rmal
for
m s
ubor
dina
te t
o co
mm
unal
ow
ners
hip.
Th
e ci
tizen
s ho
ld p
ower
ove
r th
eir
labo
ring
sla
ves
only
in
com
mun
ity a
nd a
re t
here
fore
bou
nd t
o th
e fo
rm o
f co
mm
unal
ow
ners
hip.
Th
e co
mm
unal
pri
vate
pro
pert
y of
the
act
ive
citiz
ens
com
- pe
ls th
em to
rem
ain
in th
is n
atur
al f
orm
of
asso
ciat
ion
over
aga
inst
thei
r sla
ves.
Hen
ce t
he w
hole
soc
ial s
truc
ture
bas
ed o
n co
mm
unal
ow
ners
hip
and
with
it th
e po
wer
of
the
peop
le d
eclin
e as
imm
ovab
le p
riva
te p
rope
rty
deve
lops
. Th
e di
visi
on o
f la
bor i
s de
velo
ped
to a
larg
er e
xten
t. W
e al
read
y fin
d an
tago
nism
bet
wee
n to
wn
and
coun
try
and
late
r an
tago
nism
be-
tw
een
stat
es r
epre
sent
ing
urba
n in
tere
sts
and
thos
e re
pres
enti
ng r
ural
in
tere
sts.
With
in t
he c
ities
the
mse
lves
we
find
the
ant
agon
ism
bet
wee
n in
dust
ry a
nd m
ariti
me
com
mer
ce.
Th
e cl
ass
rela
tion
betw
een
citiz
ens
and
slav
es is
then
ful
ly d
evel
oped
. W
ith t
he d
evel
opm
ent
of p
riva
te p
rope
rty
we
enco
unte
r fo
r th
e fi
rst
time
thos
e co
nditi
ons
whi
ch w
e sh
all
find
aga
in w
ith m
oder
n pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty, o
nly
on a
larg
er s
cale
. On
the
one
hand
, the
re is
the
conc
entr
a-
tion
of p
rivat
e pr
oper
ty w
hich
beg
an v
ery
early
in R
ome
(as p
rove
d by
the
L
icin
ian
agra
rian
law
) an
d pr
ocee
ded
very
rap
idly
fro
m t
he t
ime
of t
he*
civi
l war
s an
d pa
rtic
ular
ly u
nder
the
em
pero
rs.
On
the
othe
r ha
nd,
ther
e is
linke
d to
this
the
tran
sfor
mat
ion
of t
he p
lebe
ian
smal
l pea
sant
ry in
to a
pr
olet
aria
t tha
t ne
ver
achi
eved
an
inde
pend
ent
deve
lopm
ent b
ecau
se o
f its
inte
rmed
iate
pos
ition
bet
wee
n pr
oper
tied
citi
zens
and
sla
ves.
The
thi
rd f
orm
is
feud
al o
r es
tate
ow
ners
hip.
Ant
iqui
ty s
tart
ed o
ut
from
the
tow
n an
d th
e sm
all t
erri
tory
aro
und
it; th
e M
iddl
e A
ges
star
ted
out
from
the
cou
ntry
. T
his
diff
eren
t st
arti
ng-p
oint
was
cau
sed
by t
he
spar
se p
opul
atio
n at
tha
t tim
e, s
catt
ered
ove
r a
larg
e ar
ea a
nd r
ecei
ving
no
lar
ge p
opul
atio
n in
crea
se f
rom
the
con
quer
ors.
In
cont
rast
to G
reec
e an
d R
ome,
the
feu
dal
deve
lopm
ent b
egan
in
a m
uch
larg
er a
rea,
pre
- pa
red
by t
he R
oman
con
ques
ts a
nd t
he s
prea
ding
of
agri
cult
ure
initi
ally
co
nnec
ted
with
the
se c
onqu
ests
. T
he
last
cen
turi
es o
f th
e de
clin
ing
Rom
an
Em
pire
an
d its
con
ques
t by
th
e ba
rbar
ians
de
stro
yed
man
y
110
Wri
tings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
. Agr
icul
ture
had
dec
lined
, tr
ade
had
com
e to
a s
tand
- st
ill o
r ha
d be
en in
terr
upte
d by
for
ce, a
nd th
e ru
ral a
nd u
rban
pop
ulat
ion
had
decr
ease
d. T
hese
con
ditio
ns a
nd t
he m
ode
of o
rgan
izat
ion
of t
he
conq
uest
det
erm
ined
by
them
dev
elop
ed f
euda
l pro
pert
y un
der
the
infl
u-
ence
of
the
Ger
man
ic m
ilita
ry c
onst
itutio
n. L
ike
trib
al a
nd c
omm
unal
ow
ners
hip,
it i
s ba
sed
agai
n on
a c
omm
unity
. W
hile
the
sla
ves
stoo
d in
op
posi
tion
to th
e an
cien
t com
mun
ity, h
ere
the
serf
s as
the
dire
ct p
rodu
c-
ing
clas
s st
and
in o
ppos
ition
. A
s so
on a
s fe
udal
ism
is
fully
dev
elop
ed,
ther
e al
so e
mer
ges
anta
goni
sm to
the
tow
ns. T
he
hier
arch
ical
sys
tem
of
land
ow
ners
hip
and
the
arm
ed b
odie
s of
re
tain
ers
gave
the
nob
ility
po
wer
ove
r th
e se
rfs.
Lik
e th
e an
cien
t co
mm
unal
ow
ners
hip
this
feu
dal
orga
niza
tion
was
an
asso
ciat
ion
dire
cted
aga
inst
a s
ubje
cted
pro
duci
ng
clas
s. B
ut th
e fo
rm o
f as
soci
atio
n an
d th
e re
latio
n to
the
dir
ect p
rodu
cers
w
ere
diff
eren
t bec
ause
of
the
diff
eren
t con
diti
ons
of p
rodu
ctio
n.
Thi
s fe
udal
org
aniz
atio
n of
lan
d ow
ners
hip
had
its
coun
terp
art i
n th
e to
wns
in
the
form
of
corp
orat
e pr
oper
ty,
the
feud
al o
rgan
izat
ion
of t
he
trade
s. P
rope
rty
cons
iste
d m
ainl
y in
the
lab
or o
f ea
ch i
ndiv
idua
l. T
he
nece
ssity
for
ass
ocia
tion
agai
nst
the
orga
nize
d ro
bber
nob
ility
, the
nee
d w
fo
r co
mm
unal
mar
kets
in
an a
ge w
hen
the
indu
stri
alis
t w
as a
t th
e sa
me
time
a m
erch
ant,
the
grow
ing
com
petit
ion
of e
scap
ed s
erfs
pou
ring
int
o th
e ri
sing
citi
es, a
nd t
he f
euda
l st
ruct
ure
of t
he w
hole
cou
ntry
gav
e ri
se
to g
uild
s. T
he
grad
ually
acc
umul
ated
cap
ital o
f in
divi
dual
cra
ftsm
en a
nd
thei
r st
able
num
ber
in c
ompa
riso
n to
the
gro
win
g po
pula
tion
prod
uced
th
e re
latio
nshi
p of
jou
rney
man
and
app
rent
ice.
In
the
tow
ns, t
his
led
to a
hi
erar
chy
sim
ilar t
o th
at in
the
coun
try.
T
he m
ain
form
of
prop
erty
dur
ing
the
feud
al t
imes
con
sist
ed o
n th
e on
e ha
nd o
f la
nded
pro
pert
y w
ith s
erf
labo
r an
d on
the
oth
er h
and,
in
divi
dual
labo
r w
ith s
mal
l ca
pita
l co
ntro
llin
g th
e la
bor
of j
ourn
eym
en.
The
org
aniz
atio
n of
bot
h w
as d
eter
min
ed b
y th
e lim
ited
cond
ition
s of
pr
oduc
tion:
sm
all-
scal
e, p
rim
itive
cul
tivat
ion
of l
and
and
indu
stry
bas
ed
on c
raft
s. T
here
was
litt
le d
ivis
ion
of l
abor
whe
n fe
udal
ism
was
at
its
peak
. Eve
ry d
istr
ict
carr
ied
in it
self
the
ant
agon
ism
of
tow
n an
d co
untr
y.
Tho
ugh
divi
sion
int
o es
tate
s w
as s
tron
gly
mar
ked,
the
re w
as n
o di
visi
on
of i
mpo
rtan
ce a
part
fro
m t
he d
iffe
rent
iatio
n of
pri
nces
, no
bilit
y, c
lerg
y,
and
peas
ants
in
the
coun
try,
and
mas
ters
, jo
urne
ymen
, ap
pren
tices
, an
d so
on t
he m
ob o
f da
y la
bore
rs i
n th
e ci
ties.
Th
e st
rip-
syst
em h
inde
red
such
a d
ivis
ion
in a
gric
ultu
re;
cotta
ge i
ndus
try
of t
he p
easa
nts
them
- se
lves
em
erge
d; a
nd i
n in
dust
ry t
here
was
no
divi
sion
of
labo
r at
all
with
in p
artic
ular
tra
des,
and
ver
y lit
tle a
mon
g th
em.
Th
e se
para
tion
of
indu
stry
and
com
mer
ce o
ccur
red
in o
lder
tow
ns,
and
in n
ewer
tow
ns i
t de
velo
ped
late
r whe
n th
ey e
nter
ed in
to m
utua
l rel
atio
ns.
The G
erm
an Id
eolo
gy
111
Th
e m
erge
r of
lar
ger
terr
itor
ies
into
feu
dal k
ingd
oms
was
a n
eces
sity
fo
r th
e la
nded
nob
ility
as
wel
l as
for
the
citi
es.
Th
e or
gani
zatio
n of
the
ru
ling
clas
s, th
e no
bilit
y, h
ad a
mon
arch
at i
ts h
ead
in a
ll in
stan
ces.
T
he
fact
is,
the
n, t
hat
defi
nite
ind
ivid
uals
who
are
pro
duct
ivel
y ac
tive
in a
spe
cifi
c w
ay
ente
r in
to t
hese
def
inite
soc
ial
and
polit
ical
re
latio
ns.
In e
ach
part
icul
ar i
nsta
nce,
em
piri
cal
obse
rvat
ion
mus
t sh
ow
empi
rical
ly, w
ithou
t an
y m
ystif
icat
ion
or s
pecu
latio
n, t
he c
onne
ctio
n of
th
e so
cial
and
pol
itica
l st
ruct
ure
with
pro
duct
ion.
Th
e so
cial
str
uctu
re
and
the
stat
e co
ntin
ually
evo
lve
out
of t
he l
ife-
proc
ess
of d
efin
ite in
di-
vidu
als,
but
ind
ivid
uals
not
as
they
may
app
ear
in t
heir
ow
n or
oth
er
peop
le's
imag
inat
ion
but
rath
er a
s th
ey r
eally
are
, th
at i
s, as
the
y w
ork,
pr
oduc
e m
ater
ially
, an
d ac
t un
der
defi
nite
mat
eria
l lim
itatio
ns,
pres
up-
posi
tions
, and
con
ditio
ns in
depe
nden
t of
thei
r w
ill.
((T
he id
eas
whi
ch t
hese
ind
ivid
uals
for
m a
re i
deas
eit
her
abou
t th
eir
rela
tion
to n
atur
e, t
heir
mut
ual
rela
tions
, or
the
ir o
wn
natu
re.
It i
s ev
i- de
nt th
at in
all
thes
e ca
ses
thes
e id
eas
are
the
cons
ciou
s ex
pres
sion
-rea
l or
illu
sory
--of
the
ir a
ctua
l re
latio
nshi
ps a
nd a
ctiv
ities
, of
thei
r pr
oduc
- tio
n an
d co
mm
erce
, and
of
thei
r so
cial
and
pol
itica
l beh
avio
r. T
he
op-
posi
te a
ssum
ptio
n is
pos
sibl
e on
ly if
, in
addi
tion
to t
he s
piri
t of
the
actu
al
and
mat
eria
lly e
volv
ed i
ndiv
idua
ls, a
sep
arat
e sp
irit
is p
resu
ppos
ed. I
f th
e co
nsci
ous
expr
essi
on o
f th
e ac
tual
rel
atio
ns o
f th
ese
indi
vidu
als
is i
l-
luso
ry, i
f in
thei
r im
agin
atio
n th
ey t
urn
real
ity u
psid
e do
wn,
thi
s in
tur
n is
a r
esul
t of
the
ir l
imite
d m
ode
of a
ctiv
ity a
nd t
heir
lim
ited
soci
al
rela
tions
ari
sing
from
it.))
T
he p
rodu
ctio
n of
ide
as,
of c
once
ptio
ns,
of c
onsc
ious
ness
is
dire
ctly
in
terw
oven
with
the
mat
eria
l ac
tivity
and
the
mat
eria
l re
latio
nshi
ps o
f m
en;
it is
the
lan
guag
e of
act
ual
life.
Con
ceiv
ing,
thi
nkin
g, a
nd t
he
inte
llect
ual r
elat
ions
hips
of
men
app
ear
here
as
the
dire
ct r
esul
t of
the
ir
mat
eria
l beh
avio
r. T
he
sam
e ap
plie
s to
int
elle
ctua
l pr
oduc
tion
as
man
- ife
sted
in
a pe
ople
's la
ngua
ge o
f po
litic
s, l
aw,
mor
ality
, re
ligio
n, m
eta-
ph
ysic
s, et
c. M
en a
re t
he p
rodu
cers
of
thei
r co
ncep
tions
, ide
as, e
tc.,
but
thes
e ar
e re
al, a
ctiv
e m
en,
as th
ey a
re c
ondi
tione
d by
a d
efin
ite' d
evel
op-
men
t of
thei
r pr
oduc
tive
forc
es a
nd o
f th
e re
latio
nshi
ps c
orre
spon
ding
to
thes
e up
to
thei
r hi
ghes
t fo
rms.
Con
scio
usne
ss c
an n
ever
be
anyt
hing
el
se e
xcep
t con
scio
us e
xist
ence
, and
the
exi
sten
ce o
f m
en is
the
ir a
ctua
l lif
e-pr
oces
s. I
f m
en a
nd t
heir
cir
cum
stan
ces
appe
ar u
psid
e do
wn
in a
ll id
eolo
gy a
s in
a c
amer
a ob
scur
a, t
his
phen
omen
on i
s ca
used
by
thei
r hi
stor
ical
lif
e-pr
oces
s, j
ust
as t
he i
nver
sion
of
obje
cts
on t
he r
etin
a is
ca
used
by
thei
r im
med
iate
phy
sica
l life
. In
dir
ect c
ontr
ast t
o G
erm
an p
hilo
soph
y, w
hich
des
cend
s fr
om h
eave
n to
ear
th, h
ere
one
asce
nds
from
ear
th to
hea
ven.
In
othe
r wor
ds, t
o ar
rive
112
Wri
tings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
at m
an i
n th
e fl
esh,
one
doe
s no
t se
t out
fro
m w
hat
men
say
, im
agin
e, o
r co
ncei
ve, n
or f
rom
man
as
he i
s de
scri
bed,
tho
ught
abo
ut,
imag
ined
, or
co
ncei
ved.
Rat
her
one
sets
out
fro
m r
eal,
activ
e m
en a
nd t
heir
act
ual
life-
proc
ess
and
dem
onst
rate
s th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
id
eolo
gica
l re
flex
es
and
echo
es o
f th
at p
roce
ss.
Th
e ph
anto
ms
form
ed i
n th
e hu
man
bra
in,
too,
are
nec
essa
ry s
ublim
atio
ns o
f m
an's
mat
eria
l lif
e-pr
oces
s w
hich
is
empi
rica
lly v
erifi
able
and
con
nect
ed w
ith m
ater
ial
prem
ises
. M
oral
ity,
relig
ion,
met
aphy
sics
, and
all
the
rest
of
ideo
logy
and
the
ir c
orre
spon
d-
ing
form
s of
con
scio
usne
ss n
o lo
nger
see
m to
be
inde
pend
ent.
The
y ha
ve
no h
isto
ry o
r de
velo
pmen
t. R
athe
r, m
en w
ho d
evel
op th
eir
mat
eria
l pr
o-
duct
ion
and
thei
r m
ater
ial
rela
tions
hips
alt
er t
heir
thi
nkin
g an
d th
e pr
oduc
ts o
f th
eir
thin
king
alo
ng w
ith th
eir
real
exi
sten
ce. C
onsc
ious
ness
do
es n
ot d
eter
min
e lif
e, b
ut l
ife
dete
rmin
es c
onsc
ious
ness
. In
the
fir
st
view
the
sta
rtin
g po
int
is c
onsc
ious
ness
tak
en a
s a
livin
g in
divi
dual
; in
the
seco
nd it
is th
e re
al l
ivin
g in
divi
dual
s th
emse
lves
as
they
exi
st in
rea
l lif
e, a
nd c
onsc
ious
ness
is c
onsi
dere
d on
ly a
s th
eir
cons
ciou
snes
s.
Thi
s vi
ew i
s no
t de
void
of
prem
ises
. It
pro
ceed
s fr
om r
eal
prem
ises
an
d do
es n
ot a
band
on th
em f
or a
mom
ent.
The
se p
rem
ises
are
men
, not
in
any
fan
tast
ic is
olat
ion
and
fixa
tion,
but
in
thei
r re
al,
empi
rica
lly p
er-
cept
ible
pro
cess
of
deve
lopm
ent
unde
r ce
rtai
n co
nditi
ons.
Whe
n th
is
activ
e lif
e-pr
oces
s is
pre
sent
ed,
hist
ory
ceas
es to
be
a co
llect
ion
of d
ead
fact
s as
it i
s w
ith t
he e
mpi
rici
sts
who
are
them
selv
es s
till
abst
ract
, or
an
imag
ined
act
ivity
of
imag
ined
sub
ject
s, a
s w
ith t
he id
ealis
ts.
Whe
re s
pecu
latio
n en
ds,
nam
ely
in a
ctua
l lif
e, t
here
rea
l, po
sitiv
e sc
ienc
e be
gins
as
the
repr
esen
tatio
n of
the
pra
ctic
al a
ctiv
ity a
nd p
ract
ical
pr
oces
s of
the
dev
elop
men
t of
men
. Ph
rase
s ab
out
cons
ciou
snes
s ce
ase
and
real
kno
wle
dge
take
s th
eir
plac
e. W
ith
the
desc
ript
ion
of r
ealit
y,
inde
pend
ent
philo
soph
y lo
ses
its m
ediu
m o
f ex
iste
nce.
At
best
, a
sum
- m
ary
of t
he m
ost
gene
ral
resu
lts,
abst
ract
ions
der
ived
fro
m o
bser
vatio
n of
the
his
tori
cal
deve
lopm
ent
of m
en,
can
take
its
pla
ce.
Apa
rt f
rom
ac
tual
his
tory
, the
se a
bstr
actio
ns h
ave
in th
emse
lves
no
valu
e w
hats
oeve
r. T
hey
can
only
ser
ve t
o fa
cilit
ate
the
arra
ngem
ent
of h
isto
rica
l m
ater
ial
and
to in
dica
te th
e se
quen
ce o
f its
par
ticu
lar
stra
ta. B
y no
mea
ns d
o th
ey
give
us
a re
cipe
or
sche
ma,
as
philo
soph
y do
es,
for
trim
min
g th
e ep
ochs
of
his
tory
. On
the
cont
rary
, the
dif
ficu
lties
beg
in o
nly
whe
n w
e st
art t
he
obse
rvat
ion
and
arra
ngem
ent
of
the
mat
eria
l, th
e re
al
desc
ript
ion,
w
heth
er o
f a
past
epo
ch o
r of
the
pre
sent
. T
he
rem
oval
of
thes
e di
ffi-
cu
lties
is g
over
ned
by p
rem
ises
we
cann
ot s
tate
her
e. O
nly
the
stud
y of
th
e re
al li
fe-p
roce
ss a
nd th
e ac
tivity
of
the
indi
vidu
als
of a
ny g
iven
epo
ch
will
yie
ld t
hem
. We
shal
l se
lect
her
e so
me
of t
hese
abs
trac
tions
whi
ch
we
use
in o
ppos
ing
ideo
logy
, an
d w
e sh
all
illus
trat
e th
em b
y hi
stor
ical
ex
ampl
es.
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
11
3
((F
euer
bach
))~"
l [ . .
. (a
t le
ast
two
man
uscr
ipt
page
s m
issi
ng)]
in
real
ity a
nd f
or t
he p
ract
ical
m
ater
ialis
t, th
at i
s, t
he c
omm
unis
t, it
is a
qu
estio
n of
rev
olut
ioni
zing
the
wor
ld a
s it
is,
of p
ract
ical
ly ta
cklin
g an
d ch
angi
ng e
xist
ing
thin
gs.
Tho
ugh
we
som
etim
es f
ind
such
vie
ws
with
Fe
uerb
ach,
they
nev
er g
o be
yond
iso
late
d su
rmis
es a
nd h
ave
muc
h to
o lit
tle in
flue
nce
on h
is g
ener
al o
utlo
ok to
be
cons
ider
ed h
ere
as a
nyth
ing
but
embr
yos
capa
ble
of d
evel
opm
ent.
Feue
rbac
h's
"con
cept
ion"
of
the
se
nsuo
us w
orld
is
conf
ined
to m
ere
perc
eptio
n w
nsch
auun
g] o
f it
on th
e on
e ha
nd a
nd to
mer
e se
nsat
ion
[Em
pjnd
ung]
on th
e ot
her.
He
spea
ks o
f "M
an"
inst
ead
of "
real
his
tori
cal
men
."
"Man
" is
act
ually
"th
e G
er-
man
." In
the
fir
st c
ase,
in
the
perc
eptio
n of
th
e se
nsuo
us w
orld
, he
ne
cess
arily
enc
ount
ers
thin
gs w
hich
con
trad
ict
his
cons
ciou
snes
s an
d fe
elin
g an
d di
stur
b th
e ha
rmon
y he
pre
supp
oses
of
all
part
s of
the
se
nsuo
us w
orld
and
esp
ecia
lly o
f m
an w
ith n
atur
e. (
Feue
rbac
h's
mis
take
is
not
that
he
subo
rdin
ates
the
flatly
obv
ious
, the
sen
suou
s ap
pear
ance
, to
the
sens
uous
rea
lity
esta
blis
hed
by c
lose
r ex
amin
atio
n of
the
sen
suou
s fa
cts,
but
tha
t he
can
not,
afte
r al
l, co
pe w
ith s
ensu
ousn
ess
exce
pt b
y lo
okin
g at
it
with
the
"ey
es,"
that
is,
thr
ough
the
"ey
egla
sses
" of
the
ph
iloso
pher
.)["l
To
rem
ove
this
dis
turb
ance
, he
mus
t ta
ke r
efug
e in
a d
ual
perc
eptio
n: a
pro
fane
one
whi
ch a
ppre
hend
s on
ly t
he "
flatly
ob
viou
s"
and
a hi
gher
, ph
iloso
phic
al o
ne w
hich
get
s at
the
"tr
ue
esse
nce"
of
thin
gs. H
e do
es n
ot s
ee th
at t
he w
orld
sur
roun
ding
him
is
not s
omet
hing
di
rect
ly g
iven
and
the
sam
e fr
om a
ll et
erni
ty b
ut t
he p
rodu
ct o
f in
dust
ry
and
of t
he s
tate
of
soci
ety
in t
he s
ense
that
it is
a h
isto
rica
l pro
duct
, th
e re
sult
of t
he a
ctiv
ity o
f a
who
le s
ucce
ssio
n of
gen
erat
ions
, ea
ch s
tand
ing
on t
he s
houl
ders
of
the
prec
edin
g on
e, d
evel
opin
g fu
rthe
r its
ind
ustr
y an
d co
mm
erce
, an
d m
odif
ying
its
soc
ial
orde
r ac
cord
ing
to c
hang
ed
need
s. E
ven
the
obje
cts
of t
he s
impl
est "
sens
uous
cer
tain
ty"
are
give
n to
hi
m o
nly
thro
ugh
soci
al d
evel
opm
ent,
indu
stry
, and
com
mer
cial
rel
atio
n- -
ship
s. T
he
cher
ry t
ree,
lik
e al
mos
t al
l fr
uit
tree
s, w
as t
rans
plan
ted
into
ou
r zo
ne b
y co
mm
erce
onl
y a
few
cen
turi
es a
go, a
s w
e kn
ow,
and
only
by
this
act
ion
of a
par
ticul
ar s
ocie
ty i
n a
part
icul
ar t
ime
has
it be
com
e "s
ensu
ous
cert
aint
y" f
or F
euer
bach
. In
cide
ntal
ly, w
hen
we
conc
eive
thin
gs a
s th
ey r
eally
are
and
hap
pene
d,
any
prof
ound
phi
loso
phic
al p
robl
em i
s re
solv
ed q
uite
sim
ply
into
an
['Dou
ble
poin
ted
brac
kets
for
adja
cent
add
enda
in
Mar
x's h
andw
ritin
g in
the
rig
ht c
olum
n of
the
man
uscr
ipt p
age.
Eac
h m
anus
crip
t pag
e is
halv
ed le
ngth
wise
in
to tw
o co
lum
ns, t
he le
ft fil
led
with
mos
t of
the
text
in E
ngel
s's s
crip
t-he
wro
te
mor
e sm
ooth
ly an
d qu
ickl
y th
an M
arx-
from
jo
int d
icta
tion.
] j'S
ingl
e po
inte
d br
acke
ts fo
r ad
jace
nt a
dden
da i
n En
gels'
s w
ritin
g in
the
rig
ht
colu
mn
of t
he m
anus
crip
t pag
e.]
114
Wri
tings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lisna
Th
e Ger
man
Ideo
logy
11
5
fact
, as
will
be
seen
eve
n m
ore
clea
rly
belo
w. F
or e
xam
ple,
the
mad
e th
em w
hat
they
are
. H
e ne
ver
arri
ves
at t
he r
eally
exi
stin
g ac
tive
impo
rtan
t que
stio
n of
the
rel
atio
n of
man
to n
atur
e (B
runo
[B
auer
l eve
n m
en,
but
stop
s at
the
abs
trac
tion
"Man
" an
d ge
ts o
nly
to t
he p
oint
of
goes
so
far
as t
o sp
eak
of t
he "
antit
hese
s in
nat
ure
and
hist
ory"
as
if re
cogn
izin
g th
e "t
rue,
ind
ivid
ual,
corp
orea
l m
an"
emot
iona
lly, t
hat
is, h
e th
ese
wer
e tw
o se
para
te "
thin
gs"
and
man
did
not
alw
ays
have
bef
ore
know
s no
oth
er "
hum
an r
elat
ions
hips
" "o
f m
an t
o m
an"
than
love
and
hi
m a
his
tori
cal n
atur
e an
d a
natu
ral
hist
ory)
fro
m w
hich
all
the
"un-
fr
iend
ship
, an
d th
ese
idea
lized
. H
e gi
ves
no c
ritic
ism
of
the
pres
ent
fath
omab
ly lo
fty
wor
ks"
on "
Subs
tanc
e" a
nd "
Self
-con
scio
usne
ss"
wer
e co
nditi
ons
of l
ife.
He
neve
r m
anag
es to
vie
w t
he s
ensu
ous
wor
ld a
s th
e bo
rn,
colla
pses
whe
n w
e un
ders
tand
tha
t th
e ce
lebr
ated
"un
ity o
f m
an
tota
l liv
ing
sens
uous
act
ivity
of
the
indi
vidu
als
com
posi
ng i
t. W
hen
he
with
nat
ure"
has
alw
ays
exis
ted
in i
ndus
try
in v
aryi
ng f
orm
s in
eve
ry
sees
, for
exa
mpl
e, a
cro
wd
of s
crof
ulou
s, o
ver-
wor
ked,
and
con
sum
ptiv
e ep
och
acco
rdin
g to
the
les
ser
or g
reat
er d
evel
opm
ent
of i
ndus
try,
jus
t w
retc
hes
inst
ead
of h
ealth
y m
en,
he i
s co
mpe
lled
to t
ake
refu
ge i
n th
e lik
e th
e "s
trug
gle"
of
man
with
nat
ure,
rig
ht u
p to
the
dev
elop
men
t of
"hig
her
perc
eptio
n" a
nd "
idea
l co
mpe
nsat
ion
in t
he s
peci
es."
Thu
s he
hi
s pr
oduc
tive
forc
es o
n a
corr
espo
ndin
g ba
sis.
Ind
ustr
y an
d co
mm
erce
, re
laps
es in
to id
ealis
m a
t the
ver
y po
int
whe
re t
he c
omm
unis
tic m
ater
ial-
pr
oduc
tion
and
the
exch
ange
of
the
nece
ssiti
es o
f lif
e, d
eter
min
e di
s-
ist s
ees
the
nece
ssity
and
at t
he s
ame
time
the
cond
ition
of
tran
sfor
min
g tr
ibut
ion
and
the
stru
ctur
e of
the
var
ious
soc
ial
clas
ses,
and
are
in
turn
in
dust
ry a
s wel
l as
the
soci
al s
truc
ture
. de
term
ined
as
to t
he m
ode
in w
hich
the
y ar
e ca
rrie
d on
. A
nd s
o it
As
far
as F
euer
bach
is
a m
ater
ialis
t he
does
not
dea
l with
his
tory
, and
ha
ppen
s th
at i
n M
anch
este
r, f
or i
nsta
nce,
Feu
erba
ch s
ees
only
fac
tori
es
as f
ar a
s he
dea
ls w
ith h
isto
ry h
e is
not
a m
ater
ialis
t. M
ater
ialis
m a
nd
and
mac
hine
s, w
here
a h
undr
ed y
ears
ago
onl
y sp
inni
ng w
heel
s an
d hi
stor
y co
mpl
etel
y di
verg
e w
ith h
im,
a fa
ct w
hich
sho
uld
alre
ady
be
wea
ving
loom
s co
uld
be s
een,
or
in t
he C
ampa
gna
di R
oma
he d
isco
vers
ob
viou
s fro
m w
hat h
as b
een
said
. on
ly p
astu
re a
nd s
wam
ps, w
here
in
the
tim
e of
Aug
ustu
s he
wou
ld h
ave
foun
d no
thin
g bu
t the
vin
eyar
ds an
d vi
llas
of R
oman
cap
italis
ts.
((H
isto
ry))
In d
ealin
g w
ith G
erm
ans
devo
id o
f pr
emis
es,
we
mus
t be
gin
4
Feue
rbac
h sp
eaks
in p
artic
ular
of
the
view
poin
t of
natu
ral
scie
nce.
He
by
stat
ing
the
firs
t pr
emis
e of
all
hum
an e
xist
ence
, an
d he
nce
of a
ll m
entio
ns s
ecre
ts d
iscl
osed
onl
y to
the
eye
of
the
phys
icis
t an
d ch
emis
t. hi
stor
y, th
e pr
emis
e, n
amel
y, t
hat m
en m
ust
be a
ble
to li
ve i
n or
der
to b
e B
ut w
here
wou
ld n
atur
al s
cien
ce b
e w
ithou
t in
dust
ry a
nd c
omm
erce
? ab
le "
to m
ake
histo
ry."
((Heg
el.
Geo
logi
cal,
hydr
ogra
phic
al, e
tc.,
cond
i-
Eve
n th
is "
pure
v na
tura
l sc
ienc
e re
ceiv
es i
ts a
im, l
ike
its m
ater
ial,
only
tio
ns. H
uman
bod
ies.
Nee
ds, l
abor
.)) B
ut li
fe in
volv
es a
bove
all
eatin
g an
d th
roug
h co
mm
erce
and
ind
ustr
y, t
hrou
gh t
he s
ensu
ous
activ
ity o
f m
en.
drin
king
, she
lter,
clo
thin
g, a
nd m
any
othe
r th
ings
. Th
e fi
rst h
isto
rica
l act
So
muc
h is
thi
s ac
tivity
, thi
s co
ntin
uous
sen
suou
s w
orki
ng a
nd c
reat
ing,
is
thus
the
prod
uctio
n of
the
mea
ns to
sat
isfy
thes
e ne
eds,
the
prod
uctio
n th
is p
rodu
ctio
n, t
he b
asis
of
the
who
le s
ensu
ous
wor
ld a
s it
now
exi
sts,
of
mat
eria
l lif
e its
elf.
Thi
s is
a h
isto
rica
l ac
t, a
fund
amen
tal c
ondi
tion
of
that
, wer
e it
inte
rrup
ted
for
only
a y
ear,
Feue
rbac
h w
ould
fin
d no
t on
ly a
al
l hi
stor
y w
hich
mus
t be
ful
fille
d in
ord
er t
o su
stai
n hu
man
lif
e ev
ery
trem
endo
us c
hang
e in
the
nat
ural
wor
ld b
ut a
lso
wou
ld s
oon
find
mis
s-
day
and
ever
y ho
ur, t
oday
as
wel
l as
thou
sand
s of
yea
rs a
go.
Eve
n w
hen
ing
the
entir
e w
orld
of
men
and
his
ow
n pe
rcep
tual
fac
ulty
, eve
n hi
s ow
n se
nsuo
usne
ss is
red
uced
to
a m
inim
um,
to a
stic
k as
with
Sai
nt B
rund
ex
iste
nce.
Of
cour
se, t
he p
rior
ity o
f ex
tern
al n
atur
e re
mai
ns, a
nd a
ll th
is
[Bau
er],
it Pr
esup
pose
s th
e ac
tivity
of
prod
ucin
g th
e st
ick.
Th
e fi
rst
has
no a
pplic
atio
n to
the
ori
gina
l m
en ~
rod
uce
d by
gen
erat
io a
equi
voca
pr
inci
ple
ther
efor
e in
any
theo
ry o
f hi
stor
y is
to o
bser
ve th
is f
unda
men
- [s
pont
aneo
us g
ener
atio
n]. B
ut th
is d
iffe
rent
iati
on h
as m
eani
ng o
nly
inso
- ta
l fac
t in
its e
ntir
e si
gnif
ican
ce a
nd a
ll it
s im
plic
atio
ns a
nd to
att
ribu
te to
fa
r as
man
is
cons
ider
ed d
isti
nct
from
nat
ure.
And
aft
er a
ll, t
he k
ind
of
this
fac
t its
due
im
port
ance
. T
he
Ger
man
s ha
ve n
ever
don
e th
is,
as w
e na
ture
tha
t pre
cede
d hu
man
his
tory
is
by n
o m
eans
the
nat
ure
in w
hich
al
l kno
w,
so th
ey h
ave
neve
r ha
d an
ear
thly
bas
is f
or h
isto
ry a
nd c
onse
- Fe
uerb
ach
lives
, th
e na
ture
whi
ch n
o lo
nger
exi
sts
anyw
here
, ex
cept
qu
ently
hav
e ne
ver
had
a hi
stor
ian.
Tho
ugh
the
Fre
nch
and
the
Eng
lish
perh
aps
on a
few
Aus
tral
ian
cora
l is
land
s of
rec
ent
orig
in,
and
whi
ch
gras
ped
the
conn
ectio
n of
thi
s fa
ct w
ith s
o-ca
lled
hist
ory
only
in
an
does
not
exi
st fo
r Feu
erba
ch e
ither
. ex
trem
ely
one-
side
d w
ay,
part
icul
arly
so
long
as
they
wer
e in
volv
ed i
n Fe
uerb
ach
adm
itted
ly h
as a
gre
at a
dvan
tage
ove
r th
e "p
ure"
mat
eria
l-
polit
ical
ideo
logy
, the
y ne
vert
hele
ss m
ade
the
firs
t att
empt
s to
giv
e hi
sto-
is
ts b
ecau
se h
e re
aliz
es t
hat
man
too
is
"sen
suou
s ob
ject
"; b
ut h
e se
es
riogr
aphy
a m
ater
ialis
tic b
asis
by
wri
ting
hist
orie
s of
civ
il so
ciet
y, c
orn-
m
an o
nly
as "
sens
uous
obj
ect,"
no
t as
"se
nsuo
us a
ctiv
ity,"
bec
ause
he
mer
ce, a
nd in
dust
ry.
rem
ains
in
the
real
m o
f th
eory
and
doe
s no
t vi
ew m
en i
n th
eir
give
n T
he
seco
nd p
oint
is
that
onc
e a
need
is
satis
fied
, whi
ch r
equi
res
the
soci
al c
onne
ctio
n, n
ot u
nder
the
ir e
xist
ing
cond
ition
s of
lif
e w
hich
hav
e ac
tion
of
satis
fyin
g an
d th
e ac
quis
ition
of
the
inst
rum
ent
for
this
116
Writ
irjgs
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
purp
ose,
new
nee
ds a
rise
. T
he
prod
ucti
on o
f ne
w n
eeds
is
the
firs
t hi
stor
ical
ac
t. H
ere
we
see
imm
edia
tely
whe
re
the
grea
t hi
stor
ical
- -
. - . . -
wis
dom
of
the
Ger
man
s co
mes
fro
m.
Whe
n th
ey r
un o
ut o
f po
sitiv
e m
ater
ial
and
are
not
deal
ing
with
the
olog
ical
, pol
itica
l, or
lite
rary
non
- se
nse,
the
y do
not
thi
nk o
f hi
stor
y at
all
but
of "
preh
isto
ric
times
,"
with
out e
xpla
inin
g ho
w w
e ca
n ge
t fro
m t
he n
onse
nse
of "
preh
isto
ry"
to
hist
ory
prop
er. W
ith t
heir
his
tori
cal s
pecu
latio
n, o
n th
e ot
her
hand
, th
ey
seiz
e up
on "
preh
isto
ry"
beca
use
they
bel
ieve
tha
t th
ere
they
are
saf
e fr
om i
nter
fere
nce
by "
crud
e fa
cts"
and
can
giv
e fu
ll re
in t
o th
eir
spec
- ul
ativ
e im
puls
es t
o es
tabl
ish
and
tear
dow
n hy
poth
eses
by
the
thou
sand
. T
he
thir
d ci
rcum
stan
ce e
nter
ing
into
his
tori
cal
deve
lopm
ent f
rom
the
ve
ry b
egin
ning
is
the
fact
tha
t m
en w
ho d
aily
rem
ake
thei
r ow
n liv
es
begi
n to
mak
e ot
her
men
, be
gin
to p
ropa
gate
: th
e re
latio
n be
twee
n hu
s-
band
and
wife
, par
ents
and
chi
ldre
n, t
hefi
mil
y. T
he
fam
ily, i
nitia
lly th
e on
ly s
ocia
l rel
atio
nshi
p, b
ecom
es l
ater
a s
ubor
dina
te r
elat
ions
hip
(exc
ept
in G
erm
any)
whe
n in
crea
sed
need
s pr
oduc
e ne
w s
ocia
l rel
atio
ns a
nd a
n in
crea
sed
popu
latio
n cr
eate
s ne
w n
eeds
. It
mus
t th
en b
e tr
eate
d an
d de
velo
ped
in a
ccor
danc
e w
ith th
e ex
istin
g em
piri
cal
data
- an
d no
t acc
ord-
--
in
~
to t
he "
conc
ept
of t
he f
amily
" as
is
cust
omar
y in
Ger
man
y.
. --
'l'he
se
thre
e as
pect
s of
soc
ial
activ
ity a
re n
ot t
o be
tak
en a
s th
ree
diff
eren
t "
stag
es, b
ut ju
st f
or w
hat t
hey
are,
thr
ee a
spec
ts. T
o m
ake
it cl
ear
for
the
Ger
man
s w
e m
ight
cal
l th
em t
hree
"m
omen
ts"
whi
ch h
ave
exis
ted
si-
mul
tane
ousl
y ev
er s
ince
the
daw
n of
his
tory
and
the
fir
st m
en a
nd s
till
exis
t tod
ay.
Th
e pr
oduc
tion
of l
ife,
of
one's
ow
n lif
e in
lab
or a
nd o
f an
othe
r in
pr
ocre
atio
n, n
ow a
ppea
rs a
s a
doub
le r
elat
ions
hip:
on
the
one
hand
as
a na
tura
l re
latio
nshi
p, o
n th
e ot
her
as a
soc
ial o
ne.
Th
e la
tter
is
soci
al in
th
e se
nse
that
indi
vidu
als c
oope
rate
, no
mat
ter
unde
r w
hat c
ondi
tions
, in
wha
t m
anne
r, a
nd f
or w
hat
purp
ose.
Con
sequ
entl
y a
cert
ain
mod
e of
pr
oduc
tion
or in
dust
rial
sta
ge is
alw
ays
com
bine
d w
ith a
cer
tain
mod
e of
co
oper
atio
n or
soc
ial
stag
e, a
nd t
his
mod
e of
co
oper
atio
n is
its
elf
a "p
rodu
ctiv
e fo
rce.
" W
e ob
serv
e in
add
ition
tha
t the
mul
titud
e of
pro
duc-
tiv
e fo
rces
acc
essi
ble
to m
en d
eter
min
es t
he n
atur
e of
soc
iety
and
tha
t th
e "h
isto
ry o
f m
anki
nd"
mus
t al
way
s be
stu
died
and
tre
ated
in
rela
tion
to th
e hi
stor
y of
ind
ustr
y an
d ex
chan
ge. I
t is
also
cle
ar, h
owev
er, w
hy i
t is
impo
ssib
le in
Ger
man
y to
wri
te s
uch
a hi
stor
y. T
he
Ger
man
s la
ck n
ot
only
the
pow
er o
f co
mpr
ehen
sion
req
uire
d an
d th
e m
ater
ial
but
also
"s
ensu
ous
certa
inty
." O
n th
e ot
her
side
of
the
Rhi
ne p
eopl
e ca
nnot
hav
e an
y ex
peri
ence
of
thes
e m
atte
rs b
ecau
se h
isto
ry h
as c
ome
to a
sta
ndst
ill
ther
e. I
t is
obv
ious
at
the
outs
et t
hat
ther
e is
a m
ater
ialis
tic c
onne
ctio
n am
ong
men
det
erm
ined
by
thei
r ne
eds
and
thei
r m
odes
of
prod
uctio
n an
d as
old
as
men
the
mse
lves
. Thi
s co
nnec
tion
is f
orev
er a
ssum
ing
new
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
11
7
form
s an
d th
us p
rese
nts
a "h
isto
ry"
even
in
abse
nce
of a
ny p
oliti
cal o
r re
ligio
us n
onse
nse
whi
ch m
ight
hol
d m
en to
geth
er in
add
ition
. H
avin
g co
nsid
ered
fou
r m
omen
ts,
four
asp
ects
of
the
prim
ary
hist
or-
ical
rel
atio
nshi
ps, w
e no
w f
ind
that
man
als
o po
sses
ses
"con
scio
usne
ss."
((
Men
hav
e hi
stor
y be
caus
e th
ey m
ust p
rodu
ce t
heir
life
, and
[ .
. . ?]
in a
ce
rtain
way
: th
is i
s de
term
ined
by
thei
r ph
ysic
al o
rgan
izat
ion;
thei
r co
n-
scio
usne
ss is
det
erm
ined
in
the
sam
e w
ay.))
But
thi
s co
nsci
ousn
ess
is n
ot
inhe
rent
, not
"pu
re."
Fr
om t
he s
tart
the
"spi
rit"
bea
rs t
he c
urse
of
bein
g "b
urde
ned"
w
ith m
atte
r w
hich
mak
es i
ts a
ppea
ranc
e in
the
for
m o
f ag
itate
d la
yers
of
air,
soun
ds,
in s
hort
, in
the
for
m o
f la
ngua
ge.
Lan
- gu
age
is a
s ol
d as
con
scio
usne
ss.
It i
s pr
actic
al c
onsc
ious
ness
whi
ch
exis
ts a
lso
for
othe
r m
en a
nd h
ence
exi
sts
for
me
pers
onal
ly a
s w
ell.
Lan
guag
e, li
ke c
onsc
ious
ness
, onl
y ar
ises
fro
m t
he n
eed
and
nece
ssity
of
rela
tions
hips
with
oth
er m
en. (
(My
rela
tions
hip
to m
y su
rrou
ndin
gs is
my
cons
ciou
snes
s.))
Whe
re a
rel
atio
nshi
p ex
ists
, it e
xist
s fo
r m
e. T
he
anim
al
has
no "
rela
tions
" w
ith a
nyth
ing,
no
rela
tions
at a
ll. I
ts r
elat
ion
to o
ther
s do
es n
ot e
xist
as
a re
latio
n. C
onsc
ious
ness
is
thus
fro
m t
he v
ery
begi
n-
ning
a s
ocia
l pro
duct
and
will
rem
ain
so a
s lo
ng a
s m
en e
xist
. A
t fi
rst
cons
ciou
snes
s is
con
cern
ed o
nly
with
the
im
med
iate
sen
suou
s en
viro
n-
men
t an
d a
limite
d re
latio
nshi
p w
ith o
ther
per
sons
and
thi
ngs
outs
ide
the
indi
vidu
al w
ho is
bec
omin
g co
nsci
ous
of h
imse
lf. A
t the
sam
e tim
e it
is c
onsc
ious
ness
of
natu
re w
hich
fir
st a
ppea
rs to
man
as
an e
ntir
ely
alie
n,
omni
pote
nt, a
nd u
nass
aila
ble
forc
e. M
en's
rela
tions
with
thi
s co
nsci
ous-
ne
ss a
re p
urel
y an
imal
, and
the
y ar
e ov
eraw
ed b
y it
like
beas
ts.
Hen
ce it
is
a p
urel
y an
imal
con
scio
usne
ss o
f na
ture
(na
tura
l re
ligio
n)-f
or
the
very
rea
son
that
nat
ure
is n
ot y
et m
odif
ied
hist
oric
ally
. On
the
othe
r ha
nd
it is
con
scio
usne
ss o
f th
e ne
cess
ity to
com
e in
con
tact
with
oth
er in
divi
d-
uals
; it i
s th
e be
ginn
ing
of m
an's
cons
ciou
snes
s of
the
fac
t tha
t he
lives
in
a so
ciet
y. T
his b
egin
ning
is a
s an
imal
istic
as
soci
al li
fe it
self
at t
his
stag
e.
It is
the
mer
e co
nsci
ousn
ess
of b
eing
a m
embe
r of
a f
lock
, and
the
onl
y di
ffer
ence
bet
wee
n sh
eep
and
man
is
that
man
pos
sess
es c
onsc
ious
ness
in
stea
d of
ins
tinct
, or
in o
ther
wor
ds h
is in
stin
ct is
mor
e co
nsci
ous.
((W
e he
re s
ee im
med
iate
ly th
at th
is n
atur
al r
elig
ion
or p
artic
ular
rel
a-
tion
to n
atur
e is
det
erm
ined
by
the
form
of
soci
ety
and
vice
ver
sa. A
s it
is
the
case
eve
ryw
here
, the
ide
ntity
of
natu
re a
nd m
an a
ppea
rs i
n su
ch a
w
ay t
hat
the
rest
rict
ed b
ehav
ior
of m
en t
owar
d na
ture
det
erm
ines
the
ir
rest
rict
ed b
ehav
ior
to o
ne a
noth
er,
and
thei
r re
stri
cted
beh
avio
r to
one
an
othe
r de
term
ines
the
ir r
estr
icte
d be
havi
or t
o na
ture
.))
Thi
s sh
eepl
ike
or t
riba
l co
nsci
ousn
ess
rece
ives
fur
ther
de
velo
pmen
t an
d fo
rmat
ion
thro
ugh
incr
ease
d pr
oduc
tivity
, the
incr
ease
of
need
s, a
nd w
hat i
s fu
nda-
m
enta
l to
both
, the
inc
reas
e of
pop
ulat
ion.
Alo
ng w
ith th
ese,
div
isio
n of
la
bor
deve
lops
whi
ch o
rigi
nally
was
not
hing
but
the
div
isio
n of
lab
or i
n
118
Wri
tings
on
His
tori
cal M
ater
ialis
m
the
sexu
al a
ct,
then
tha
t ty
pe o
f di
visi
on o
f la
bor
whi
ch c
omes
abo
ut
spon
tane
ousl
y or
"na
tura
lly"
beca
use
of n
atur
al p
redi
spos
ition
(e.
g. p
hys-
ic
al s
tren
gth)
, nee
ds, a
ccid
ents
, et
c.,
etc.
Th
e di
visi
on o
f la
bor
is a
tru
e di
visi
on o
nly
from
the
mom
ent
a di
visi
on o
f m
ater
ial
and
men
tal
labo
r ap
pear
s. (
(The
firs
t for
m o
f id
eolo
gist
s, p
riest
s, i
s co
ncur
rent
.))
From
this
m
omen
t on
cons
ciou
snes
s can
rea
lly b
oast
of
bein
g so
met
hing
oth
er th
an
cons
ciou
snes
s of
ex
istin
g pr
actic
e,
of
real
ly
repr
esen
ting
so
met
hing
w
ithou
t re
pres
entin
g so
met
hing
rea
l. Fr
om t
his
mom
ent
on c
onsc
ious
- ne
ss c
an e
man
cipa
te it
self
fro
m t
he w
orld
and
pro
ceed
to
the
form
atio
n of
"pu
re"
theo
ry, t
heol
ogy,
phi
loso
phy,
eth
ics,
etc
. But
eve
n if
this
theo
ry,
theo
logy
, phi
loso
phy,
eth
ics,
etc
., co
mes
int
o co
nflic
t w
ith e
xist
ing
rela
- tio
ns, t
his
can
only
occ
ur b
ecau
se e
xist
ing
soci
al re
latio
ns h
ave
com
e in
to
conf
lict w
ith t
he e
xist
ing
forc
e of
pro
duct
ion.
Inc
iden
tally
thi
s ca
n al
so
occu
r in
nat
iona
l re
latio
nshi
ps t
hrou
gh a
con
flic
t no
t w
ithin
the
nat
ion
but b
etw
een
a pa
rtic
ular
nat
iona
l con
scio
usne
ss a
nd th
e pr
actic
e of
oth
er
natio
ns, t
hat
is, b
etw
een
the
natio
nal
and
the
gene
ral
cons
ciou
snes
s of
a
natio
n (a
s w
e ob
serv
e no
w i
n G
erm
any)
. ((
Rel
igio
n. T
he
Ger
man
s an
d id
eolo
gy a
s su
ch.))
Sin
ce th
is c
ontr
adic
tion
appe
ars
only
as
a co
ntra
dict
ion
with
in n
atio
nal
cons
ciou
snes
s, a
nd s
ince
the
stru
ggle
see
ms
to b
e lim
ited
w
to t
his
na((
tiona
1 cr
ap ju
st b
ecau
se t
his
natio
n is
cra
p in
and
for
itse
lf.))
M
oreo
ver
it do
es n
ot m
ake
any
diff
eren
ce w
hat c
onsc
ious
ness
sta
rts
to
do o
n its
ow
n. T
he
only
resu
lt w
e ob
tain
fro
m a
ll su
ch m
uck
is th
at th
ese
thre
e m
omen
ts-th
e fo
rce
of
prod
ucti
on,
the
stat
e of
so
ciet
y,
and
cons
ciou
snes
s-ca
n an
d m
ust
com
e in
to c
onfl
ict
with
one
ano
ther
be-
ca
use
the
divi
sion
of
labo
r im
plie
s th
e po
ssib
ility
, in
deed
the
nec
essi
ty,
that
int
elle
ctua
l an
d m
ater
ial
activ
ity (
(act
ivity
and
thi
nkin
g, t
hat
is,
thou
ghtle
ss a
ctiv
ity a
nd i
nact
ive
thou
ght
[lat
er d
elet
ed.])
)-en
joym
ent
and
labo
r, pr
oduc
tion
and
cons
umpt
ion-
are
give
n to
dif
fere
nt i
ndiv
id-
uals
, an
d th
e on
ly p
ossi
bilit
y of
the
ir n
ot c
omin
g in
to c
onfl
ict
lies
in
agai
n tr
ansc
endi
ng th
e di
visi
on o
f la
bor.
It is
sel
f-ev
iden
t tha
t wor
ds s
uch
as "
spec
ters
,"
"bon
ds,"
"h
ighe
r be
ing,
" "c
once
pt,"
"s
crup
le,"
ar
e on
ly
the
idea
listic
, spi
ritu
al e
xpre
ssio
n, t
he a
ppar
ent
conc
eptio
n of
the
iso
- la
ted
indi
vidu
al,
the
imag
e of
ver
y em
piri
cal
fett
ers
and
rest
rict
ions
w
ithin
whi
ch t
he m
ode
of p
rodu
ctio
n of
lif
e an
d th
e re
late
d fo
rm o
f in
tera
ctio
n m
ove.
((T
his
idea
listic
exp
ress
ion
of e
xist
ing
econ
omic
re-
st
rict
ions
is
pres
ent
not
only
in
pure
the
ory
but
also
in
prac
tical
con
- sc
ious
ness
; th
at i
s to
say
, hav
ing
eman
cipa
ted
itsel
f an
d ha
ving
ent
ered
in
to c
onfl
ict w
ith t
he e
xist
ing
mod
e of
pro
duct
ion,
con
scio
usne
ss s
hape
s no
t onl
y re
ligio
ns a
nd p
hilo
soph
ies
but a
lso
stat
es.))
W
ith t
he d
ivis
ion
[Eil
ung]
of
labo
r, in
whi
ch a
ll th
ese
conf
licts
are
im
plic
it an
d w
hich
is b
ased
on
the
natu
ral
divi
sion
of
labo
r in
the
fam
ily
and
the
part
ition
of
soci
ety
into
ind
ivid
ual
fam
ilies
opp
osin
g on
e an
-
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
11
9
othe
r, t
here
is
at t
he s
ame
time
dist
ribu
tion
[Ver
teilu
ng],
inde
ed u
nequ
al
dist
ribu
tion,
bot
h qu
antit
ativ
e an
d qu
alita
tive,
of
labo
r an
d its
pro
duct
s,
henc
e pr
oper
ty w
hich
has
its
fir
st f
orm
, its
nuc
leus
, in
the
fam
ily w
here
w
ife a
nd c
hild
ren
are
the
slav
es o
f th
e m
an.
Th
e la
tent
sla
very
in
the
fam
ily, t
houg
h st
ill v
ery
crud
e, i
s th
e fi
rst
prop
erty
. E
ven
at t
his
initi
al
stag
e, h
owev
er,
it co
rres
pond
s pe
rfec
tly t
o th
e de
fini
tion
of
mod
ern
econ
omis
ts w
ho c
all
it th
e po
wer
of
cont
rolli
ng t
he l
abor
of
othe
rs.
(Div
isio
n of
lab
or a
nd p
riva
te p
rope
rty
are
iden
tical
exp
ress
ions
. Wha
t is
said
in t
he f
orm
er in
reg
ard
to a
ctiv
ity is
exp
ress
ed in
the
latt
er in
rega
rd
to th
e pr
oduc
t of
the
act
ivity
.) Fu
rthe
rmor
e, t
he d
ivis
ion
of l
abor
im
plie
s th
e co
nflic
t be
twee
n th
e in
tere
st o
f th
e in
divi
dual
or
the
indi
vidu
al f
amily
and
the
com
mun
al
inte
rest
of
all i
ndiv
idua
ls h
avin
g co
ntac
t with
one
ano
ther
. Th
e co
mm
u-
nal
inte
rest
doe
s no
t ex
ist
only
in
the
imag
inat
ion,
as
som
ethi
ng "
gen-
er
al,"
but
fir
st o
f al
l in
rea
lity,
as
a m
utua
l in
terd
epen
denc
e of
tho
se
indi
vidu
als
amon
g w
hom
the
lab
or is
div
ided
. And
fin
ally
, the
div
isio
n of
la
bor o
ffer
s us
the
fir
st e
xam
ple
for
the
fact
that
man
's ow
n ac
t bec
omes
an
alie
n po
wer
opp
osed
to
him
and
ens
lavi
ng h
im i
nste
ad o
f be
ing
cont
rolle
d by
him
-as
long
as
man
rem
ains
in n
atur
al s
ocie
ty, a
s lo
ng a
s a
split
exi
sts
betw
een
the
part
icul
ar a
nd t
he c
omm
on i
nter
est,
and
as l
ong
as th
e ac
tivity
is n
ot v
olun
tari
ly b
ut n
atur
ally
div
ided
. For
as
soon
as
labo
r is
dis
trib
uted
, ea
ch p
erso
n ha
s a
part
icul
ar,
excl
usiv
e ar
ea o
f ac
tivity
w
hich
is
impo
sed
on h
im a
nd f
rom
whi
ch h
e ca
nnot
esc
ape.
He
is a
hu
nter
, a f
ishe
rman
, a h
erds
man
, or
a cr
itica
l cri
tic, a
nd h
e m
ust
rem
ain
so i
f he
doe
s no
t w
ant
to l
ose
his
mea
ns o
f liv
elih
ood.
In
com
mun
ist
soci
ety,
how
ever
, whe
re n
obod
y ha
s an
exc
lusi
ve a
rea
of a
ctiv
ity a
nd e
ach
can
trai
n hi
mse
lf i
n an
y br
anch
he
wis
hes,
soc
iety
reg
ulat
es t
he g
ener
al
prod
uctio
n, m
akin
g it
poss
ible
for
me
to d
o on
e th
ing
toda
y an
d an
othe
r to
mor
row
, to
hunt
in
the
mor
ning
, fi
sh i
n th
e af
tern
oon,
bre
ed c
attle
61
the
even
ing,
cri
ticiz
e af
ter
dinn
er, j
ust
as I
like,
with
out
ever
bec
omin
g a
hunt
er,
a fi
sher
man
, a
herd
sman
, or
a c
ritic
. T
his
fixa
tion
of
soci
al
activ
ity,
this
con
solid
atio
n of
our
ow
n pr
oduc
ts i
nto
an o
bjec
tive
pow
er
abov
e us
, gr
owin
g ou
t of
our
con
trol
, th
war
ting
our
expe
ctat
ions
, an
d nu
llify
ing
our
calc
ulat
ions
, is
one
of t
he c
hief
fac
tors
in h
isto
rica
l dev
el-
opm
ent s
o fa
r, [ . .
. (ni
ne li
nes
dele
ted
and
illeg
ible
)]
([be
side
pre
viou
s pa
ragr
aph]
Out
of
this
ver
y co
ntra
dict
ion
betw
een
the
inte
rest
of
the
indi
vidu
al a
nd t
hat
of t
he c
omm
unity
the
latt
er ta
kes
an i
ndep
ende
nt f
orm
as
the
Stat
e, s
epar
ated
fro
m t
he r
eal
inte
rest
s of
in
divi
dual
and
com
mun
ity, a
nd a
t the
sam
e tim
e as
an
illus
ory
com
mun
al
life,
but
alw
ays b
ased
on
the
real
bon
ds p
rese
nt i
n ev
ery
fam
ily a
nd e
very
tr
ibal
con
glom
erat
ion,
suc
h as
fle
sh a
nd b
lood
, la
ngua
ge,
divi
sion
of
labo
r on
a la
rger
sca
le, a
nd o
ther
int
eres
ts, a
nd p
artic
ular
ly b
ased
, as
we
120
Writ
ings
on
His
toric
al M
ater
ialis
m
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
12
1
inte
nd to
sho
w la
ter,
on th
e cl
asse
s al
read
y de
term
ined
by
the
divi
sion
of
labo
r, cl
asse
s w
hich
for
m i
n an
y su
ch m
ass
of p
eopl
e an
d of
whi
ch o
ne
dom
inat
es a
ll th
e ot
hers
. It
follo
ws
from
this
tha
t all
stru
ggle
s w
ithin
the
St
ate,
the
str
uggl
e be
twee
n de
moc
racy
, ar
isto
crac
y an
d m
onar
chy,
the
st
rugg
le f
or f
ranc
hise
, et
c.,
etc.
, ar
e no
thin
g bu
t th
e ill
usor
y fo
rms
in
whi
ch t
he r
eal
stru
ggle
s of
dif
fere
nt c
lass
es a
re c
arri
ed o
ut a
mon
g on
e an
othe
r (t
he G
erm
an t
heor
etic
ians
do
not
have
the
fai
ntes
t in
klin
g of
th
is f
act,
alth
ough
the
y ha
ve h
ad s
uffi
cien
t in
form
atio
n in
the
Deu
tsch
- Fr
anzo
sisc
he Ja
hrbu
cher
an
d T
he H
oly
Fam
ily).
Fur
ther
mor
e, i
t fo
llow
^ th
at e
very
cla
ss s
triv
ing
to g
ain
cont
rol-e
ven
whe
n su
ch c
ontr
ol m
eans
th
e tr
ansc
ende
nce
of t
he e
ntir
e ol
d fo
rm o
f so
ciet
y an
d of
con
trol
itse
lf,
as is
the
case
with
the
pro
leta
riat
-mus
t fi
rst w
in p
oliti
cal p
ower
in
orde
r to
rep
rese
nt it
s in
tere
st i
n tu
rn a
s th
e un
iver
sal i
nter
est,
som
ethi
ng w
hich
th
e cl
ass
is fo
rced
to d
o im
med
iate
ly)
((Ju
st b
ecau
se in
divi
dual
s se
ek o
nly
thei
r pa
rtic
ular
int
eres
t, w
hich
for
the
m d
oes
not
coin
cide
with
the
ir
com
mun
al i
nter
est,
the
latt
er w
ill b
e im
pose
d on
the
m a
s so
met
hing
"a
lien"
an
d "i
ndep
ende
nt,"
as
a "
univ
ersa
l"
inte
rest
of
a pa
rtic
ular
and
pe
culia
r na
ture
in
its
turn
. O
ther
wis
e th
ey t
hem
selv
es m
ust
rem
ain
with
in t
his
disc
ord,
as
in d
emoc
racy
On
the
oth
er h
and,
the
pra
ctic
al
stru
ggle
of
thes
e pa
rtic
ular
int
eres
ts, w
hich
con
stan
tly r
eally
run
cou
nter
to
the
com
mun
al a
nd i
lluso
ry c
omm
unal
int
eres
ts,
nece
ssita
tes
prac
tical
+
inte
rven
tion
and
cont
rol
thro
ugh
the
illus
ory
"uni
vers
al"
inte
rest
in
the
o
form
of
the
Stat
e.
Com
mun
ism
is f
or u
s no
t a s
tate
of af
fairs
stil
l to
be e
stab
lishe
d, n
ot a
n id
eal t
o w
hich
rea
lity
[will
] hav
e to
adj
ust.
We
call
com
mun
ism
the
rea
l m
ovem
ent w
hich
abo
lishe
s the
pre
sent
sta
te o
f af
fair
s. T
he
cond
ition
s of
th
is m
ovem
ent
resu
lt fr
om p
rem
ises
no
w i
n ex
iste
nce.
)) T
he
soci
al
pow
er,
that
is,
the
mul
tiplie
d pr
oduc
tive
forc
e fr
om t
he c
oope
ratio
n of
di
ffer
ent i
ndiv
idua
ls d
eter
min
ed b
y th
e di
visi
on o
f la
bor,
appe
ars
to th
ese
indi
vidu
als n
ot a
s th
eir
own
unite
d po
wer
but
as
a fo
rce
alie
n an
d ou
tsid
e th
em b
ecau
se t
heir
coo
pera
tion
is n
ot v
olun
tary
but
has
com
e ab
out
natu
rally
. T
hey
do n
ot k
now
the
ori
gin
and
the
goal
of
this
alie
n fo
rce,
an
d th
ey c
anno
t co
ntro
l it.
On
the
cont
rary
, it p
asse
s th
roug
h a
pecu
liar
seri
es o
f ph
ases
and
sta
ges
inde
pend
ent
of t
he w
ill a
nd t
he a
ctio
n of
m
en, e
ven
dire
ctin
g th
eir
will
. X [
Inse
rtio
n m
ark
for p
arag
raph
to
follo
w]
How
els
e co
uld
prop
erty
, fo
r ex
ampl
e, h
ave
a hi
stor
y at
all
and
assu
me
vario
us f
orm
s? H
ow e
lse
coul
d la
nded
pro
pert
y, a
ccor
ding
to
diff
eren
t pr
emis
es,
have
cha
nged
in
Fran
ce f
rom
par
cella
tion
to c
entr
aliz
atio
n in
th
e ha
nds
of a
few
, and
in
Eng
land
fro
m c
entr
aliz
atio
n in
the
han
ds o
f a
few
to
parc
ella
tion,
as
is a
ctua
lly t
he c
ase
toda
y? O
r ho
w d
oes
it ha
ppen
th
at tr
ade,
whi
ch a
fter
all
is n
othi
ng m
ore
than
the
exc
hang
e of
pro
duct
s of
var
ious
indi
vidu
als
and
coun
trie
s, r
ules
the
ent
ire
wor
ld t
hrou
gh s
up-
ply
and
dem
and-
a re
latio
n, a
s an
Eng
lish
econ
omis
t sa
ys, w
hich
hov
ers
over
the
ear
th li
ke t
he f
ate
of a
ntiq
uity
, dis
trib
utin
g fo
rtun
e an
d m
isfo
r-
tune
with
invi
sibl
e ha
nd,
esta
blis
hing
and
ove
rthr
owin
g em
pire
s, c
ausi
ng
natio
ns t
o ri
se a
nd t
o di
sapp
ear?
How
cou
ld t
his
go o
n, w
hile
with
the
ab
oliti
on o
f th
e ba
sis
of p
riva
te p
rope
rty,
with
com
mun
istic
reg
ulat
ion
of
prod
uctio
n an
d he
nce
with
abo
litio
n of
the
alie
natio
n be
twee
n m
en a
nd
thei
r ow
n pr
oduc
ts,
the
pow
er o
f su
pply
and
dem
and
is c
ompl
etel
y di
s-
solv
ed a
nd m
en r
egai
n co
ntro
l of
exch
ange
, pro
duct
ion,
and
the
mod
e of
th
eir
mut
ual r
elat
ions
hips
? ((
X T
his
"alie
natio
n,"
to u
se a
ter
m w
hich
the
phi
loso
pher
s w
ill u
n-
ders
tand
, can
be
abol
ishe
d on
ly o
n th
e ba
sis
of t
wo
prac
tical
pre
mis
es. T
o be
com
e an
"in
tole
rabl
e" p
ower
, tha
t is
, a p
ower
aga
inst
whi
ch m
en m
ake
a re
volu
tion,
it m
ust
have
mad
e th
e gr
eat
mas
s of
hum
anity
"pr
oper
ty-
less
" an
d th
is a
t th
e sa
me
time
in c
ontr
adic
tion
to
an e
xist
ing
wor
ld o
f w
ealth
and
cul
ture
, bot
h of
whi
ch p
resu
ppos
e a
grea
t inc
reas
e in
pro
duc-
tiv
e po
wer
and
a h
igh
degr
ee o
f its
dev
elop
men
t. O
n th
e ot
her
hand
, th
is
deve
lopm
ent
of p
rodu
ctiv
e fo
rces
(w
hich
alr
eady
impl
ies
the
actu
al e
m-
piri
cal
exis
tenc
e of
men
on
a w
orld
-his
tori
cal
rath
er t
han
loca
l sc
ale)
is
an a
bsol
utel
y ne
cess
ary
prac
tical
pre
mis
e be
caus
e, w
ithou
t it,
wan
t is
m
erel
y m
ade
gene
ral,
and
with
des
titut
ion
the
stru
ggle
for
nec
essi
ties a
nd
all
the
old
muc
k w
ould
nec
essa
rily
be
repr
oduc
ed;
and
furt
herm
ore,
be
caus
e on
ly w
ith t
his
univ
ersa
l de
velo
pmen
t of
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
is
a un
iver
sal
com
mer
ce a
mon
g m
en e
stab
lishe
d w
hich
pro
duce
s in
all
na-
tions
sim
ulta
neou
sly
the
phen
omen
on o
f a
"pro
pert
yles
s" m
ass
(uni
ver-
sa
l com
petit
ion)
, mak
es e
ach
natio
n de
pend
ent
on t
he r
evol
utio
ns o
f th
e ot
hers
, an
d fi
nally
rep
lace
s lo
cal
indi
vidu
als
with
wor
ld-h
isto
rica
l, em
- pi
rical
ly u
nive
rsal
ind
ivid
uals
. W
ithou
t th
is,
(1) c
omm
unis
m c
ould
onl
y ex
ist l
ocal
ly; (
2) th
e for
ces
of i
nter
acti
on th
emse
lves
cou
ld n
ot h
ave
deve
l- op
ed a
s un
iver
sal a
nd t
hus
into
lera
ble
pow
ers,
but
wou
ld h
ave
rem
aine
d ho
meb
red,
sup
erst
itiou
s "c
ondi
tions
";
(3)
any
exte
nsio
n of
int
erac
tion
wou
ld a
bolis
h lo
cal c
omm
unis
m. E
mpi
rica
lly, c
omm
unis
m i
s on
ly p
ossi
- bl
e as
the
act
of
dom
inan
t pe
ople
s "a
ll at
onc
e" a
nd s
imul
tane
ousl
y,
whi
ch p
resu
ppos
es th
e un
iver
sal d
evel
opm
ent o
f pr
oduc
tive
pow
er a
nd w
orld
wid
e in
tera
ctio
n lin
ked
with
com
mun
ism
. B
esid
es,
the
mas
s of
pro
perty
less
wor
kers
-labo
r po
wer
on
a m
ass
scal
e cu
t of
f fr
om
capi
tal o
r ev
en li
mite
d sa
tisfa
ctio
n, a
nd h
ence
no
long
er ju
st t
empo
rari
ly
depr
ived
of
wor
k as
a s
ecur
e so
urce
of
life-
pres
uppo
ses
a w
orld
mar
ket
thro
ugh
com
petit
ion.
T
he
prol
etar
iat
can
thus
on
ly
exis
t w
orld
- hi
stor
ical
ly,
just
as
com
mun
ism
, it
s ac
tivity
, ca
n on
ly h
ave
a "w
orld
- hi
stor
ical
" ex
iste
nce.
Wor
ld-h
isto
rica
l exi
sten
ce o
f in
divi
dual
s mea
ns e
x-
iste
nce
of i
ndiv
idua
ls w
hich
is d
irec
tly b
ound
up
with
wor
ld h
isto
ry.))
T
he
form
of
inte
ract
ion
dete
rmin
ed b
y an
d in
tur
n de
term
inin
g th
e
122
Writ
ings
on
His
toric
al M
ater
ialis
m
exis
ting
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
at a
ll pr
evio
us h
isto
rica
l st
ages
is c
ivil
soci
ety.
It
is c
lear
fro
m w
hat
has
been
sai
d ab
ove,
tha
t ci
vil
soci
ety
has
as i
ts
prem
ise
and
basi
s th
e si
mpl
e fa
mily
and
the
mul
tiple
fam
ily, t
he s
o-ca
lled
trib
e. M
ore
deta
iled
defi
nitio
ns a
re c
onta
ined
in
our
rem
arks
abo
ve.
Alre
ady
we
see
here
how
civ
il so
ciet
y is
the
tru
e fo
cus
and
scen
e of
all
hist
ory.
We
see
how
non
sens
ical
is
the
old
conc
eptio
n of
his
tory
whi
ch
negl
ects
real
rela
tions
hips
and
res
tric
ts it
self
to
high
-sou
ndin
g dr
amas
of
prin
ces a
nd s
tate
s.
So
far w
e ha
ve c
once
rned
our
selv
es m
ainl
y w
ith o
ne a
spec
t of
hum
an
activ
ity,
how
man
afe
cts
natu
re.
((In
tera
ctio
n an
d pr
oduc
tive
pow
er.))
T
he
othe
r as
pect
, how
man
affe
cts
man
--or
igin
of
the
sta
te a
nd t
he r
e-
latio
n of
the
sta
te to
civ
il so
ciet
y [ . .
. ]
His
tory
is
noth
ing
but
the
succ
essi
on o
f se
para
te g
ener
atio
ns,
each
of
whi
ch e
xplo
its t
he m
ater
ials
, ca
pita
l, an
d pr
oduc
tive
forc
es
hand
ed d
own
to it
by
all p
rece
ding
gen
erat
ions
. O
n th
e on
e ha
nd,
it th
us
cont
inue
s th
e tr
aditi
onal
act
ivity
in
com
plet
ely
chan
ged
circ
umst
ance
s an
d, o
n th
e ot
her,
mod
ifie
s th
e ol
d ci
rcum
stan
ces
with
a c
ompl
etel
y ch
ange
d ac
tivity
. Thi
s ca
n be
spe
cula
tivel
y di
stor
ted
so t
hat
late
r hi
stor
y
+
is m
ade
the
goal
of
earl
ier
hist
ory,
for
exa
mpl
e, th
e go
al a
scri
bed
to t
he
- di
scov
ery
of A
mer
ica
is to
ass
ure
the
outb
reak
of
the
Fre
nch
Rev
olut
ion.
H
isto
ry th
en o
btai
ns i
ts o
wn
aim
s an
d be
com
es a
"pe
rson
ran
king
with
ot
her
pers
ons"
(t
o w
it:
"Sel
f-co
nsci
ousn
ess,
C
ritic
ism
, th
e U
niqu
e,"
etc.
), w
hile
wha
t is
desi
gnat
ed w
ith t
he w
ords
"de
stin
y,"
"goa
l,"
"ger
m,"
or
"id
ea"
of e
arlie
r hi
stor
y is
not
hing
mor
e th
an a
n ab
stra
ctio
n fo
rmed
fr
om la
ter
hist
ory,
an
abst
ract
ion
from
the
act
ive
infl
uenc
e w
hich
ear
lier
hist
ory
exer
cise
s on
late
r his
tory
. T
he f
urth
er th
e se
para
te s
pher
es th
at i
nter
act
on o
ne a
noth
er e
xten
d in
the
cou
rse
of t
his
deve
lopm
ent,
the
mor
e th
e or
igin
al i
sola
tion
of
sepa
rate
nat
iona
litie
s is
dest
roye
d by
the
dev
elop
ed m
ode
of p
rodu
ctio
n,
com
mer
ce,
and
divi
sion
of
labo
r be
twee
n va
riou
s na
tions
na
tura
lly
brou
ght f
orth
by
thes
e an
d th
e m
ore
does
his
tory
bec
ome
wor
ld h
isto
ry.
For
inst
ance
, whe
n a
mac
hine
is
inve
nted
in
Eng
land
to
depr
ive
coun
t-
less
wor
kers
of
brea
d in
Ind
ia a
nd C
hina
and
rev
olut
ioni
ze th
e en
tire
life
of
the
se e
mpi
res,
it
beco
mes
a w
orld
-his
tori
cal
fact
. S
ugar
and
cof
fee
prov
ed t
heir
wor
ld-h
isto
rica
l im
port
ance
in th
e ni
nete
enth
cen
tury
whe
n th
e la
ck o
f th
ese
prod
ucts
, oc
casi
oned
by
the
Nap
oleo
nic
Con
tine
ntal
Sy
stem
, cau
sed
the
Ger
man
s to
rise
aga
inst
Nap
oleo
n. L
ack
of s
ugar
and
co
ffee
thus
bec
ame
the
real
bas
is o
f th
e gl
orio
us W
ars
of L
iber
atio
n of
18
13. H
ence
the
tra
nsfo
rmat
ion
of h
isto
ry i
nto
wor
ld h
isto
ry i
s no
t a
mer
e ab
stra
ct a
ct o
f th
e "S
elf-
cons
ciou
snes
s,"
the
wor
ld s
piri
t, or
of
any
othe
r m
etap
hysi
cal s
pect
er, b
ut a
com
plet
ely
mat
eria
l, em
piri
cally
ver
ifi-
ab
le a
ct,
an a
ct f
or w
hich
eve
ry in
divi
dual
fur
nish
es p
roof
as
he c
omes
an
d go
es, e
ats,
dri
nks,
and
clo
thes
him
self
.
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
123
((O
n th
e Pr
oduc
tion
of C
onsc
iozu
ness
)) In
his
tory
up
to t
he p
rese
nt i
t is
ce
rtai
nly
an e
mpi
rica
l fac
t tha
t se
para
te in
divi
dual
s, w
ith t
he b
road
enin
g of
th
eir
activ
ity i
nto
wor
ld-h
isto
rica
l ac
tivity
, ha
ve b
ecom
e m
ore
and
mor
e en
slav
ed t
o a
pow
er a
lien
to t
hem
(a
hard
ship
the
y co
ncei
ve a
s ch
ican
ery
on t
he p
art
of t
he s
o-ca
lled
Wor
ld S
piri
t, et
c.),
a p
ower
whi
ch
has
beco
me
incr
easi
ngly
gre
at a
nd f
inal
ly t
urns
out
to
be t
he w
orld
m
arke
t. B
ut i
t is
just
as
empi
rica
lly e
stab
lishe
d th
at b
y th
e ov
erth
row
of
the
exis
ting
stat
e of
soc
iety
by t
he c
omm
unis
t re
volu
tion
(mor
e ab
out t
his
belo
w)
and
the
abol
ition
of
priv
ate
prop
erty
whi
ch is
iden
tical
with
it, t
his
alie
n po
wer
so
baff
ling
to G
erm
an t
heor
etic
ians
will
be
diss
olve
d. T
hen
the
liber
atio
n of
eac
h si
ngle
indi
vidu
al w
ill b
e ac
com
plis
hed
to t
he e
xten
t th
at h
isto
ry b
ecom
es w
orld
his
tory
. Hen
ce it
is c
lear
that
the
real
inte
llec-
tu
al w
ealth
of
the
indi
vidu
al d
epen
ds e
ntir
ely
on t
he w
ealth
of
his
real
co
nnec
tions
. Onl
y in
thi
s w
ay w
ill s
epar
ate
indi
vidu
als
be l
iber
ated
fro
m
the
vari
ous
natio
nal
and
loca
l bar
rier
s, b
e br
ough
t int
o pr
actic
al c
onne
c-
tion
with
the
mat
eria
l an
d in
telle
ctua
l pr
oduc
tion
of
the
who
le w
orld
, an
d be
abl
e to
enj
oy t
his
all-
side
d pr
oduc
tion
of
the
who
le e
arth
(th
e cr
eatio
ns o
f m
an).
All-
arou
nd
depe
nden
ce,
that
nat
ural
fo
rm o
f th
e w
orld
-his
toric
al c
oope
ratio
n of
ind
ivid
uals
, w
ill b
e tr
ansf
orm
ed b
y th
e co
mm
unis
t re
volu
tion
into
the
con
trol
an
d co
nsci
ous
gove
rnan
ce o
f th
ese
pow
ers,
whi
ch,
born
of
the
inte
ract
ion
of m
en,
have
unt
il no
w
over
awed
and
gov
erne
d m
en a
s po
wer
s co
mpl
etel
y al
ien
to t
hem
. N
ow
this
vie
w c
an b
e ex
pres
sed
agai
n sp
ecul
ativ
ely
and
idea
listic
ally
, tha
t is
, fa
ntas
tical
ly,
as "
self
-gen
erat
ion
of t
he s
peci
es"
("so
ciet
y as
the
sub
- je
ct")
, an
d th
ereb
y th
e co
nsec
utiv
e se
ries
of
inte
rrel
ated
ind
ivid
uals
can
be
con
ceiv
ed a
s a
sing
le i
ndiv
idua
l whi
ch a
ccom
plis
hes
the
mys
tery
of
gene
ratin
g its
elf.
It
is c
lear
her
e th
at i
ndiv
idua
ls c
erta
inly
gen
erat
e on
e an
othe
r, ph
ysic
ally
and
men
tally
, but
do
not
gene
rate
them
selv
es e
ithe
r in
- th
e no
nsen
se o
f Sa
int B
runo
[B
auer
] ((
or i
n th
e se
nse
of t
he "
Uni
que,
" of
"m
ade"
Man
)).
Fina
lly, f
rom
the
con
cept
ion
of h
isto
ry a
s de
velo
ped
abov
e w
e ob
tain
th
ese
furt
her
conc
lusi
ons:
(1)
In
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f pr
oduc
tive
forc
es
ther
e co
mes
a s
tage
whe
n pr
oduc
tive
forc
es a
nd m
eans
of
inte
ract
ion
are
achi
eved
whi
ch u
nder
the
exi
stin
g re
latio
nshi
ps c
ause
not
hing
but
mis
- ch
ief
and
are
no l
onge
r pr
oduc
tive
forc
es b
ut r
athe
r de
stru
ctiv
e on
es
(mac
hine
ry a
nd m
oney
). C
onne
cted
with
thi
s is
a c
lass
whi
ch h
as to
bea
r al
l the
bur
dens
of
soci
ety
with
out
enjo
ying
its
adva
ntag
es. I
t is
exc
lude
d fr
om s
ocie
ty a
nd f
orce
d in
to e
xtre
me
oppo
sitio
n to
all
othe
r cl
asse
s. I
t co
nstit
utes
the
maj
ority
of
all
mem
bers
of
soci
ety,
and
fro
m i
t ar
ises
a
cons
ciou
snes
s of
the
nec
essi
ty o
f fu
ndam
enta
l re
volu
tion,
com
mun
ist
cons
ciou
snes
s, w
hich
may
of
cour
se a
rise
als
o in
the
oth
er c
lass
es p
er-
ceiv
ing
the
situ
atio
n of
thi
s cl
ass.
(2)
Th
e co
nditi
ons
unde
r w
hich
def
i-
nite
pro
duct
ive
forc
es c
an b
e ap
plie
d ar
e th
e co
nditi
ons
of t
he r
ule
of a
Wn'
tings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
Th
e Ger
man
Ideo
logy
defi
nite
cla
ss o
f so
ciet
y w
hose
soc
ial p
ower
, de
rivi
ng f
rom
its
pro
pert
y,
has
its p
ract
ical
-ide
alis
tic e
xpre
ssio
n in
the
form
of
the
stat
e as
it h
appe
ns
to e
xist
then
. T
here
fore
, ev
ery
revo
lutio
nary
str
uggl
e is
dir
ecte
d ag
ains
t a
clas
s w
hich
unt
il th
en h
as b
een
in p
ower
. ((
The
peo
ple
are
inte
rest
ed i
n m
aint
aini
ng th
e pr
esen
t st
ate
of p
rodu
ctio
n.))
(3)
In
all r
evol
utio
ns u
p til
l no
w t
he m
ode
of a
ctiv
ity re
mai
ned
unch
ange
d, a
nd it
was
onl
y a
ques
tion
of a
dif
fere
nt d
istr
ibut
ion
of t
his
activ
ity, a
new
dis
trib
utio
n of
lab
or to
ot
her
pers
ons.
But
the
com
mun
ist
revo
lutio
n is
dir
ecte
d ag
ains
t th
e pr
eced
ing
mod
e of
act
ivity
, doe
s aw
ay w
ith la
bor,
and
abol
ishe
s the
rul
e of
al
l cla
sses
alo
ng w
ith t
he c
lass
es th
emse
lves
, bec
ause
it
is a
ccom
plis
hed
by t
he c
lass
whi
ch s
ocie
ty n
o lo
nger
rec
ogni
zes
as a
cla
ss a
nd is
itse
lf t
he
expr
essi
on o
f th
e di
ssol
utio
n of
all
clas
ses,
nat
iona
litie
s, e
tc.
(4)
For
the
prod
uctio
n of
thi
s co
mm
unis
t co
nsci
ousn
ess
on a
mas
s sc
ale
and
for
the
succ
ess
of t
he c
ause
its
elf,
the
alte
ratio
n of
men
on
a m
ass
scal
e is
re
quir
ed. T
his
can
only
take
pla
ce i
n a
prac
tical
mov
emen
t, in
a r
evol
u-
tion.
A re
volu
tion
is n
eces
sary
, the
refo
re,
not o
nly
beca
use
the
rulin
g cl
ass
cann
ot b
e ov
erth
row
n in
any
oth
er w
ay b
ut a
lso
beca
use
the
clas
s ov
er-
thro
win
g it
can
succ
eed
only
by
revo
lutio
n in
get
ting
rid
of a
ll th
e tr
adi-
tio
nal m
uck
and
beco
me
capa
ble
of e
stab
lishi
ng s
ocie
ty a
new
. T
his
conc
eptio
n of
his
tory
dep
ends
on
our
abili
ty to
set
for
th th
e re
al
proc
ess
of p
rodu
ctio
n, s
tart
ing
out
from
the
mat
eria
l pr
oduc
tion
of
life
itsel
f, a
nd t
o co
mpr
ehen
d th
e fo
rm o
f in
tera
ctio
n co
nnec
ted
with
thi
s an
d cr
eate
d by
thi
s m
ode
of p
rodu
ctio
n, t
hat
is,
by c
ivil
soci
ety
in i
ts
vario
us s
tage
s, a
s th
e ba
sis
of a
ll hi
stor
y. W
e ha
ve t
o sh
ow c
ivil
soci
ety
in
actio
n as
Sta
te a
nd a
lso
expl
ain
all t
he d
iffe
rent
theo
retic
al p
rodu
cts
and
form
s of
con
scio
usne
ss, r
elig
ion,
phi
loso
phy,
eth
ics,
etc
., an
d tr
ace
thei
r ge
nesi
s fr
om t
hat
basi
s. T
he
who
le t
hing
can
be
depi
cted
in
its
tota
lity
(and
thu
s th
e re
cipr
ocal
act
ion
of t
hese
var
ious
sid
es t
oo).
Unl
ike
the
idea
listic
vie
w o
f hi
stor
y th
is c
once
ptio
n do
es n
ot lo
ok f
or a
cat
egor
y in
ev
ery
hist
oric
al p
erio
d; r
athe
r it
rem
ains
con
stan
tly o
n th
e re
al g
roun
d of
hi
stor
y. I
t doe
s no
t exp
lain
pra
ctic
e fr
om th
e id
ea b
ut e
xpla
ins
the
form
a-
tion
of i
deas
fro
m m
ater
ial p
ract
ice.
Con
sequ
entl
y it
arr
ives
at
the
con-
cl
usio
n th
at a
ll fo
rms
and
prod
ucts
of
cons
ciou
snes
s ca
nnot
be
diss
olve
d by
men
tal c
ritic
ism
, by
reso
lutio
n in
to "
Self
-con
scio
usne
ss"
or tr
ansf
or-
mat
ion
into
"ap
pari
tions
,"
"spe
cter
s,"
"fan
cies
,"
etc.
, bu
t on
ly b
y th
e pr
actic
al o
vert
hrow
of
the
actu
al s
ocia
l rel
atio
ns w
hich
gav
e ri
se t
o th
is
idea
listic
tri
cker
y N
ot c
ritic
ism
but
rev
olut
ion
is t
he d
rivi
ng f
orce
of
hist
ory
and
also
of
relig
ion,
phi
loso
phy,
and
all
othe
r ty
pes
of t
heor
y.
It s
how
s th
at
hist
ory
does
no
t en
d by
be
ing
reso
lved
in
to
"Sel
f-
cons
ciou
snes
s" a
s "s
piri
t of
the
Spi
rit,"
but
that
ther
e is
a m
ater
ial r
esul
t at
eac
h hi
stor
ical
sta
ge, a
sum
of
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
, a h
isto
rica
lly c
reat
ed
rela
tion
of i
ndiv
idua
ls t
o na
ture
and
to
one
anot
her
whi
ch i
s ha
nded
dow
n to
eac
h ge
nera
tion
from
its
pre
dece
ssor
-a
mas
s of
pro
duct
ive
forc
es, c
apita
l fu
nds,
and
con
ditio
ns w
hich
on
the
one
hand
is
mod
ifie
d by
the
new
gen
erat
ion
but
on t
he o
ther
han
d al
so p
resc
ribe
s it
s co
ndi-
tio
ns o
f lif
e, g
ivin
g it
a de
fini
te d
evel
opm
ent a
nd a
spe
cial
cha
ract
er.
It
show
s, th
eref
ore,
tha
t ci
rcum
stan
ces
mak
e m
en j
ust
as m
uch
as m
en
mak
e ci
rcum
stan
ces.
T
he s
um o
f pr
oduc
tive
forc
es,
capi
tal
fund
s, a
nd s
ocia
l fo
rms
of
inte
ract
ion
whi
ch e
very
indi
vidu
al a
nd e
very
gen
erat
ion
find
s ex
istin
g is
th
e re
al b
asis
of
wha
t th
e ph
iloso
pher
s ha
ve c
once
ived
as
"Sub
stan
ce"
and
"ess
ence
of
Man
," w
hat t
hey
have
apo
theo
size
d an
d at
tack
ed, t
hat i
s,
a re
al b
asis
whi
ch i
s no
t in
the
leas
t dis
turb
ed i
n it
s ef
fect
and
inf
luen
ce
on t
he d
evel
opm
ent
of m
en b
y th
e fa
ct t
hat
thes
e ph
iloso
pher
s re
volt
agai
nst
it as
"Se
lf-c
onsc
ious
ness
" an
d th
e "U
niqu
e."
The
se c
ondi
tions
of
lif
e w
hich
th
e va
riou
s ge
nera
tions
fi
nd i
n ex
iste
nce
also
dec
ide
whe
ther
per
iodi
cal
and
recu
rrin
g re
volu
tiona
ry t
rem
ors
will
be
stro
ng
enou
gh t
o ov
erth
row
the
bas
is o
f th
e en
tire
exi
stin
g sy
stem
. If
the
se
mat
eria
l ele
men
ts o
f to
tal r
evol
utio
n ar
e no
t pre
sent
(na
mel
y, th
e ex
istin
g pr
oduc
tive
forc
es o
n th
e on
e ha
nd a
nd t
he f
orm
atio
n of
a r
evol
utio
nary
m
ass
on t
he o
ther
, a
mas
s w
hich
rev
olts
not
onl
y ag
ains
t pa
rtic
ular
co
nditi
ons
of t
he p
reva
iling
soc
iety
but
aga
inst
the
pre
vaili
ng "
prod
uc-
tion
of l
ife"
itsel
f, th
e "t
otal
act
ivity
" on
whi
ch i
t w
as b
ased
) th
en i
t is
ab
solu
tely
im
mat
eria
l, so
far
as
prac
tical
de
velo
pmen
t is
con
cern
ed,
whe
ther
the
idea
of
this
rev
olut
ion
has
alre
ady
been
exp
ress
ed a
hun
dred
tim
es, a
s th
e hi
stor
y of
com
mun
ism
pro
ves.
In
the
who
le c
once
ptio
n of
his
tory
up
to t
he p
rese
nt t
his
actu
al b
asis
of
his
tory
has
bee
n ei
ther
tot
ally
neg
lect
ed o
r co
nsid
ered
as
a m
inor
m
atte
r ir
rele
vant
to
the
cour
se o
f hi
stor
y.
Thu
s hi
stor
y m
ust
alw
ays
be w
ritte
n ac
cord
ing
to a
n ex
tran
eous
sta
ndar
d. T
he
actu
al p
rodu
c-
tion
of
life
appe
ars
as s
omet
hing
unh
isto
rica
l, w
hile
th
e hi
stor
ical
ap
pear
s as
som
ethi
ng s
epar
ated
fro
m o
rdin
ary
life,
som
ethi
ng e
xtra
- su
pert
erre
stri
al.
Thu
s th
e re
latio
n of
man
to
natu
re i
s ex
clud
ed f
rom
hi
stor
y an
d th
e an
tithe
sis
of n
atur
e an
d hi
stor
y is
cre
ated
. Th
e ex
pone
nts
of t
his
conc
eptio
n of
his
tory
hav
e on
ly b
een
able
to s
ee in
his
tory
pol
iti-
cal a
ctio
n an
d re
ligio
us o
r ot
her
theo
retic
al s
trug
gles
. In
eac
h hi
stor
ical
ep
och
they
hav
e ha
d to
sha
re th
e ill
usio
n of
that
epo
ch F
or e
xam
ple,
if a
n ep
och
imag
ines
its
elf
to b
e de
term
ined
by
pure
ly "
polit
ical
" or
"re
- lig
ious
" m
otiv
es, e
ven
thou
gh "
relig
ion"
and
"po
litic
s" a
re o
nly
form
s of
its
act
ual m
otiv
es, t
he h
isto
rian
acc
epts
this
opi
nion
. Th
e "n
otio
n"
[Ein
- bi
ldun
g],
the
con
cept
ion^
' of
the
peo
ple
abou
t th
eir
real
pra
ctic
e, i
s tr
ansf
orm
ed i
nto
the
sole
det
erm
inin
g an
d ac
tive
forc
e co
ntro
lling
and
de
term
inin
g th
eir
prac
tice.
Whe
n th
e cr
ude
form
in
whi
ch t
he d
ivis
ion
of la
bor
appe
ars
with
the
Ind
ians
and
Egy
ptia
ns b
ring
s ab
out
the
cast
e
126
Writ
ings
on
His
toric
al M
ater
ialis
m
syst
em in
thei
r st
ates
and
in t
heir
rel
igio
ns, t
he h
isto
rian
bel
ieve
s th
at th
e ca
ste
syst
em i
s th
e po
wer
whi
ch p
rodu
ced
this
soc
ial
form
. W
hile
the
Fr
ench
and
the
Eng
lish
at l
east
adh
ere
to a
pol
itica
l illu
sion
mod
erat
ely
clos
e to
rea
lity,
the
Ger
man
s m
ove
in th
e re
alm
of
the
"pur
e Sp
irit"
and
m
ake
relig
ious
illu
sion
the
driv
ing
forc
e of
his
tory
. T
he H
egel
ian
philo
soph
y of
hi
stor
y is
the
las
t co
nseq
uenc
e,
the
"pur
est
expr
essi
on,"
of
al
l th
is
Ger
man
hi
stor
iogr
aphy
whi
ch
does
no
t de
al w
ith
real
int
eres
ts,
not
even
pol
itica
l on
es,
but
with
pur
e th
ough
ts w
hich
con
sequ
ently
mus
t ap
pear
to
Sai
nt B
runo
[B
auer
] as
a
seri
es o
f "t
houg
hts"
de
vour
ing
one
anot
her
and
peri
shin
g in
"Se
lf-
cons
ciou
snes
s."
Th
e B
less
ed M
ax S
tirn
er,
who
doe
s no
t kn
ow a
thi
ng
abou
t re
al h
isto
ry,
goes
eve
n fa
rthe
r. H
e se
es h
isto
ry a
s a
mer
e ta
le o
f "k
nigh
ts,"
rob
bers
, and
gho
sts
from
who
se v
isio
ns h
e ca
n es
cape
onl
y by
"u
nhol
ines
s."
((So
-cal
led
obje
ctiv
e hi
stor
iogr
aphy
has
jus
t co
nsis
ted
in
trea
ting
hist
oric
al
cond
ition
s as
se
para
te
from
ac
tivity
. R
eact
iona
ry
char
acte
r.))
Thi
s co
ncep
tion
is tr
uly
relig
ious
. It p
ostu
late
s re
ligio
us m
an
as th
e or
igin
al m
an, t
he s
tart
ing
poin
t of
all
hist
ory.
In
its im
agin
atio
n it
puts
the
rel
igio
us p
rodu
ctio
n of
fan
cies
in t
he p
lace
of
the
real
pro
duc-
+
tio
n of
the
mea
ns o
f su
bsis
tenc
e an
d of
lif
e its
elf.
Thi
s w
hole
con
cept
ion
w
of
hist
ory
toge
ther
with
its
dis
solu
tion
and
the
scru
ples
and
qua
lms
resu
lting
from
it is
a p
urel
y na
tiona
l af
fair
of
the
Ger
man
s an
d ha
s on
ly
loca
l int
eres
t fo
r G
erm
any,
as
for
exam
ple
the
impo
rtan
t qu
estio
n w
hich
ha
s be
en t
reat
ed s
ever
al t
imes
of
late
: H
ow d
oes
one
"pas
s fr
om t
he
real
m o
f G
od t
o th
e re
alm
of
Man
"? A
s if
this
rea
lm o
f G
od h
ad e
ver
exis
ted
anyw
here
exc
ept
in t
he i
mag
inat
ion,
and
the
lea
rned
gen
tlem
en,
with
out
bein
g aw
are
of i
t, w
ere
not
cons
tant
ly l
ivin
g in
the
"re
alm
of
Man
" w
hich
the
y ar
e no
w s
eeki
ng.
As
if t
he l
earn
ed p
astim
e, f
or i
t is
no
thin
g m
ore,
of
expl
aini
ng t
he
mys
tery
of
th
is
theo
retic
al
clou
d-
form
atio
n di
d no
t on
the
cont
rary
lie
in d
emon
stra
ting
its
orig
in i
n ac
tual
ea
rthl
y co
nditi
ons.
For
the
se G
erm
ans
it is
alw
ays
sim
ply
a m
atte
r of
re
solv
ing
som
e no
nsen
se a
t ha
nd i
nto
som
e ot
her
frea
k. I
n ot
her
wor
ds,
they
pre
supp
ose
that
all
this
non
sens
e ha
s a
spec
ial s
ense
whi
ch c
an b
e di
scov
ered
, whi
le a
ctua
lly t
hey
shou
ld e
xpla
in th
is t
heor
etic
al t
alk
from
th
e ac
tual
exi
stin
g co
nditi
ons.
Th
e re
al,
prac
tical
dis
solu
tion
of t
hese
ph
rase
s, th
e re
mov
al o
f th
ese
notio
ns f
rom
the
cons
ciou
snes
s of
men
will
be
eff
ecte
d by
alte
red
circ
umst
ance
s, n
ot b
y th
eore
tical
ded
ucti
on, a
s w
e ha
ve a
lread
y sa
id. S
uch
theo
retic
al n
otio
ns d
o no
t ex
ist
and
need
not
be
expl
aine
d to
the
mas
s of
men
, th
at i
s, t
he p
role
tari
at.
If t
his
mas
s ev
er
had
any
theo
retic
al n
otio
ns,
for
exam
ple,
rel
igio
n, t
hese
hav
e no
w l
ong
been
dis
solv
ed b
y ci
rcum
stan
ces.
T
he p
urel
y na
tiona
l cha
ract
er o
f th
ese
ques
tions
and
ans
wer
s is
sho
wn
also
in
the
way
the
se t
heor
ists
bel
ieve
in
all
seri
ousn
ess
that
pha
ntom
s
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
12
7
like
"the
God
-Man
,"
"Man
,"
etc.
, ha
ve p
resi
ded
over
ind
ivid
ual
epoc
hs
of h
isto
ry-S
aint
B
runo
[B
auer
] ev
en g
oes
so f
ar a
s to
ass
ert
that
onl
y "c
ritic
ism
and
cri
tics
mak
e hi
stor
y" W
hen
they
con
stru
ct h
isto
rica
l sys
- te
ms,
the
y sk
ip o
ver
all
earl
ier
peri
ods
with
gre
ates
t ha
ste
and
jum
p im
med
iate
ly f
rom
"M
ongo
ldom
" to
his
tory
"w
ith m
eani
ngfu
l co
nten
t,"
to t
he h
isto
ry o
f th
e [y
oung
Heg
elia
n] H
allis
che
and
Deu
tsclz
eJal
zrbi
iclz
er
[edi
ted
by A
rnol
d R
uge]
and
the
dis
solu
tion
of t
he H
egel
ian
scho
ol in
a
gene
ral
squa
bble
. The
y fo
rget
all
othe
r na
tions
, al
l re
al e
vent
s, a
nd t
he
thea
trum
mun
di i
s co
nfin
ed t
o th
e L
eipz
ig B
ook
Fair
and
the
mut
ual
quar
rels
of
"cri
ticis
m,"
"M
an,"
an
d th
e "U
niqu
e."
Whe
n th
ese
theo
rist
s at
tem
pt to
tre
at r
eally
his
tori
cal
subj
ects
, as
for
exa
mpl
e th
e ei
ghte
enth
ce
ntur
y, th
ey m
erel
y gi
ve a
his
tory
of
the
idea
s of
the
tim
es,
torn
aw
ay
from
the
fac
ts a
nd p
ract
ical
dev
elop
men
ts f
unda
men
tal
to t
hem
. T
hey
give
suc
h a
hist
ory
only
with
the
inte
ntio
n of
rep
rese
ntin
g th
at p
erio
d as
an
im
perf
ect
prel
imin
ary
stag
e, a
s th
e lim
ited
fore
runn
er o
f th
e re
al
hist
oric
al a
ge, t
hat
is,
the
peri
od o
f th
e G
erm
an p
hilo
soph
ical
str
uggl
e fr
om 1
840
to 1
844.
Whe
n th
e hi
stor
y of
an
earl
ier
peri
od i
s w
ritte
n w
ith
the
aim
of
brin
ging
out
the
fam
e of
an
unhi
stor
ic p
erso
n an
d hi
s fa
n-
tasi
es,
the
real
ly h
isto
rica
l ev
ents
, ev
en t
he r
eally
his
tori
c in
vasi
ons
of
polit
ics
into
his
tory
, rec
eive
no
men
tion.
Ins
tead
we
get a
nar
rativ
e ba
sed
not o
n st
udie
s bu
t on
conj
ectu
res
and
liter
ary
goss
ip s
uch
as S
aint
Bru
no
pres
ente
d in
his
now
for
gotte
n hi
stor
y of
the
eig
htee
nth
cent
ury.
The
se
pom
pous
and
hau
ghty
ide
a-pe
ddle
rs w
ho b
elie
ve t
hey
are
far
abov
e al
l na
tiona
l pr
ejud
ices
ar
e ac
tual
ly
far
mor
e na
tiona
l th
an
the
beer
- ph
ilist
ines
who
dre
am o
f a
unite
d G
erm
any.
The
y do
not
rec
ogni
ze th
e de
eds
of o
ther
nat
ions
as
hist
oric
al.
The
y tu
rn t
he R
hine
Son
g in
to a
re
ligio
us h
ymn
and
conq
uer
Als
ace-
Lor
rain
e by
rob
bing
Fre
nch
philo
so-
phy
inst
ead
of t
he F
renc
h st
ate,
by
Ger
man
izin
g F
renc
h id
eas
inst
ead
of
Fren
ch p
rovi
nces
. V
ened
ey i
s a
cosm
opol
itan
com
pare
d w
ith t
he S
aint
s B
runo
[B
auer
] an
d M
ax [
Stir
ner]
who
in
the
univ
ersa
l do
min
atio
n of
th
eory
pro
clai
m th
e un
iver
sal d
omin
atio
n of
Ger
man
y It
is
also
cle
ar f
rom
thi
s di
scus
sion
how
gro
ssly
Feu
erba
ch d
ecei
ves
him
self
whe
n he
de
clar
es h
imse
lf
a co
mm
unis
t (W
igan
d's
Vie
rtel-
jahr
ssch
rift,
11, 1
845)
by
virt
ue o
f th
e qu
alif
icat
ion
"com
mon
man
" co
n-
verte
d in
to a
pre
dica
te "
of'
Man
, an
d th
us h
e be
lieve
s it
poss
ible
to
chan
ge t
he w
ord
com
mun
ist,
whi
ch a
ctua
lly m
eans
the
fol
low
er o
f a
defi
nite
revo
lutio
nary
par
ty, i
nto
a m
ere
cate
gory
. Feu
erba
ch's
who
le d
e-
duct
ion
conc
erni
ng t
he r
elat
ion
of m
en t
o on
e an
othe
r go
es o
nly
so f
ar
as to
pro
ve th
at m
en n
eed
and
alrv
ays
have
nee
ded
one
anot
her.
He
wan
ts
to e
stab
lish
cons
ciou
snes
s of
thi
s fa
ct.
Lik
e ot
her
theo
rist
s he
wan
ts t
o br
ing
abou
t a
corr
ect
awar
enes
s of
an
exis
ting
fact
, w
here
as t
he r
eal
com
mun
ist a
ims
to o
vert
hrow
the
exis
ting
stat
e of
thi
ngs.
We
appr
ecia
te
128
Writ
ings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
fully
tha
t Fe
uerb
ach,
try
ing
to p
rodu
ce c
onsc
ious
ness
of
just
thi
s fa
ct,
goes
as
far
as a
theo
rist
pos
sibl
y ca
n w
ithou
t ce
asin
g be
ing
a th
eori
st a
nd
philo
soph
er.
It i
s ch
arac
teri
stic
, ho
wev
er,
that
Sai
nt B
runo
and
Sai
nt
Max
take
Feu
erba
ch's
conc
eptio
n of
the
com
mun
ist a
nd s
ubst
itut
e it
for
the
real
com
mun
ist,
part
ly s
o th
at t
hey
too
can
com
bat
com
mun
ism
as
<c sp
irit
of t
he S
piri
t," a
s a
philo
soph
ical
cat
egor
y, a
s an
equ
al o
ppon
ent-
an
d in
the
case
of
Sain
t Bru
no a
lso
for p
ragm
atic
rea
sons
. As
an e
xam
ple
of F
euer
bach
's ac
cept
ance
and
at
the
sam
e ti
me
mis
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
ex
istin
g re
ality
, so
met
hing
he
still
sha
res
with
our
opp
onen
ts, w
e re
call
the
pass
age
in h
is P
hilo
soph
y of
the
Fut
ure
whe
re h
e de
velo
ps t
he v
iew
th
at t
he e
xist
ence
of
a th
ing
or a
man
is
at t
he s
ame
time
its
or h
is
esse
nce,
tha
t th
e co
nditi
ons
of
exis
tenc
e, t
he m
ode
of
life,
and
the
ac
tivity
of
an a
nim
al o
r hu
man
ind
ivid
ual
are
thos
e in
whi
ch i
ts o
r hi
s "e
ssen
ce"
feel
s sa
tisfi
ed. H
ere
ever
y ex
cept
ion
is e
xpre
ssly
con
ceiv
ed a
s an
unf
ortu
nate
acc
iden
t and
una
ltera
ble
abno
rmal
ity. I
f m
illio
ns o
f pr
o-
leta
rian
s in
no
way
fee
l co
nten
ted
with
the
ir c
ondi
tion
s of
lif
e, i
f th
eir
"exi
sten
ce"~
1 doe
s no
t in
the
leas
t co
rres
pond
to
thei
r "e
ssen
ce,"
th
is is
an
una
void
able
mis
fort
une
whi
ch m
ust b
e bo
rne
quie
tly. T
he
mill
ions
of
prol
etar
ians
and
com
mun
ists
, ho
wev
er,
thin
k di
ffer
ently
and
will
pro
ve
this
whe
n th
ey b
ring
thei
r "e
xist
ence
" in
to h
arm
ony
with
thei
r "e
ssen
ce"
in a
pra
ctic
al w
ay, b
y m
eans
of
revo
lutio
n. F
euer
bach
nev
er s
peak
s of
the
+
hum
an w
orld
in
such
cas
es b
ut a
lway
s ta
kes
refu
ge i
n ex
tern
al n
atur
e, i
n na
ture
as
such
, no
t ye
t su
bdue
d by
men
. B
ut e
very
new
inv
entio
n an
d ev
ery
adva
nce
mad
e by
ind
ustr
y re
mov
es a
noth
er p
orti
on o
f th
is d
omai
n so
the
grou
nd w
hich
pro
duce
s ex
ampl
es t
o ill
ustr
ate
Feue
rbac
h's
prop
o-
sitio
ns is
ste
adily
shr
inki
ng. T
he
"ess
ence
" of
the
fis
h is
its
"ex
iste
nce,
" w
ater
-to
go n
o fu
rthe
r th
an t
his
one
prop
ositi
on. T
he
"ess
ence
" of
the
fr
eshw
ater
fish
is th
e w
ater
of
a ri
ver.
But
this
cea
ses
to b
e th
e "e
ssen
ce"
of t
he f
ish
and
is n
o lo
nger
a s
uita
ble
med
ium
of
exis
tenc
e as
soo
n as
the
river
is m
ade
to s
erve
indu
stry
, as
soon
as
it is
pol
lute
d by
dye
s an
d ot
her
was
te p
rodu
cts
and
navi
gate
d by
ste
ambo
ats,
whe
n it
s w
ater
is
dive
rted
in
to c
anal
s an
d th
e fi
sh is
dep
rive
d of
its
med
ium
of
exis
tenc
e by
sim
ple
drai
nage
. Th
e ex
plan
atio
n th
at a
ll su
ch c
ontr
adic
tion
s ar
e in
evita
ble
ab-
norm
aliti
es d
oes
not
esse
ntia
lly d
iffe
r fr
om t
he c
onso
latio
n w
hich
the
B
less
ed M
ax S
tirn
er o
ffer
s [i
n T
he E
go a
nd I
ts O
wn]
to t
he d
isco
nten
ted,
sa
ying
that
this
con
trad
ictio
n is
thei
r ow
n co
ntra
dict
ion
and
this
pre
dica
- m
ent t
heir
ow
n pr
edic
amen
t, th
at th
ey s
houl
d re
lax,
or
keep
thei
r di
sgus
t to
them
selv
es,
or r
evol
t ag
ains
t it
in s
ome
fant
astic
way
. It
diff
ers
just
as
['Fro
m h
ere
to p
arag
raph
belo
w e
ndin
g 'I
. . .
lang
uage
of
real
ity.))
" ar
e tra
ns-
late
d hi
ther
to m
issin
g pa
ges
foun
d in
the
Int
erna
tiona
l Ins
titut
e of
Soc
ial H
is-
tory
, Am
sterd
am.]
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
12
9
little
fro
m S
aint
Bru
no's
alle
gatio
n [o
p. c
it.]
tha
t th
ese
unfo
rtun
ate
cir-
cu
mst
ance
s ar
ose
beca
use
thos
e co
ncer
ned
are
stuc
k in
the
muc
k of
"S
ubst
ance
," h
ave
not
adva
nced
to
"abs
olut
e Se
lf-c
onsc
ious
ness
," a
nd
do n
ot re
aliz
e th
at th
ese
adve
rse
cond
ition
s ar
e sp
irit
of t
heir
spi
rit.
Of
cour
se, w
e sh
all n
ot ta
ke th
e tr
oubl
e to
enl
ight
en o
ur w
ise
philo
so-
pher
s by
exp
lain
ing
to t
hem
tha
t th
e "l
iber
atio
n"
of "
man
" is
not
ad-
va
nced
a s
ingl
e st
ep b
y th
eir
redu
cing
Phi
loso
phy,
The
olog
y, S
ubst
ance
, an
d al
l th
at t
rash
to
"Sel
f-co
nsci
ousn
ess"
an
d by
the
ir l
iber
atin
g m
an
from
the
dom
inat
ion
of t
hese
phr
ases
whi
ch h
ave
neve
r he
ld h
im i
n th
rall.
((F
euer
bach
. Ph
iloso
phic
and
rea
l lib
erat
ion.
Man
. T
he
Uni
que.
T
he in
divi
dual
. Geo
logi
cal,
hydr
ogra
phic
al, e
tc.,
cond
ition
s. T
he
hum
an
body
. Nee
d an
d la
bor.)
) N
or w
ill w
e ex
plai
n to
the
m t
hat
real
lib
erat
ion
can
be a
chie
ved
only
in
the
real
wor
ld a
nd w
ith r
eal
mea
ns, t
hat
slav
ery
cann
ot b
e ab
olis
hed
with
out
the
stea
m e
ngin
e an
d th
e sp
inni
ng je
nny,
th
at s
erfd
om c
anno
t be
abol
ishe
d w
ithou
t im
prov
ed a
gric
ultu
re,
and
that
pe
ople
on
the
who
le c
anno
t be
lib
erat
ed s
o lo
ng a
s th
ey a
re u
nabl
e to
ob
tain
foo
d an
d dr
ink,
she
lter
and
clo
thin
g in
ade
quat
e qu
ality
and
qu
antit
y. "
Lib
erat
ion"
is
a h
isto
rica
l an
d no
t a
men
tal
act.
It is
eff
ecte
d by
his
tori
cal c
ondi
tions
, by
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f in
dust
ry, c
omm
erce
, agr
i-
cultu
re, t
rans
port
atio
n [m
anus
crip
t pag
e da
mag
ed, u
nrea
dabl
e]
In G
erm
any,
a c
ount
ry w
here
onl
y a
shab
by h
isto
rica
l de
velo
pmen
t is
occu
rrin
g, t
hese
men
tal
deve
lopm
ents
, th
ese
glor
ifie
d an
d in
effe
ctiv
e tri
vial
ities
, nat
ural
ly s
erve
as
a su
bsti
tute
for
the
lack
of
hist
oric
al d
evel
- op
men
t, an
d th
ey ta
ke r
oot a
nd h
ave
to b
e co
mba
ted.
But
this
is a
figh
t of
loca
l si
gnif
ican
ce.
((Ph
rase
s an
d re
al m
ovem
ent.
Th
e im
port
ance
of
phra
ses
in G
erm
any.
Lan
guag
e is
the
lang
uage
of
real
ity.))
In
eve
ry e
poch
the
idea
s of
the
rul
ing
clas
s ar
e th
e ru
ling
idea
s, th
at is
, th
e cl
ass
that
is t
he r
ulin
g m
ater
ial
pow
er o
f so
ciet
y is
at
the
sam
e tim
e its
rul
ing
inte
llect
ual
pow
er.
Th
e cl
ass
havi
ng t
he m
eans
of
mat
e6al
pr
oduc
tion
has
also
con
trol
ove
r th
e m
eans
of
inte
llect
ual p
rodu
ctio
n, s
o th
at i
t al
so c
ontr
ols,
gen
eral
ly s
peak
ing,
the
ide
as o
f th
ose
who
lack
the
m
eans
of
inte
llect
ual
prod
uctio
n. T
he
ruli
ng i
deas
are
not
hing
mor
e th
an t
he id
eal e
xpre
ssio
n of
the
dom
inan
t m
ater
ial
rela
tions
hips
gra
sped
as
idea
s, h
ence
of
the
rela
tions
hips
whi
ch m
ake
the
one
clas
s th
e ru
ling
on
e an
d th
eref
ore
the
idea
s of
it
s do
min
atio
n. T
he
indi
vidu
als
who
co
mpr
ise
the
ruli
ng c
lass
pos
sess
am
ong
othe
r th
ings
con
scio
usne
ss a
nd
thou
ght.
Inso
far
as t
hey
rule
as
a cl
ass
and
dete
rmin
e th
e ex
tent
of
a hi
stor
ical
epo
ch,
it is
sel
f-ev
iden
t th
at t
hey
do i
t in
its
ent
ire
rang
e.
Am
ong
othe
r th
ings
the
y ru
le a
lso
as t
hink
ers
and
prod
ucer
s of
ide
as
and
regu
late
the
pro
duct
ion
and
dist
ribu
tion
of t
he i
deas
of
thei
r ag
e.
The
ir id
eas
are
the
ruli
ng id
eas
of t
he e
poch
. For
exa
mpl
e, in
an
age
and
in a
cou
ntry
whe
re r
oyal
pow
er, a
rist
ocra
cy, a
nd b
ourg
eois
ie a
re c
onte
nd-
130
Writ
ings
on H
istor
ical
Mat
eria
lism
ing
for
dom
inat
ion
and
whe
re c
ontr
ol i
s sh
ared
, th
e do
ctri
ne o
f th
e se
para
tion
of p
ower
s pr
oves
to b
e th
e do
min
ant
idea
and
is
expr
esse
d as
an
"et
erna
l law
." T
he d
ivis
ion
of l
abor
, whi
ch w
e sa
w a
bove
(pp
. [42
4-25
1) a
s on
e of
the
ch
ief
forc
es o
f hi
stor
y up
till
now
, is
expr
esse
d al
so in
the
rul
ing
clas
s as
th
e di
visi
on o
f m
enta
l an
d m
ater
ial
labo
r, so
tha
t w
ithin
thi
s cl
ass
one
part
app
ears
as
the
thin
kers
of
the
clas
s (i
ts a
ctiv
e, c
once
ptiv
e id
eolo
gist
s w
ho m
ake
perf
ectin
g th
e ill
usio
n of
thi
s cl
ass
abou
t its
elf
thei
r m
ain
sour
ce o
f liv
elih
ood)
, whi
le t
he o
ther
s' a
ttit
ude
tow
ard
thes
e id
eas
and
illus
ions
is m
ore
pass
ive
and
rece
ptiv
e be
caus
e th
ey a
re r
eally
the
act
ive
mem
bers
of
this
cla
ss a
nd h
ave
less
tim
e to
mak
e up
illu
sion
s an
d id
eas
abou
t th
emse
lves
. Wit
hin
this
cla
ss t
his
split
can
eve
n de
velo
p in
to o
p-
posi
tion
and
host
ility
bet
wee
n th
e tw
o pa
rts,
whi
ch d
isap
pear
s, h
owev
er,
in t
he c
ase
of a
pra
ctic
al c
ollis
ion
whe
re t
he c
lass
its
elf
is i
n da
nger
. In
th
is c
ase
the
appe
aran
ce th
at th
e ru
ling
idea
s wer
e no
t ide
as o
f th
e ru
ling
cl
ass
with
a p
ower
dis
tinc
t fr
om t
he p
ower
of
this
cla
ss a
lso
vani
shes
. T
he
exis
tenc
e of
rev
olut
iona
ry id
eas
in a
par
ticul
ar e
poch
pre
supp
oses
th
e ex
iste
nce
of a
rev
olut
iona
ry c
lass
. Abo
ut t
he p
rem
ises
for
the
lat
ter
C
~1
we
have
mad
e su
ffic
ient
com
men
t abo
ve (
pp. [
427-
281)
. If
in
cons
ider
ing
the
cour
se o
f hi
stor
y w
e de
tach
the
ide
as o
f th
e ru
ling
clas
s fr
om th
e ru
ling
cla
ss it
self
and
att
ribu
te to
them
an
inde
pen-
de
nt e
xist
ence
, if
we
conf
ine
ours
elve
s to
sayi
ng th
at th
ese
or t
hose
ide
as
prev
aile
d in
a c
erta
in e
poch
with
out
both
erin
g ou
rsel
ves
abou
t th
eir
cond
ition
s of
pro
duct
ion
or p
rodu
cers
, if
we
iglio
re t
he i
ndiv
idua
ls a
nd
wor
ld c
ondi
tions
whi
ch a
re t
he s
ourc
e of
the
ide
as,
we
can
say,
for
ex
ampl
e, t
hat
duri
ng t
he t
ime
whe
n ar
isto
crac
y w
as d
omin
ant
the
con-
ce
pts
of h
onor
, loy
alty
, etc
., pr
evai
led,
dur
ing
the
dom
inio
n of
the
bou
r-
geoi
sie,
the
con
cept
s of
fre
edom
, eq
ualit
y, e
tc.
Th
e ru
ling
cla
ss i
tsel
f ge
nera
lly im
agin
es th
is t
o be
the
cas
e. T
his
conc
eptio
n of
his
tory
, com
- m
on to
all
hist
oria
ns p
artic
ular
ly s
ince
the
eigh
teen
th c
entu
ry, w
ill n
eces
- sa
rily
com
e up
aga
inst
the
phe
nom
enon
tha
t in
crea
sing
ly t
he a
bstr
act
idea
s pr
evai
l, th
at i
s, i
deas
tha
t in
crea
sing
ly ta
ke o
n th
e fo
rm o
f un
iver
- sa
lity.
Eac
h ne
w c
lass
whi
ch d
ispl
aces
the
one
pre
viou
sly
dom
inan
t is
fo
rced
, sim
ply
to b
e ab
le t
o ca
rry
out i
ts a
im, t
o re
pres
ent
its i
nter
est
as
the
com
mon
inte
rest
of
all m
embe
rs o
f so
ciet
y, th
at is
, ide
ally
exp
ress
ed.
It h
as to
giv
e its
idea
s th
e fo
rm o
f un
iver
salit
y an
d re
pres
ent
them
as
the
only
ratio
nal,
univ
ersa
lly v
alid
one
s. T
he
clas
s m
akin
g re
volu
tion
emer
ges
at t
he o
utse
t si
mpl
y be
caus
e it
is o
ppos
ed t
o a
clas
s no
t as
a c
lass
but
as
a re
pres
enta
tive
of t
he w
hole
of
soci
ety.
It
appe
ars
as t
he w
hole
mas
s of
so
ciet
y co
nfro
ntin
g on
e ru
ling
cla
ss.
((U
nive
rsal
ity c
orre
spon
ds t
o (1
) cl
ass
vers
us e
stat
e, (
2) c
ompe
titio
n, w
orld
tra
de,
etc.
, (3
) th
e gr
eat
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
13
1
num
eric
al s
tren
gth
of t
he r
ulin
g cl
ass,
(4) t
he il
lusi
on o
f co
mm
on in
tere
sts
(in
the
begi
nnin
g th
is il
lusi
on is
true
), (
5) th
e de
lusi
on o
f id
eolo
gist
s an
d th
e di
visi
on o
f la
bor.)
) It
can
do
this
bec
ause
in
the
begi
nnin
g it
s in
tere
st
real
ly i
s m
ore
atta
ched
to
the
com
mon
int
eres
t of
all
othe
r no
n-ru
ling
cl
asse
s an
d be
caus
e un
der
the
pres
sure
of
prev
ailin
g co
nditi
ons
its
inte
r-
est h
as n
ot y
et b
een
able
to d
evel
op a
s th
e pa
rtic
ular
int
eres
t of
a pa
rtic
u-
lar
clas
s. I
ts v
icto
ry,
ther
efor
e, b
enef
its
also
man
y in
divi
dual
s of
oth
er
clas
ses
whi
ch d
o no
t w
in p
ower
but
onl
y in
sofa
r as
it
now
put
s th
ese
indi
vidu
als
in a
pos
ition
to r
aise
the
mse
lves
into
the
rul
ing
clas
s. W
hen
the
Fren
ch b
ourg
eois
ie o
vert
hrew
the
pow
er o
f th
e ar
isto
crac
y, it
per
mit-
te
d m
any
prol
etar
ians
to
rais
e th
emse
lves
abo
ve t
he p
role
tari
at,
but
only
in
sofa
r as
the
y be
cam
e bo
urge
ois.
Eve
ry n
ew c
lass
, th
eref
ore,
ach
ieve
s do
min
ance
onl
y on
a b
road
er b
asis
than
that
of
the
prev
ious
cla
ss ru
ling,
w
here
as t
he o
ppos
ition
of
the
non-
ruli
ng c
lass
aga
inst
the
new
rul
ing
clas
s la
ter
deve
lops
all
the
mor
e sh
arpl
y an
d de
eply
. B
oth
thes
e fa
ctor
s m
ean
that
the
stru
ggle
to b
e w
aged
aga
inst
this
new
rul
ing
clas
s ai
ms
at a
m
ore
deci
ded
and
mor
e ra
dica
l ne
gatio
n of
the
pre
viou
s co
nditi
ons
of
soci
ety
than
cou
ld a
ll pr
evio
us c
lass
es s
triv
ing
for d
omin
ance
. T
his
enti
re a
ppea
ranc
e, th
at th
e ru
le o
f a
cert
ain
clas
s is
onl
y th
e ru
le
of ce
rtai
n id
eas,
com
es to
a n
atur
al e
nd a
s so
on a
s cl
ass
rule
in
gene
ral
ceas
es t
o be
the
for
m i
n w
hich
soc
iety
is o
rgan
ized
, as
soo
n as
it
is n
o lo
nger
nec
essa
ry t
o re
pres
ent
a pa
rtic
ular
int
eres
t as
gen
eral
or
"the
ge
nera
l int
eres
t" a
s do
min
ant.
Whe
n ru
ling
idea
s ar
e se
para
ted
from
rul
ing
indi
vidu
als
and
abov
e al
l fr
om re
latio
nshi
ps re
sulti
ng f
rom
a g
iven
leve
l of
the
mod
e of
pro
duct
ion
and
the
conc
lusi
on h
as b
een
reac
hed
that
idea
s ar
e al
way
s ru
ling
his
tory
, it
is v
ery
easy
to
abst
ract
fro
m t
hese
var
ious
ide
as "
the
idea
s," t
he I
dea,
et
c.,
as t
he d
omin
ant
forc
e in
his
tory
and
thu
s un
ders
tand
all
thes
e se
para
te i
deas
and
con
cept
s as
"Se
lf-d
eter
min
atio
ns"
of t
he C
once
pt
deve
lopi
ng in
his
tory
. It
fol
low
s, o
f co
urse
, th
at a
ll th
e re
latio
nshi
ps o
f m
en c
an b
e de
rive
d fr
om t
he c
once
pt o
f m
an,
man
as
conc
eive
d, t
he
esse
nce
of m
an,
Man
. T
his
has
been
don
e in
spe
cula
tive
philo
soph
y.
((H
egel
him
self
adm
its a
t th
e en
d of
the
Phi
loso
phy
of H
isto
ry t
hat
he
"has
con
side
red
the
prog
ress
of
the
Con
cept
onl
y" a
nd h
as p
rese
nted
the
"t
rue
theo
dicy
" in
his
tory
(p.
446
).))
Now
one
can
go
back
aga
in to
the
pr
oduc
ers
of "
the
Con
cept
,"
to t
he t
heor
ists
, id
eolo
gist
s, a
nd p
hilo
so-
pher
s,
and
one
com
es t
o th
e co
nclu
sion
tha
t th
e ph
iloso
pher
s,
the
thin
kers
as
such
, hav
e al
way
s be
en d
omin
ant i
n hi
story
-a
conc
lusi
on, a
s we
see
, alr
eady
adv
ance
d by
Heg
el. T
hus
the
who
le t
rick
of
prov
ing
the
hege
mon
y (S
tirn
er c
alls
it
hier
arch
y) o
f Sp
irit
in
hist
ory
is c
onfi
ned
to
the
follo
win
g th
ree
effo
rts.
132
Wri
tings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lisnz
No.
1.
One
mus
t se
para
te t
he i
deas
of
thos
e ru
ling
for
em
piri
cal
reas
ons,
und
er e
mpi
rica
l con
ditio
ns, a
nd a
s m
ater
ial i
ndiv
idua
ls fr
om th
e ac
tual
rule
rs;
one
mus
t rec
ogni
ze t
he r
ule
of i
deas
or
illus
ions
in h
isto
ry.
No.
2.
One
mus
t pu
t or
der
into
thi
s ru
le o
f id
eas,
pro
ve a
mys
tical
co
nnec
tion
amon
g th
e su
cces
sive
rul
ing
idea
s, w
hich
is
man
aged
by
seei
ng t
hem
as
"sel
f-de
term
inat
ions
of
the
Con
cept
" (t
his
is p
ossi
ble
beca
use
thes
e id
eas
are
actu
ally
con
nect
ed w
ith o
ne a
noth
er b
y vi
rtue
of
thei
r em
piri
cal
basi
s an
d be
caus
e as
m
ere
idea
s th
ey b
ecom
e se
lf-
dist
inct
ions
, dis
tinct
ions
mad
e by
tho
ught
).
No.
3.
To
rem
ove
the
mys
tical
app
eara
nce
of t
his
"sel
f-de
term
inin
g C
once
pt"
one
chan
ges
it in
to a
per
son-
"Sel
f-C
onsc
ious
ness
"-or
, to
m
ake
it ap
pear
tho
roug
hly
mat
eria
listic
, in
to a
ser
ies
of p
erso
ns w
ho
repr
esen
t "t
he C
once
pt"
in h
isto
ry, i
nto
"the
thi
nker
s,"
"phi
loso
pher
s,"
ideo
logi
sts
who
aga
in a
re u
nder
stoo
d as
the
man
ufac
ture
rs o
f hi
stor
y,
"the
cou
ncil
of g
uard
ians
," t
he r
uler
s. (
(Man
= th
e "r
atio
nal
hum
an
spiri
t."))
Thu
s al
l mat
eria
listic
ele
men
ts h
ave
been
rem
oved
fro
m h
isto
ry
and
full
rein
can
be
give
n to
one
's sp
ecul
ativ
e ste
ed.
Thi
s hi
stor
ical
met
hod
whi
ch p
reva
iled
in G
erm
any
and
part
icul
arly
th
e re
ason
why
it
prev
aile
d m
ust
be e
xpla
ined
fro
m i
ts c
onne
ctio
n w
ith
the
illus
ion
of i
deol
ogis
ts in
gen
eral
, fo
r ex
ampl
e, th
e ill
usio
ns o
f ju
rist
s,
polit
icia
ns (
even
of
the
prac
tical
sta
tesm
en a
mon
g th
em),
and
fro
m t
he
dogm
atic
dre
amin
gs a
nd d
isto
rtio
ns o
f th
ese
fello
ws.
It
is v
ery
sim
ply
expl
aine
d fr
om th
eir
prac
tical
pos
ition
in
life,
thei
r em
ploy
men
t, an
d th
e di
visi
on o
f la
bor.
Whi
le in
ord
inar
y lif
e ev
ery
shop
keep
er i
s ve
ry w
ell a
ble
to d
istin
guis
h be
twee
n w
hat s
omeb
ody
prof
esse
s to
be
and
wha
t he
real
ly is
, our
his
to-
rian
s ha
ve n
ot y
et a
chie
ved
this
tri
vial
ins
ight
. T
hey
take
eve
ry e
poch
at
its w
ord
and
belie
ve
ever
ythi
ng
it sa
ys
and
imag
ines
ab
out
itsel
f. [P
ages
36
thro
ugh
39 in
Mam
's pa
gina
tion
mis
sing
her
e.]
[Div
isio
n of
Lab
or][
. .
. ] a
re f
ound
. Fr
om t
he f
irst
, th
ere
follo
ws
the
prem
ise
of a
hig
hly
deve
lope
d di
visi
on o
f la
bor
and
exte
nsiv
e co
mm
erce
; fr
om t
he s
econ
d, t
he l
ocal
ity.
In t
he f
irst
cas
e, i
ndiv
idua
ls m
ust
be
brou
ght t
oget
her;
in th
e se
cond
, the
y fi
nd th
emse
lves
alo
ngsi
de th
e gi
ven
inst
rum
ent
of
prod
uctio
n as
ins
trum
ents
of
prod
ucti
on
them
selv
es.
Her
e ar
ises
the
dif
fere
nce
betw
een
natu
ral
inst
rum
ents
of
prod
ucti
on
and
thos
e cr
eate
d by
civ
iliza
tion.
Th
e la
nd (
wat
er, e
tc.)
can
be
rega
rded
as
a n
atur
al in
stru
men
t of
pro
duct
ion.
In
the
firs
t cas
e, w
ith t
he n
atur
al
inst
rum
ent
of p
rodu
ctio
n, i
ndiv
idua
ls a
re s
ubse
rvie
nt t
o na
ture
; in
the
se
cond
, to
a pr
oduc
t of
lab
or. I
n th
e fi
rst c
ase,
pro
pert
y (l
ande
d pr
oper
ty)
appe
ars
as d
irec
t nat
ural
dom
inat
ion;
in t
he s
econ
d, a
s do
min
atio
n of
la-
bo
r, pa
rtic
ular
ly o
f ac
cum
ulat
ed l
abor
, cap
ital.
Th
e fi
rst c
ase
pres
uppo
ses
The G
erm
an Id
eolo
gy
133
that
the
indi
vidu
als
are
unite
d by
som
e bo
nd:
fam
ily, t
ribe
, the
land
itse
lf,
etc.
Th
e se
cond
cas
e pr
esup
pose
s th
at t
hey
are
inde
pend
ent
of o
ne
anot
her
and
are
only
hel
d to
geth
er b
y ex
chan
ge.
In t
he f
irst
cas
e, t
he
exch
ange
is m
ainl
y an
exc
hang
e be
twee
n m
en a
nd n
atur
e in
whi
ch t
he
labo
r of
men
is e
xcha
nged
for
the
prod
ucts
of
natu
re; i
n th
e se
cond
, it i
s pr
edom
inan
tly a
n ex
chan
ge o
f m
en a
mon
g th
emse
lves
. In
the
fir
st c
ase,
av
erag
e hu
man
com
mon
sen
se s
uffi
ces;
phy
sica
l ac
tivity
is
not
as y
et
sepa
rate
d fr
om m
enta
l act
ivity
. In
the
seco
nd, t
he d
ivis
ion
betw
een
phys
i- ca
l an
d m
enta
l la
bor
alre
ady
mus
t be
pra
ctic
ally
com
plet
ed.
In t
he f
irst
ca
se,
the
dom
inat
ion
of
the
prop
riet
or
over
non
-pro
prie
tors
m
ay b
e ba
sed
on a
per
sona
l rel
atio
nshi
p or
kin
d of
com
mun
ity;
in th
e se
cond
, it
mus
t ha
ve t
aken
on
phys
ical
sha
pe i
n a
thir
d pa
rty:
mon
ey. I
n th
e fi
rst
case
, sm
all i
ndus
try
exis
ts, b
ut d
eter
min
ed b
y th
e ut
iliza
tion
of t
he n
atu-
ra
l in
stru
men
t of
pro
duct
ion
and
henc
e w
ithou
t di
stri
butio
n of
lab
or
amon
g va
riou
s in
divi
dual
s; i
n th
e se
cond
, in
dust
ry e
xist
s on
ly i
n an
d th
roug
h di
visi
on o
f la
bor.
We
star
ted
from
ins
trum
ents
of
prod
ucti
on a
nd s
how
ed t
hat
priv
ate
prop
erty
was
a n
eces
sity
for
cer
tain
ind
ustr
ial
stag
es. I
n in
dust
rie
extr
ac-
tive
priv
ate
prop
erty
stil
l co
inci
des
with
lab
or.
In s
mal
l in
dust
ry a
nd
agri
cultu
re u
p til
l no
w p
rope
rty
is t
he n
eces
sary
con
sequ
ence
of
the
exis
ting
inst
rum
ents
of
prod
uctio
n.
Onl
y w
ith b
ig i
ndus
try
does
the
co
ntra
dict
ion
betw
een
the
inst
rum
ent
of p
rodu
ctio
n an
d pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty
appe
ar; i
t is
the
prod
uct o
f bi
g in
dust
ry. I
n ad
ditio
n, b
ig in
dust
ry m
ust b
e hi
ghly
dev
elop
ed t
o pr
oduc
e it.
Onl
y w
ith b
ig in
dust
ry is
the
abol
ition
of
priv
ate
prop
erty
pos
sibl
e.
The
gre
ates
t div
isio
n of
mat
eria
l an
d in
telle
ctua
l la
bor
is t
he s
epar
a-
tion
of t
own
and
coun
try.
Th
e op
posi
tion
betw
een
the
two
begi
ns w
ith
the
tran
sitio
n fr
om b
arba
rism
to
civi
lizat
ion,
fro
m t
he t
ribe
to
the
stat
e,
from
loca
lity
to n
atio
n, a
nd r
uns
thro
ugh
the
who
le h
isto
ry o
f ci
viliz
atbn
to
the
pre
sent
day
(th
e A
nti-
Cor
n-L
aw
Lea
gue)
. W
ith t
he e
xist
ence
of
tow
ns t
here
is t
he n
eces
sity
of
adm
inis
trat
ion,
pol
ice,
taxe
s, e
tc.,
in s
hort
of
mun
icip
al li
fe a
nd th
us p
oliti
cs in
gen
eral
. Her
e fi
rst b
ecam
e ap
pare
nt
the
divi
sion
of
the
popu
latio
n in
to tw
o gr
eat c
lass
es d
irec
tly b
ased
on
the
divi
sion
of
labo
r an
d th
e in
stru
men
ts o
f pr
oduc
tion.
Th
e to
wn
alre
ady
show
s in
act
ual
fact
a c
once
ntra
tion
of p
opul
atio
n, o
f in
stru
men
ts o
f pr
oduc
tion,
of
capi
tal,
satis
fact
ions
, and
nee
ds,
whi
le t
he c
ount
ry d
em-
onst
rate
s the
opp
osite
, iso
latio
n an
d se
para
tion.
Th
e an
tago
nism
bet
wee
n to
wn
and
coun
try
can
exis
t on
ly w
ith p
riva
te p
rope
rty.
It
is t
he c
rass
est
expr
essi
on o
f th
e su
bsum
ptio
n of
the
ind
ivid
ual
unde
r th
e di
visi
on o
f la
bor,
unde
r a
defi
nite
act
ivity
for
ced
upon
him
, a
subs
umpt
ion
mak
ing
one
man
int
o a
narr
ow t
own
anim
al,
the
othe
r in
to a
nar
row
cou
ntry
an
imal
, and
eve
ry d
ay c
reat
es a
new
the
con
flic
t be
twee
n th
eir
inte
rest
s.
134
Wri
tings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
Lab
or is
aga
in th
e m
ain
thin
g he
re, p
ower
ove
r ind
ivid
uals
, and
as
long
as
this
pow
er e
xist
s, p
riva
te p
rope
rty
mus
t ex
ist.
Th
e ov
erco
min
g of
the
an
tago
nism
bet
wee
n to
wn
and
coun
try
is o
ne o
f th
e fi
rst
cond
ition
s of
co
mm
unal
lif
e, a
con
ditio
n de
pend
ing
on a
mas
s of
mat
eria
l pr
emis
es.
Mer
e w
ill, a
s an
yone
can
see
at f
irst
gla
nce,
can
not
fulf
ill t
his
cond
ition
. (W
e w
ill h
ave
to d
iscu
ss th
ese
cond
ition
s.)
Sepa
rati
on o
f to
wn
and
coun
- tr
y ca
n al
so b
e un
ders
tood
as
the
sepa
ratio
n of
cap
ital
and
land
ed p
rop-
er
ty,
as t
he b
egin
ning
of
capi
tal's
exi
sten
ce a
nd d
evel
opm
ent i
ndep
en-
dent
of
land
ed p
rope
rty,
the
beg
inni
ng o
f pr
oper
ty b
ased
onl
y on
lab
or
and
exch
ange
. In
tow
ns th
at h
ad n
ot e
xist
ed b
efor
e bu
t wer
e ne
wly
bui
lt by
fre
ed s
erfs
in
the
Mid
dle
Age
s, ea
ch m
an's
part
icul
ar l
abor
was
his
onl
y pr
oper
ty
exce
pt f
or t
he s
mal
l ca
pita
l he
bro
ught
with
him
con
sist
ing
only
of
the
mos
t ne
cess
ary
tool
s of
his
cra
ft.
Th
e co
mpe
titio
n of
ser
fs c
onst
antly
ta
king
ref
uge
in t
he t
owns
, th
e co
nsta
nt w
ar o
f th
e co
untr
y ag
ains
t th
e to
wn,
and
thu
s th
e ne
cess
ity o
f an
org
aniz
ed m
unic
ipal
mili
tary
for
ce,
the
bond
of
com
mon
ow
ners
hip
in a
par
ticul
ar k
ind
of l
abor
, the
nec
es-
sity
of
shar
ing
build
ings
for
the
sale
of
thei
r w
ares
whe
n cr
afts
men
wer
e +
al
so t
rade
rs,
and
cons
eque
ntly
the
exc
lusi
on o
f un
auth
oriz
ed p
erso
ns
4
from
the
se b
uild
ings
, the
con
flic
t of
int
eres
ts a
mon
g va
riou
s cr
afts
, th
e ne
cess
ity o
f pr
otec
ting
thei
r la
bori
ousl
y ac
quir
ed s
kill,
and
the
feu
dal
orga
niza
tion
of t
he e
ntir
e co
untry
-all
thes
e w
ere
caus
es o
f th
e un
ion
of
wor
kers
of
each
cra
ft i
nto
guild
s. A
t th
is p
oint
we
need
not
go
furt
her
into
the
num
erou
s m
odif
icat
ions
of
the
guild
sys
tem
with
late
r hi
stor
ical
de
velo
pmen
ts. T
he
flig
ht o
f se
rfs
into
the
tow
ns c
onti
nued
with
out i
nter
- ru
ptio
n th
roug
h th
e en
tire
Mid
dle
Age
s. T
hese
ser
fs,
pers
ecut
ed
by
thei
r lo
rds
in t
he c
ount
ry,
cam
e se
para
tely
int
o th
e to
wns
whe
re t
hey
foun
d an
org
aniz
ed c
omm
unity
aga
inst
whi
ch t
hey
wer
e po
wer
less
and
in
whi
ch t
hey
had
to a
djus
t to
the
sta
tion
whi
ch t
heir
org
aniz
ed u
rban
co
mpe
titor
s ass
igne
d to
the
m a
ccor
ding
to t
heir
nee
d of
lab
or a
nd t
heir
in
tere
st.
Arr
ivin
g se
para
tely
, the
se w
orke
rs w
ere
neve
r ab
le t
o ga
in a
ny
pow
er b
ecau
se if
the
ir l
abor
was
of
the
guild
type
and
had
to
be le
arne
d,
the
guild
mas
ters
put
the
m i
n su
bjec
tion
and
orga
nize
d th
em a
ccor
ding
to
the
ir i
nter
est.
If t
heir
lab
or w
as n
ot o
f th
is t
ype
but
rath
er d
ay la
bor,
they
nev
er m
anag
ed t
o or
gani
ze t
hem
selv
es a
nd r
emai
ned
unor
gani
zed
rabb
le. T
he
need
for
day
labo
r in
the
tow
ns c
reat
ed t
he ra
bble
. T
hese
tow
ns w
ere
true
"as
soci
atio
ns"
crea
ted
by a
dir
ect
need
to
prov
ide
for p
rote
ctio
n of
pro
pert
y, m
ultip
ly th
e m
eans
of
prod
ucti
on, a
nd
defe
nd t
he in
divi
dual
mem
bers
. Th
e ra
bble
of
thes
e to
wns
was
dep
rive
d of
all
pow
er.
It w
as c
ompo
sed
of i
ndiv
idua
ls w
ho w
ere
stra
nge
to o
ne
anot
her,
had
arr
ived
sep
arat
ely,
wer
e un
orga
nize
d, a
nd f
aced
an
orga
- ni
zed
pow
er a
rmed
for
war
and
jea
lous
ly s
uper
visi
ng th
em.
In e
ach
craf
t jo
urne
ymen
and
app
rent
ices
wer
e or
gani
zed
as b
est
suite
d th
eir
mas
ter's
The G
erm
an Id
eolo
gy
135
inte
rest
. T
heir
pat
riar
chal
rel
atio
nshi
p w
ith t
heir
mas
ters
gav
e th
e m
as-
ters
a d
oubl
e po
wer
, fir
st b
ecau
se o
f th
eir
dire
ct in
flue
nce
on a
ll as
pect
s of
lif
e of
the
jou
rney
men
and
sec
ondl
y be
caus
e th
ere
was
a r
eal
bond
un
iting
the
jou
rney
men
w
ho w
orke
d fo
r th
e sa
me
mas
ter,
a
bond
se
para
ting
them
fro
m jo
urne
ymen
wor
king
for
othe
r m
aste
rs. A
nd f
inal
ly
the
jour
neym
en w
ere
boun
d to
the
exi
stin
g or
der
by t
heir
int
eres
t in
be
com
ing
mas
ters
them
selv
es. W
hile
the
rab
ble
at le
ast c
arri
ed o
ut s
ome
revo
lts a
gain
st t
he w
hole
mun
icip
al o
rder
, re
volts
tha
t re
mai
ned
com
- pl
etel
y in
effe
ctiv
e be
caus
e of
the
ir i
mpo
tenc
e, t
he j
ourn
eym
en h
ad o
nly
insi
gnif
ican
t sq
uabb
les
with
in t
heir
gui
ld a
nd s
uch
as p
erta
in t
o th
e na
ture
of
the
syst
em. T
he
grea
t rev
olts
of
the
Mid
dle
Age
s al
l sta
rted
in
the
coun
try.
The
y, t
oo,
rem
aine
d to
tally
ine
ffec
tive
beca
use
of t
he d
is-
pers
al a
nd r
esul
ting
crue
lty o
f th
e pe
asan
ts.
Cap
ital
in t
hese
tow
ns c
onsi
sted
of
a ho
use,
too
ls o
f th
e cr
aft,
and
natu
ral h
ered
itary
cus
tom
ers;
it w
as n
atur
al c
apita
l. Si
nce
it w
as u
nrea
liz-
able
bec
ause
of
the
prim
itive
for
m o
f co
mm
erce
and
lack
of
circ
ulat
ion,
it
had
to d
esce
nd f
rom
fath
er to
son
. Unl
ike
mod
ern
capi
tal w
hich
can
be
appr
aise
d m
onet
arily
and
inve
sted
in
this
thi
ng o
r th
at,
this
nat
ural
cap
i-
tal
was
dir
ectly
tie
d up
with
the
par
ticul
ar w
ork
of
the
owne
r, w
as
inse
para
ble
from
it, a
nd w
as th
us e
stat
e ca
pita
l. In
the
tow
ns th
e di
visi
on o
f la
bor b
etw
een
the
vari
ous
guild
s w
as q
uite
na
tura
l; in
the
gui
lds
them
selv
es i
t w
as n
ot a
ll ca
rrie
d ou
t am
ong
the
indi
vidu
al w
orke
rs. E
very
wor
ker
had
to b
e w
ell v
erse
d in
a w
hole
rou
nd
of t
asks
and
had
to
be a
ble
to m
ake
all t
hing
s th
at c
ould
be
mad
e w
ith h
is
tool
s. T
he
limite
d co
mm
erce
and
the
lac
k of
go
od c
omm
unic
atio
ns
betw
een
indi
vidu
al t
owns
, th
e la
ck o
f po
pula
tion,
and
lim
ited
need
s di
d no
t per
mit
a hi
gher
div
isio
n of
lab
or. E
very
man
who
set
out
to b
ecom
e a
mas
ter
craf
tsm
an h
ad t
o be
pro
fici
ent
in t
he w
hole
of
his
craf
t. T
he
med
ieva
l cr
afts
men
stil
l ex
hibi
ted
an i
nter
est
in t
heir
spe
cial
wor
k an
d-
thei
r sk
ill i
n it
whi
ch c
ould
dev
elop
to
a ce
rtai
n lim
ited
artis
tic t
alen
t. Fo
r th
at v
ery
reas
on, h
owev
er, e
very
med
ieva
l cra
ftsm
an w
as c
ompl
etel
y ab
sorb
ed in
his
wor
k, h
ad a
con
tent
ed s
lavi
sh r
elat
ions
hip
to i
t, an
d w
as
subj
ecte
d to
it
to a
far
gre
ater
ext
ent
than
is
the
mod
ern
wor
ker
for
who
m h
is w
ork
is a
mat
ter
of in
diff
eren
ce.
Th
e ne
xt e
xten
sion
of
the
divi
sion
of
labo
r w
as t
he s
epar
atio
n of
pr
oduc
tion
and
com
mer
ce a
nd t
he f
orm
atio
n of
a s
peci
al c
lass
of
mer
- ch
ants
, a
sepa
ratio
n w
hich
had
bee
n ha
nded
dow
n (a
s fo
r ex
ampl
e w
ith
the
Jew
s) i
n es
tabl
ishe
d to
wns
and
soo
n ap
pear
ed i
n ne
w o
nes.
With
this
th
ere
was
th
e po
ssib
ility
of
com
mer
ce
tran
scen
ding
the
im
med
iate
ne
ighb
orho
od, a
nd t
he r
ealiz
atio
n of
thi
s po
ssib
ility
dep
ende
d on
exi
st-
ing
mea
ns o
f co
mm
unic
atio
n, t
he s
tate
of
publ
ic s
afet
y in
the
cou
n-
trysi
de d
eter
min
ed b
y po
litic
al c
ondi
tions
(th
roug
hout
the
Mid
dle
Age
s th
e m
erch
ants
tra
vele
d in
arm
ed c
arav
ans,
as
is w
ell
know
n), a
nd o
n th
e
136
Wri
tings
on
His
tori
cal M
ater
ialis
m
crud
er o
r m
ore
deve
lope
d ne
eds
of t
he a
rea
acce
ssib
le t
o co
mm
erce
as
dete
rmin
ed b
y th
e st
age
of c
ultu
re.
Wit
h co
mm
erce
as
the
prop
er b
usi-
ne
ss o
f a
part
icul
ar c
lass
and
ext
ensi
on o
f tr
ade
thro
ugh
the
mer
chan
ts
beyo
nd t
he im
med
iate
sur
roun
ding
s of
the
tow
n, a
n im
med
iate
rec
ipro
- ca
l act
ion
betw
een
prod
ucti
on a
nd c
omm
erce
app
eare
d. T
he
tow
ns e
n-
tere
d in
to r
elat
ions
with
one
ano
ther
. N
ew t
ools
wer
e br
ough
t fr
om o
ne
tow
n in
to t
he o
ther
. T
he
divi
sion
bet
wee
n pr
oduc
tion
and
com
mer
ce
soon
cre
ated
a n
ew d
ivis
ion
of p
rodu
ctio
n am
ong
indi
vidu
al to
wns
, eac
h ex
ploi
ting
a pr
edom
inan
t br
anch
of
indu
stry
. E
arlie
r lo
cal
rest
rict
ions
gr
adua
lly b
roke
dow
n.
It d
epen
ds e
ntir
ely
on t
he e
xten
sion
of
com
mer
ce w
heth
er t
he p
ro-
duct
ive
forc
es, e
spec
ially
inv
entio
ns, i
n a
loca
lity
are
lost
for
late
r de
vel-
opm
ent o
r no
t. A
s lo
ng a
s th
ere
is n
o co
mm
erce
bey
ond
the
imm
edia
te
neig
hbor
hood
, eve
ry in
vent
ion
mus
t be
sep
arat
ely
mad
e in
eac
h lo
calit
y.
Pure
acc
iden
ts s
uch
as e
rupt
ions
of
barb
aric
peo
ples
and
eve
n or
dina
ry
war
s ar
e en
ough
to c
ause
a c
ount
ry w
ith a
dvan
ced
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
and
ne
eds
to s
tart
all
over
aga
in f
rom
the
beg
inni
ng.
In p
rim
itive
his
tory
ev
ery
inve
ntio
n ha
d to
be
mad
e an
ew,
inde
pend
ently
, ev
ery
day
and
in
each
loc
ality
. Tha
t w
ell-
deve
lope
d pr
oduc
tive
forc
es a
re n
ot s
afe
from
co
mpl
ete
dest
ruct
ion
even
with
rel
ativ
ely
exte
nsiv
e co
mm
erce
is
prov
ed
by t
he P
hoen
icia
ns (
(and
gla
ss p
aint
ing
in t
he M
iddl
e A
ges)
) w
hose
in
vent
ions
wer
e la
rgel
y lo
st f
or a
lon
g tim
e th
roug
h th
e di
spla
cem
ent
of
this
nat
ion
from
com
mer
ce,
its c
onqu
est
by A
lexa
nder
, an
d its
con
se-
quen
t dec
line.
Gla
ss p
aint
ing
in th
e M
iddl
e A
ges
had
a si
mila
r fat
e. O
nly
whe
n co
mm
erce
has
bec
ome
wor
ldw
ide
and
is b
ased
on
larg
e-sc
ale
in-
dust
ry, w
hen
all n
atio
ns a
re d
raw
n in
to th
e co
mpe
titiv
e st
rugg
le, w
ill th
e pe
rman
ence
of
the
acqu
ired
pro
duct
ive
forc
es b
e as
sure
d.
[Man
ufac
turi
nd A
dir
ect
cons
eque
nce
of t
he d
ivis
ion
of l
abor
bet
wee
n th
e va
riou
s to
wns
was
the
ris
e of
man
ufac
ture
s, b
ranc
hes
of p
rodu
ctio
n th
at h
ad d
evel
oped
fro
m t
he g
uild
sys
tem
. T
hey
firs
t fl
ouri
shed
in
Italy
an
d la
ter
in F
land
ers
beca
use
of t
he h
isto
rica
l co
ndit
ion
of t
rade
with
fo
reig
n na
tions
. In
oth
er c
ount
ries
, fo
r ex
ampl
e, E
ngla
nd a
nd F
ranc
e,
man
ufac
turi
ng w
as a
t fi
rst c
onfi
ned
to t
he d
omes
tic m
arke
t. B
esid
es th
e co
nditi
ons
alre
ady
men
tione
d, m
anuf
actu
ring
dep
ends
on
an a
dvan
ced
conc
entr
atio
n of
pop
ulat
ion-
part
icul
arly
in
the
cou
ntry
-and
of
cap
ital
whi
ch b
egan
to
accu
mul
ate
in t
he h
ands
of
indi
vidu
als,
par
tly i
n th
e gu
ilds
desp
ite th
eir
regu
latio
ns, a
nd p
artly
am
ong
the
mer
chan
ts.
Tha
t ki
nd o
f la
bor
whi
ch f
rom
the
beg
inni
ng r
equi
red
a m
achi
ne,
even
of
the
crud
est k
ind,
soo
n tu
rned
out
to b
e m
ost c
apab
le o
f de
velo
p-
men
t. W
eavi
ng,
prev
ious
ly d
one
by p
easa
nts
in t
he c
ount
ry a
s a
sec-
on
dary
job
to p
rovi
de c
loth
ing,
was
the
fir
st l
abor
to
rece
ive
an i
mpe
tus
The G
erm
an Id
eolo
gy
137
and
a fu
rthe
r de
velo
pmen
t thr
ough
the
ext
ensi
on o
f co
mm
erce
. Wea
ving
w
as t
he f
irst
and
rem
aine
d th
e m
ain
man
ufac
turi
ng.
Th
e ri
sing
dem
and
for
clot
hing
mat
eria
ls f
rom
the
gro
wth
of
the
popu
latio
n, t
he g
row
ing
accu
mul
atio
n an
d m
obili
zatio
n of
na
tura
l ca
pita
l th
roug
h ac
cele
rate
d ci
rcul
atio
n, th
e de
man
d fo
r lux
urie
s ca
used
by
the
acce
lera
ted
circ
ulat
ion
and
gene
rally
fac
ilita
ted
by
the
grad
ual
exte
nsio
n of
com
mer
ce,
gave
w
eavi
ng a
qua
ntita
tive
and
qual
itativ
e im
petu
s w
hich
rem
oved
it f
rom
the
prev
ailin
g fo
rm o
f pr
oduc
tion.
Bes
ide
the
peas
ants
who
con
tinu
ed, a
nd
still
con
tinue
, to
wea
ve f
or th
eir
own
use,
a n
ew c
lass
of
wea
vers
em
erge
d in
the
tow
ns w
hose
fab
rics
wer
e de
stin
ed f
or t
he e
ntir
e do
mes
tic m
arke
t an
d us
ually
als
o fo
reig
n m
arke
ts.
Wea
ving
, a j
ob u
sual
ly r
equi
ring
litt
le
skill
, so
on b
ranc
hed
out
into
var
ious
kin
ds o
f jo
bs
and
resi
sted
the
re
stri
ctio
ns o
f a
guild
. Fo
r th
is r
easo
n w
eavi
ng w
as d
one
mos
tly i
n vi
l- la
ges
and
mar
ketp
lace
s, w
ithou
t gu
ild o
rgan
izat
ion.
Vill
ages
gre
w i
nto
tow
ns, a
nd in
deed
the
mos
t flo
uris
hing
one
s in
eac
h co
untr
y.
With
gui
ld-f
ree
man
ufac
turi
ng,
prop
erty
rel
atio
ns c
hang
ed r
apid
ly.
The
fir
st a
dvan
ce b
eyon
d na
tura
l-es
tate
ca
pita
l w
as p
rovi
ded
by
the
emer
genc
e of
mer
chan
ts w
hose
cap
ital w
as f
rom
the
sta
rt m
ovab
le, c
api-
ta
l in
the
mod
ern
sens
e as
far
as
we
can
spea
k of
it
in c
onsi
deri
ng t
he
circ
umst
ance
s of
thos
e tim
es.
Th
e se
cond
adv
ance
cam
e w
ith m
anuf
ac-
turi
ng w
hich
aga
in m
obili
zed
a gr
eat
deal
of
natu
ral
capi
tal
and
al-
toge
ther
inc
reas
ed t
he m
ass
of m
ovab
le c
apita
l as
com
pare
d to
tha
t of
na
tura
l ca
pita
l. A
t th
e sa
me
time
man
ufac
turi
ng b
ecam
e a
refu
ge o
f th
e pe
asan
ts f
rom
the
guild
s w
hich
exc
lude
d th
em o
r pa
id t
hem
poo
rly, j
ust
as e
arlie
r th
e gu
ild t
owns
had
ser
ved
as a
ref
uge
for
the
peas
ants
fro
m
the
land
lord
s.
With
the
begi
nnin
g of
man
ufac
turi
ng th
ere
was
im
med
iate
ly a
per
iod
of v
agra
ncy
caus
ed b
y th
e ab
oliti
on o
f fe
udal
ret
aine
rs,
the
disb
andi
ng o
f ar
mie
s whi
ch h
ad s
erve
d th
e ki
ngs
agai
nst t
heir
vas
sals
, the
impr
ovem
ent
of a
gric
ultu
re, a
nd t
he tr
ansf
orm
atio
n of
lar
ge s
trip
s of
ara
ble
land
into
pa
stur
e la
nd. I
t is
cle
ar f
rom
this
alo
ne h
ow t
his
vagr
ancy
coi
ncid
es w
ith
the
disi
nteg
ratio
n of
the
feu
dal
syst
em.
Isol
ated
epo
chs
of
this
kin
d oc
curr
ed a
s ea
rly a
s th
e th
irte
enth
cen
tury
. O
nly
at t
he e
nd o
f th
e fi
ftee
nth
and
begi
nnin
g of
the
six
teen
th c
entu
ries
is i
t ge
nera
lly p
rese
nt
and
for
quite
som
e du
ratio
n. T
hese
vag
abon
ds w
ere
so n
umer
ous
that
, to
give
one
exa
mpl
e, H
enry
VII
I of
Eng
land
had
72,
000
of t
hem
han
ged.
T
hey
coul
d be
put
to
wor
k on
ly w
ith t
he g
reat
est
diff
icul
ty a
nd t
hrou
gh
mos
t ex
trem
e de
stitu
tion,
and
the
n af
ter
long
res
ista
nce.
Th
e ra
pid
rise
of
man
ufac
turi
ng, p
artic
ular
ly in
Eng
land
, gra
dual
ly a
bsor
bed
them
. W
ith t
he r
ise
of m
anuf
actu
ring
, th
e va
riou
s na
tions
ent
ered
int
o a
com
petit
ive
rela
tions
hip,
the
fig
ht f
or t
rade
, w
hich
was
fou
ght
out
in
war
s, pr
otec
tive
dutie
s, a
nd p
rohi
bitio
ns,
whi
le t
he n
atio
ns f
orm
erly
had
138
Writ
ings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
Th
e G
erm
an Id
eolo
gy
139
carr
ied
on a
n in
offe
nsiv
e ex
chan
ge if
the
y w
ere
in c
onta
ct a
t al
l. Fr
om
then
on
trad
e as
sum
ed p
oliti
cal s
igni
fica
nce.
T
he
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
wor
ker
and
empl
oyer
als
o ch
ange
d. I
n th
e gu
ilds
the
patr
iarc
hal r
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
jour
neym
an a
nd m
aste
r co
n-
tinue
d to
exi
st; i
n m
anuf
actu
ring
the
mon
etar
y re
latio
n be
twee
n w
orke
r an
d ca
pita
list t
ook
its
plac
e, a
rel
atio
nshi
p w
hich
ret
aine
d a
patr
iarc
hal
tinge
in
the
coun
try
and
the
smal
l to
wns
but
qui
te e
arly
los
t al
mos
t al
l pa
tria
rcha
l col
orat
ion
in th
e la
rger
, the
real
man
ufac
turi
ng to
wns
. M
anuf
actu
ring
and
the
mov
emen
t of
pro
duct
ion
in g
ener
al r
ecei
ved
an e
norm
ous
stim
ulus
thr
ough
the
ext
ensi
on o
f co
mm
erce
with
the
di
scov
ery
of
Am
eric
a an
d a
sea
rout
e to
the
Eas
t In
dies
. T
he
new
pr
oduc
ts i
mpo
rted
fro
m A
mer
ica
and
the
Indi
es a
nd p
artic
ular
ly t
he
larg
e qu
antit
ies
of g
old
and
silv
er w
hich
cam
e in
to c
ircu
latio
n co
mpl
etel
y ch
ange
d th
e po
sitio
n of
cla
sses
tow
ard
each
oth
er a
nd d
ealt
a ha
rd b
low
to
feu
dal l
ande
d pr
oper
ty a
nd l
abor
ers.
Th
e ex
pedi
tions
of
adve
ntur
ers,
co
loni
zatio
n, a
nd a
bove
all
the
exte
nsio
n of
mar
kets
int
o a
wor
ld m
arke
t, no
w p
ossi
ble
and
beco
min
g m
ore
and
mor
e a
fact
with
eac
h da
y, c
alle
d fo
rth
a ne
w p
hase
of
hist
oric
al d
evel
opm
ent w
hich
we
cann
ot f
urth
er
+
disc
uss
here
. T
hrou
gh t
he c
olon
izat
ion
of n
ewly
dis
cove
red
land
s, t
he
Lo
com
mer
cial
str
uggl
e of
nat
ions
aga
inst
one
ano
ther
rec
eive
d ne
w f
uel
and
thus
bec
ame
bigg
er a
nd m
ore
bitte
r.
Exp
ansi
on o
f tr
ade
and
man
ufac
turi
ng a
ccel
erat
ed th
e ac
cum
ulat
ion
of
mov
able
cap
ital
whi
le n
atur
al c
apita
l in
the
gui
lds
rem
aine
d st
able
or
even
dec
reas
ed w
ithou
t any
stim
ulus
for
incr
ease
d pr
oduc
tion
. Tra
de a
nd
man
ufac
turi
ng c
reat
ed t
he b
ig b
ourg
eois
ie;
the
petty
bou
rgeo
isie
was
co
ncen
trat
ed in
the
gui
lds,
no
long
er a
pre
vaili
ng p
ower
in
the
citie
s bu
t bo
win
g to
the
pow
er o
f bi
g m
erch
ants
and
man
ufac
ture
rs.
(([v
ertic
ally
] T
he
petty
bou
rgeo
is-M
iddl
e cl
ass-
Big
bo
urge
oisi
e))
As
soon
as
the
guild
s ca
me
into
con
tact
with
man
ufac
turi
ng, t
hey
decl
ined
. D
urin
g th
e ep
och
unde
r di
scus
sion
the
rel
atio
nshi
ps o
f th
e na
tions
to
one
anot
her
took
on
two
diff
eren
t fo
rms.
In
the
begi
nnin
g th
e sm
all
quan
tity
of g
old
and
silv
er i
n ci
rcul
atio
n br
ough
t ab
out
the
ban
on t
he
expo
rt o
f th
ese
met
als.
Ind
ustr
y, m
ostly
im
port
ed
from
ab
road
and
ne
eded
to
empl
oy t
he i
ncre
asin
g ur
ban
popu
latio
n, r
equi
red
thos
e pr
iv-
ilege
s w
hich
cou
ld b
e gr
ante
d no
t on
ly a
gain
st c
ompe
titio
n at
hom
e bu
t m
ainl
y ag
ains
t for
eign
com
petit
ion.
In
the
orig
inal
pro
hibi
tions
the
loc
al
guild
priv
ilege
was
ext
ende
d ov
er th
e w
hole
nat
ion.
Cus
tom
s du
ties
orig
i-
nate
d fr
om l
evie
s w
hich
feu
dal
lord
s ex
acte
d as
pro
tect
ion
mon
ey f
rom
m
erch
ants
pas
sing
thro
ugh
thei
r te
rrit
orie
s an
d fr
om le
vies
late
r im
pose
d by
to
wns
as
the
mos
t co
nven
ient
met
hod
of
rais
ing
mon
ey f
or t
heir
tre
asur
y. T
he
appe
aran
ce o
f A
mer
ican
gol
d an
d si
lver
on
the
Eur
opea
n m
arke
ts,
the
grad
ual
deve
lopm
ent
of i
ndus
try,
the
rap
id e
xpan
sion
of
trad
e, a
nd t
he c
onse
quen
t ri
se o
f th
e no
n-gu
ild
bour
geoi
sie
and
of
mon
ey g
ave
thes
e m
easu
res
a di
ffer
ent
sign
ific
ance
. Bei
ng f
rom
day
to
day
less
abl
e to
do
with
out
mon
ey, t
he s
tate
now
uph
eld
the
ban
on t
he
expo
rt o
f go
ld a
nd s
ilver
for
fis
cal
reas
ons.
Th
e bo
urge
ois
for
who
m
thes
e m
asse
s of
mon
ey o
n th
e m
arke
t be
cam
e th
e ch
ief
obje
ct o
f sp
ec-
ulat
ion
wer
e th
orou
ghly
ple
ased
. Pr
ivile
ges
beca
me
a so
urce
of
inco
me
for
the
gove
rnm
ent
and
wer
e so
ld f
or m
oney
. In
cus
tom
s le
gisl
atio
n ex
port
dut
ies
appe
ared
whi
ch h
ad a
pur
ely
fisc
al a
im a
nd w
ere
only
a
hind
ranc
e to
indu
stry
. T
he
seco
nd p
erio
d be
gan
in t
he m
iddl
e of
the
sev
ente
enth
cen
tury
an
d la
sted
alm
ost t
o th
e en
d of
the
eig
htee
nth.
Com
mer
ce a
nd n
avig
a-
tion
had
expa
nded
mor
e ra
pidl
y th
an m
anuf
actu
ring
whi
ch p
laye
d a
seco
ndar
y ro
le.
Col
onie
s w
ere
beco
min
g im
port
ant
cons
umer
s. A
fter
lo
ng s
trug
gles
the
ind
ivid
ual n
atio
ns s
hare
d th
e op
enin
g w
orld
mar
ket.
Thi
s pe
riod
beg
ins
with
the
Nav
igat
ion
Law
s an
d co
loni
al m
onop
olie
s.
Com
petit
ion
of t
he n
atio
ns a
mon
g th
emse
lves
was
exc
lude
d so
far
as
poss
ible
by
tari
ffs,
pro
hibi
tions
, an
d tr
eatie
s. I
n th
e la
st r
esor
t th
e co
m-
petit
ive
stru
ggle
was
car
ried
out
and
dec
ided
in
war
s (p
artic
ular
ly i
n na
val w
ars)
. T
he
mos
t po
wer
ful m
ariti
me
natio
n, t
he E
nglis
h, h
eld
pre-
em
inen
ce in
trad
e an
d m
anuf
actu
ring
. H
ere
we
alre
ady
have
con
cent
ra-
tion
in o
ne c
ount
ry.
Man
ufac
turi
ng w
as c
onst
antly
pro
tect
ed
at h
ome
by t
arif
fs,
in t
he
colo
nial
mar
ket b
y m
onop
olie
s, a
nd a
broa
d as
muc
h as
pos
sibl
e by
dif
- fe
rent
ial d
utie
s. T
he
proc
essi
ng o
f do
mes
tic r
aw m
ater
ials
was
enc
our-
ag
ed (
woo
l an
d lin
en i
n E
ngla
nd,
silk
in
Fran
ce);
the
exp
ort
of r
aw
mat
eria
ls w
as f
orbi
dden
(w
ool i
n E
ngla
nd);
and
the
pro
cess
ing
of i
mpo
r-
tant
mat
eria
l was
neg
lect
ed o
r su
ppre
ssed
(co
tton
in E
ngla
nd).
Th
e na
- tio
n ru
ling
in s
ea t
rade
and
col
onia
l po
wer
nat
ural
ly s
ecur
ed f
or i
tsel
f al
so th
e gr
eate
st q
uant
itativ
e an
d qu
alita
tive
expa
nsio
n of
man
ufac
turi
ng.
Man
ufac
turi
ng c
ould
not
do
with
out
prot
ectio
n. T
hrou
gh t
he s
light
est
chan
ge t
akin
g pl
ace
in o
ther
cou
ntri
es,
it co
uld
lose
its
mar
ket
and
be
ruin
ed.
It c
an b
e ea
sily
intr
oduc
ed i
nto
a co
untr
y un
der
reas
onab
ly fa
vor-
ab
le c
ondi
tions
and
for
this
rea
son
can
be e
asily
des
troy
ed. T
hrou
gh th
e m
ode
in w
hich
man
ufac
turi
ng w
as c
arri
ed o
n pa
rtic
ular
ly i
n ru
ral
area
s of
th
e ei
ghte
enth
cen
tury
, it
was
so
muc
h in
terw
oven
with
the
vita
l re
latio
nshi
ps o
f a
grea
t mas
s of
ind
ivid
uals
that
no
coun
try
dare
d je
opar
- d
ie it
s ex
iste
nce
by p
erm
itti
ng f
ree
com
petit
ion.
Whe
n a
coun
try
man
- ag
es t
o ex
port
, thi
s de
pend
s en
tirel
y on
the
ext
ensi
on o
r re
stri
ctio
n of
co
mm
erce
and
exe
rcis
es a
rel
ativ
ely
smal
l eff
ect.
[Cor
ner
of m
anus
crip
t da
mag
ed.]
Hen
ce th
e se
cond
ary
[im
port
ance
] and
infl
uenc
e of
[th
e m
er-
chan
ts] i
n th
e ei
ghte
enth
cen
tury
. Mor
e th
an a
nyon
e el
se th
e m
erch
ants
an
d es
peci
ally
the
shi
pper
s in
sist
ed o
n pr
otec
tion
and
mon
opol
ies.
Th
e
140
Writ
ings
on
His
toric
al M
ater
ialis
m
man
ufac
ture
rs a
lso
dem
ande
d an
d re
ceiv
ed p
rote
ctio
n bu
t w
ere
infe
rior
in
pol
itica
l im
port
ance
at
all
times
. T
he
com
mer
cial
tow
ns, p
artic
ular
ly
the
mar
itim
e to
wns
, bec
ame
to s
ome
degr
ee c
ivili
zed
and
big-
bour
geoi
s,
but
an e
xtre
me
petty
bou
rgeo
is o
utlo
ok p
ersi
sted
in
the
fact
ory
tow
ns.
See
Aik
in [
Des
crip
tion
of th
e C
ount
y fr
om T
hirt
y to
For
ty M
iles
roun
d M
unch
este
r, L
ondo
n, 1
7951
, etc
. Th
e ei
ghte
enth
cen
tury
was
a c
entu
ry o
f tr
ade.
Pin
to s
ays
this
exp
ress
ly [
Tra
ite' d
e la
ci
rcul
atio
tz e
t du
cr
e'dit,
A
mst
erda
m,
1771
1: "
Com
mer
ce i
s th
e ra
ge o
f th
e ce
ntur
y,"
and:
"fo
r so
me
time
now
peo
ple
have
bee
n ta
lkin
g on
ly a
bout
com
mer
ce,
navi
ga-
tion,
and
the
navy
." T
he m
ovem
ent o
f ca
pita
l, al
thou
gh s
igni
fica
ntly
acc
eler
ated
, rem
aine
d re
lativ
ely
slow
. Th
e sp
littin
g of
the
wor
ld m
arke
t int
o se
para
te p
arts
, eac
h of
whi
ch w
as e
xplo
ited
by a
par
ticul
ar n
atio
n, t
he e
xclu
sion
of
natio
ns'
com
petit
ion
amon
g th
emse
lves
, the
clu
msi
ness
of
prod
ucti
on i
tsel
f, an
d th
e fa
ct t
hat
the
fina
ncia
l sy
stem
was
onl
y de
velo
ping
fro
m i
ts e
arly
sta
ges-
all
this
gre
atly
impe
ded
circ
ulat
ion.
Th
e co
nseq
uenc
e w
as a
hag
- gl
ing,
sha
bby,
pet
ty s
piri
t whi
ch s
till c
lung
to a
ll m
erch
ants
and
the
who
le
mod
e of
ca
rryi
ng o
n tr
ade.
Com
pare
d w
ith m
anuf
actu
rers
and
par
- tic
ular
ly c
raft
smen
, the
y w
ere
cert
ainl
y bi
g bo
urge
ois;
com
pare
d w
ith th
e m
erch
ants
and
ind
ustr
ialis
ts o
f th
e ne
xt p
erio
d th
ey r
emai
n pe
tty b
our-
h)
geoi
s. C
f. A
dam
Sm
ith
[The
Wea
lth of
N
atio
ns].
o
Thi
s pe
riod
is
also
cha
ract
eriz
ed b
y th
e ca
ncel
latio
n of
ban
s on
the
ex
port
of
gold
and
silv
er, a
nd th
e be
ginn
ing
of t
rade
in
mon
ey; b
y ba
nks,
na
tiona
l de
bts,
pap
er m
oney
, spe
cula
tion
in s
tock
s an
d sh
ares
, an
d jo
b-
bing
in
all
artic
les;
by
the
deve
lopm
ent
of
fina
nce
in g
ener
al.
Cap
ital
agai
n lo
st a
gre
at p
art
of t
he n
atio
nal
char
acte
r w
hich
it
had
still
pos
- se
ssed
. T
he c
once
ntra
tion
of t
rade
and
man
ufac
turi
ng i
n on
e co
untr
y, E
n-
glan
d, d
evel
oped
irr
esis
tibly
in
the
seve
ntee
nth
cent
ury
and
grad
ually
cr
eate
d fo
r tha
t cou
ntry
a re
lativ
e w
orld
mar
ket a
nd th
us a
dem
and
for
its
man
ufac
ture
d pr
oduc
ts w
hich
cou
ld n
o lo
nger
be
met
by
the
prev
ailin
g in
dust
rial
for
ces
of p
rodu
ctio
n. T
he
dem
and
outg
rew
the
pro
duct
ive
forc
es a
nd w
as t
he m
otiv
e po
wer
to
brin
g ab
out
the
thir
d pe
riod
of
priv
ate
owne
rshi
p si
nce
the
Mid
dle
Age
s by
pro
duci
ng b
ig in
dust
ry-t
he
appl
icat
ion
of e
lem
enta
l fo
rces
to i
ndus
tria
l pu
rpos
es,
mac
hine
ry, a
nd a
ve
ry e
xten
sive
div
isio
n of
lab
or.
The
re a
lrea
dy e
xist
ed i
n E
ngla
nd t
he
rem
aini
ng c
ondi
tions
for
this
new
pha
se:
free
dom
of
com
petit
ion
with
in
the
natio
n an
d th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
theo
retic
al m
echa
nics
(as
per
fect
ed b
y N
ewto
n, t
he m
ost
popu
lar
scie
nce
in F
ranc
e an
d E
ngla
nd i
n th
e ei
gh-
teen
th c
entu
ry).
(Fr
ee c
ompe
titio
n w
ithin
the
nat
ion
itsel
f ev
eryw
here
ha
d to
be
obta
ined
by
revo
lutio
n-16
40
and
1688
in E
ngla
nd,
1789
in
Fran
ce.)
Com
petit
ion
soon
for
ced
ever
y co
untr
y th
at w
ante
d to
ret
ain
its
The G
erm
an Id
eolo
gy
141
hist
oric
al r
ole
to p
rote
ct i
ts m
anuf
actu
rers
by
rene
wed
cus
tom
s re
gula
- tio
ns (
the
old
dutie
s w
ere
of l
ittl
e he
lp a
gain
st b
ig i
ndus
try)
and
soo
n in
trod
uce
big
indu
stry
und
er p
rote
ctiv
e du
ties.
Big
indu
stry
uni
vers
aliz
ed
com
petit
ion
(pra
ctic
al f
ree
trad
e; th
e pr
otec
tive
duty
is o
nly
a pa
lliat
ive,
a
mea
sure
of
defe
nse
with
in f
ree
trad
e) d
espi
te p
rote
ctiv
e m
easu
res,
est
ab-
lishe
d m
eans
of
com
mun
icat
ion
and
the
mod
ern
wor
ld m
arke
t, su
bord
i-
nate
d tr
ade
to i
tsel
f, tr
ansf
orm
ed a
ll ca
pita
l in
to i
ndus
tria
l ca
pita
l, an
d th
us p
rodu
ced
the
rapi
d ci
rcul
atio
n (d
evel
opm
ent o
f fi
nanc
e) a
nd c
en-
tral
izat
ion
of c
apita
l fu
nds.
(B
y un
iver
sal
com
petit
ion
it fo
rced
all
indi
- vi
dual
s to
str
ain
thei
r en
ergy
to
the
extr
eme.
So
far
as p
ossi
ble,
big
in
dust
ry d
estr
oyed
ide
olog
y, r
elig
ion,
mor
ality
, et
c.,
and
whe
re i
t co
uld
not,
mad
e th
em i
nto
a pl
ain
lie.)
It p
rodu
ced
wor
ld h
isto
ry f
or t
he f
irst
tim
e in
tha
t it
mad
e ev
ery
civi
lized
nat
ion
and
ever
y in
divi
dual
mem
ber
of t
he n
atio
n de
pend
ent
for
the
satis
fact
ion
of h
is w
ants
on
the
who
le
wor
ld,
thus
des
troy
ing
the
form
er n
atur
al e
xclu
sive
ness
of
sepa
rate
na-
tio
ns. I
t su
bsum
ed n
atur
al s
cien
ce u
nder
cap
ital
and
took
fro
m t
he d
ivi-
si
on o
f la
bor
the
last
sem
blan
ce o
f it
s na
tura
l ch
arac
ter.
It
dest
roye
d na
tura
l gro
wth
in g
ener
al, s
o fa
r as
this
is p
ossi
ble
in la
bor,
and
reso
lved
al
l na
tura
l re
latio
nshi
ps in
to m
oney
rel
atio
nshi
ps.
In t
he p
lace
of
natu
- ra
lly g
row
n to
wns
it
crea
ted
over
nigh
t m
oder
n, l
arge
ind
ustr
ial
citie
s.
Whe
reve
r bi
g in
dust
ry p
reva
iled,
it
dest
roye
d th
e cr
afts
and
all
earl
ier
stag
es o
f in
dust
ry I
t co
mpl
eted
the
vic
tory
[of
the
tow
n] o
ver
the
coun
- try
. [I
ts p
rem
ise]
was
the
aut
omat
ic s
yste
m.
[Its
dev
elop
men
t] re
sulte
d in
a
mas
s of
pro
duct
ive
forc
es f
or w
hich
pri
vate
pro
pert
y be
cam
e ju
st a
s m
uch
a fe
tter
as th
e gu
ild h
ad b
een
for
man
ufac
ture
r an
d th
e sm
all r
ural
sh
op fo
r the
dev
elop
ing
craf
t. U
nder
the
syst
em o
f pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty th
ese
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
rec
eive
onl
y a
one-
side
d de
velo
pmen
t and
bec
ome
de-
stru
ctiv
e fo
rces
for
the
maj
ority
. A g
reat
mul
titud
e of
suc
h fo
rces
can
not
find
app
licat
ion
at a
ll un
der
the
syst
em o
f pr
ivat
e ow
ners
hip.
In
gene
ral,
big
indu
stry
cre
ated
eve
ryw
here
the
sam
e re
latio
n be
twee
n th
e cl
asse
s of
so
ciet
y an
d th
us d
estr
oyed
the
par
ticul
arity
of
each
nat
iona
lity.
And
fi-
nally
, whi
le th
e bo
urge
oisi
e of
eac
h na
tion
still
ret
aine
d se
para
te n
atio
nal
inte
rest
s, b
ig i
ndus
try
crea
ted
a cl
ass
havi
ng t
he s
ame
inte
rest
s in
all
natio
ns a
nd f
or w
hich
nat
iona
lity
is a
lrea
dy d
estr
oyed
; a
clas
s w
hich
is
real
ly r
id o
f th
e en
tire
old
wor
ld a
nd s
tand
s op
pose
d to
it.
Big
indu
stry
m
akes
unb
eara
ble
for
the
wor
ker n
ot o
nly
his
rela
tion
to th
e ca
pita
list b
ut
even
labo
r its
elf.
It is
cle
ar th
at b
ig in
dust
ry d
oes
not
deve
lop
equa
lly in
all
dist
rict
s of
a
coun
try. H
owev
er, t
his
does
not
hin
der
the
clas
s m
ovem
ent o
f th
e pr
o-
leta
riat
, bec
ause
the
pro
leta
rian
s cr
eate
d by
big
ind
ustr
y as
sum
e le
ader
- sh
ip o
f th
is m
ovem
ent
and
carr
y th
e cr
owd
with
the
m,
and
beca
use
the
wor
kers
exc
lude
d fr
om b
ig in
dust
ry a
re p
ut i
n a
wor
se s
ituat
ion
than
the
142
Writ
ings
on
His
toric
al M
ater
ialis
m
wor
kers
in
big
indu
stry
its
elf.
Cou
ntri
es w
ith b
ig i
ndus
trie
s af
fect
in
a si
mila
r man
ner
the
mor
e or
less
non
-ind
ustr
ial
coun
trie
s, if
the
latt
er a
re
swep
t by
gl
obal
com
mer
ce i
nto
univ
ersa
l co
mpe
titiv
e st
rugg
le.
The
se
diff
eren
t fo
rms
are
only
so
man
y fo
rms
of t
he o
rgan
izat
ion
of l
abor
and
he
nce
of p
rope
rty.
In
each
per
iod
a un
ific
atio
n of
the
exi
stin
g pr
oduc
tive
forc
es ta
kes
plac
e in
sofa
r as
this
has
bee
n m
ade
nece
ssar
y by
nee
ds.
Thi
s co
ntra
dict
ion
betw
een
the
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
and
the
for
m o
f co
mm
erce
, w
hich
we
obse
rve
occu
rrin
g se
vera
l tim
es i
n pa
st h
isto
ry
with
out e
ndan
geri
ng t
he b
asis
of
hist
ory,
had
to
burs
t ou
t in
a re
volu
tion
each
tim
e, ta
king
on
at t
he s
ame
time
vari
ous
seco
ndar
y fo
rms,
suc
h as
co
mpr
ehen
sive
col
lisio
ns, c
ollis
ions
of
vari
ous
clas
ses,
con
trad
icti
ons
of
cons
ciou
snes
s, b
attle
of
idea
s, e
tc.,
polit
ical
str
uggl
e, e
tc. F
rom
a n
arro
w
poin
t of
view
one
can
isol
ate
one
of t
hese
sec
onda
ry f
orm
s an
d co
nsid
er
it th
e ba
sis
of t
hese
rev
olut
ions
. Thi
s is
all
the
mor
e ea
sy a
s th
e in
divi
d-
uals
who
sta
rted
the
rev
olut
ions
had
illu
sion
s ab
out
thei
r ow
n ac
tivity
ac
cord
ing
to t
heir
deg
ree
of e
duca
tion
and
stag
e of
his
tori
cal
deve
lop-
m
ent.
In o
ur v
iew
all
colli
sion
s in
his
tory
hav
e th
eir
orig
in i
n th
e co
ntra
dic-
tio
n be
twee
n th
e pr
oduc
tive
forc
es a
nd t
he f
orm
of
inte
ract
ion
[Ver
- ke
hrsf
orm
]. In
cide
ntal
ly, t
his
cont
radi
ctio
n do
es n
eed
to h
ave
reac
hed
its
extr
eme
in a
par
ticul
ar c
ount
ry t
o le
ad t
o co
llisi
ons
in t
hat
coun
try.
C
ompe
titio
n w
ith i
ndus
tria
lly m
ore
deve
lope
d co
untr
ies
brou
ght
abou
t by
exp
ande
d in
tern
atio
nal
com
mer
ce i
s su
ffic
ient
to
prod
uce
a si
mila
r co
ntra
dict
ion
in c
ount
ries
whe
re i
ndus
try
is l
aggi
ng b
ehin
d (e
.g.
the
late
nt p
role
tari
at in
Ger
man
y br
ough
t ou
t by
the
com
petit
ion
of E
nglis
h in
dust
ry).
C
ompe
titio
n is
olat
es in
divi
dual
s, n
ot o
nly
the
bour
geoi
s bu
t ev
en m
ore
the
prol
etar
ians
, des
pite
the
fac
t th
at i
t br
ings
the
m t
oget
her.
It
take
s a
long
tim
e be
fore
thes
e in
divi
dual
s ca
n un
ite,
apa
rt f
rom
the
fac
t tha
t fo
r th
is u
nion
-if
it is
not
to
be m
erel
y lo
cal-b
ig
indu
stry
mus
t fi
rst
pro-
du
ce th
e ne
cess
ary
mea
ns, t
he b
ig in
dust
rial
citi
es a
nd in
expe
nsiv
e, q
uick
co
mm
unic
atio
ns. T
here
fore
, ev
ery
orga
nize
d po
wer
sta
ndin
g in
opp
osi-
tio
n to
the
se i
sola
ted
indi
vidu
als,
who
liv
e in
rel
atio
nshi
ps d
aily
re-
pr
oduc
ing
this
iso
latio
n, c
an b
e co
nque
red
only
aft
er l
ong
stru
ggle
s. T
o de
man
d th
e op
posi
te w
ould
be
tant
amou
nt t
o de
man
ding
tha
t co
mpe
ti-
tion
shou
ld n
ot e
xist
in t
his
defi
nite
his
tori
cal p
erio
d, o
r th
at t
he in
divi
d-
uals
sho
uld
bani
sh f
rom
the
ir m
inds
rel
atio
nshi
ps o
ver
whi
ch t
hey,
the
is
olat
ed, h
ave
no c
ontr
ol.
[Com
mun
ity]
Th
e bu
ildin
g of
hou
ses.
With
sav
ages
eve
ry f
amily
has
its
ow
n ca
ve o
r hu
t, ju
st a
s w
ith t
he n
omad
s ea
ch f
amily
has
a s
epar
ate
tent
. T
his
sepa
rate
dom
estic
eco
nom
y is
mad
e ev
en m
ore
nece
ssar
y by
the
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
14
3
furt
her
deve
lopm
ent o
f pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty. W
ith a
gric
ultu
ral
peop
le a
com
- m
unal
dom
estic
eco
nom
y is
just
as
impo
ssib
le a
s is
a c
omm
unal
cul
tiva-
tio
n of
the
soi
l. T
he
build
ing
of t
owns
was
a g
reat
adv
ance
. In
all
prev
ious
per
iods
, ho
wev
er,
the
abol
ition
of
indi
vidu
al e
cono
my,
whi
ch
cann
ot b
e se
para
ted
from
the
abo
litio
n of
pri
vate
pro
pert
y, w
as i
mpo
s-
sibl
e fo
r th
e si
mpl
e re
ason
that
the
mat
eria
l con
ditio
ns w
ere
not
pres
ent.
To
esta
blis
h a
com
mun
al d
omes
tic e
cono
my
pres
uppo
ses
the
deve
lop-
m
ent
of m
achi
nery
, of
the
use
of
natu
ral
forc
es a
nd o
f m
any
othe
r pr
oduc
tive
forc
es-fo
r ex
ampl
e, o
f w
ater
sup
plie
s, o
f ga
slig
htin
g, s
team
he
atin
g, e
tc.,
the
rem
oval
[of
the
ant
agon
ism
] of
tow
n an
d co
untr
y. W
ith-
out t
hese
con
ditio
ns a
com
mun
al e
cono
my
coul
d no
t for
m a
new
pro
duc-
tiv
e fo
rce.
Lac
king
any
mat
eria
l bas
is a
nd r
estin
g on
a p
urel
y th
eore
tical
fo
unda
tion,
it w
ould
be
only
a f
reak
and
wou
ld n
ot a
chie
ve m
ore
than
a
mon
astic
eco
nom
y ac
hiev
es.-W
hat
was
pos
sibl
e ca
n be
see
n in
the
for
- m
atio
n of
citi
es w
hich
sta
rted
whe
n pe
ople
mov
ed c
lose
toge
ther
and
in
the
erec
tion
of c
omm
unal
bui
ldin
gs f
or v
ario
us d
efin
ite p
urpo
ses
(pri
s-
ons,
bar
rack
s, e
tc.).
It i
s se
lf-e
vide
nt th
at th
e tr
ansc
ende
nce
of i
ndiv
idua
l ec
onom
y ca
nnot
be
sepa
rate
d fr
om th
e tr
ansc
ende
nce
of t
he fa
mily
. Sa
int M
ax's
freq
uent
sta
tem
ent
that
eve
ryon
e is
all
that
he
is t
hrou
gh
the
stat
e is
bas
ical
ly t
he s
ame
as th
e st
atem
ent t
hat
the
bour
geoi
s is
onl
y a
spec
imen
of
the
bour
geoi
s sp
ecie
s, a
sta
tem
ent
pres
uppo
sing
tha
t th
e cl
ass
of t
he b
ourg
eois
exi
sted
bef
ore
the
indi
vidu
als
cons
titut
ing
it.
((W
ith th
e ph
iloso
pher
s, p
re-e
xist
ence
of
a cl
ass.
)) I
n th
e M
iddl
e A
ges
the
citiz
ens
of e
ach
tow
n w
ere
com
pelle
d to
uni
te a
gain
st th
e la
nded
nob
ility
to
sav
e th
eir
skin
s. E
xten
sion
of
trad
e an
d es
tabl
ishm
ent
of c
omm
unic
a-
tion
acqu
aint
ed s
epar
ate
tow
ns w
ith o
ther
s w
hich
had
ass
erte
d th
e sa
me
inte
rest
s in
the
fig
ht a
gain
st t
he s
ame
oppo
nent
. O
ut o
f th
e m
any
loca
l co
rpor
atio
ns o
f bu
rghe
rs t
here
gra
dual
ly b
ut v
ery
slow
ly a
rose
the
bur
- gh
er c
lass
. T
he
cond
ition
s of
lif
e of
the
ind
ivid
ual
burg
hers
bec
ame
cond
ition
s w
hich
wer
e co
mm
on t
o th
em a
ll an
d in
depe
nden
t of
eac
h in
divi
dual
bec
ause
of
thei
r co
ntra
dict
ion
to th
e ex
istin
g re
latio
nshi
ps a
nd
beca
use
of t
he m
ode
of l
abor
det
erm
ined
by
thes
e. T
he
burg
hers
had
cr
eate
d th
ese
cond
ition
s in
sofa
r as
they
had
fre
ed th
emse
lves
from
feu
dal
ties
and
had
been
cre
ated
by
them
ins
ofar
as
they
wer
e de
term
ined
by
thei
r op
posi
tion
to th
e ex
istin
g fe
udal
sys
tem
. Whe
n th
e in
divi
dual
tow
ns
bega
n to
ent
er i
nto
asso
ciat
ions
, th
ese
com
mon
con
ditio
ns d
evel
oped
in
to c
lass
con
ditio
ns. T
hese
sam
e co
nditi
ons,
the
sam
e an
tago
nism
, and
th
e sa
me
inte
rest
s ha
d to
cal
l fo
rth
gene
rally
sim
ilar
cust
oms
ever
y-
whe
re. W
ith it
s co
nditi
ons,
the
bour
geoi
sie
itsel
f de
velo
ps o
nly
grad
ually
, sp
lits
into
var
ious
fra
ctio
ns a
ccor
ding
to
the
divi
sion
of
labo
r, ((
It a
b-
sorb
s, f
irst
of
all,
the
bran
ches
of
labo
r be
long
ing
dire
ctly
to
the
stat
e,
then
all
mor
e or
les
s id
eolo
gica
l est
ates
.)) a
nd f
inal
ly a
bsor
bs a
ll ex
istin
g
144
Wri
tings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
prop
ertie
d cl
asse
s (w
hile
it
deve
lops
mos
t of
the
for
mer
ly p
rope
rtyl
ess
clas
s an
d pa
rt o
f th
e pr
evio
usly
pro
pert
ied
clas
s in
to a
new
cla
ss,
the
prol
etar
iat)
to
the
exte
nt t
hat
all
exis
ting
prop
erty
is
tran
sfor
med
int
o in
dust
rial
or
com
mer
cial
cap
ital.
Var
ious
ind
ivid
uals
for
m a
cla
ss o
nly
inso
far
as t
hey
have
to
carr
y on
a j
oint
bat
tle
agai
nst
anot
her
clas
s.
Oth
erw
ise
they
are
hos
tile,
com
peti
ng w
ith e
ach
othe
r. O
n t
he o
ther
ha
nd,
a cl
ass
in t
urn
achi
eves
ind
epen
dent
exi
sten
ce i
n re
latio
n to
ind
i-
vidu
als
so t
hat
they
fin
d th
eir
cond
itio
ns o
f lif
e pr
edes
tined
, ha
ve t
heir
po
sitio
n in
lif
e an
d th
eir
pers
onal
dev
elop
men
t as
sign
ed,
and
are
sub-
su
med
und
er t
he c
lass
. Thi
s is
the
sam
e ph
enom
enon
as
the
subs
ump-
tio
n of
par
ticul
ar in
divi
dual
s und
er t
he d
ivis
ion
of l
abor
and
can
onl
y be
re
mov
ed b
y th
e tr
ansc
ende
nce
of p
riva
te p
rope
rty
and
of l
abor
itse
lf. W
e ha
ve a
lread
y in
dica
ted
seve
ral
times
, ho
w t
his
subs
umin
g of
ind
ivid
uals
un
der
the
clas
s is
acc
ompa
nied
by
thei
r su
bsum
ptio
n un
der
all k
inds
of
idea
s, e
tc.
If
one
cons
ider
s th
is e
volu
tion
of i
ndiv
idua
ls p
hilo
soph
ical
ly i
n th
e co
mm
on c
ondi
tions
of
exis
tenc
e of
es
tate
s an
d cl
asse
s fo
llow
ing
one
anot
her
and
in t
he a
ccom
pany
ing
gene
ral
conc
epti
ons
forc
ed o
n th
ose
indi
vidu
als,
it i
s ce
rtai
nly
very
eas
y to
im
agin
e th
at i
n th
ese
indi
vidu
als
the
spec
ies
or M
an h
as e
volv
ed, o
r th
at th
ey e
volv
ed M
an. I
n th
is w
ay o
ne
can
give
his
tory
som
e ha
rd b
low
s in
the
hea
d. O
ne c
an c
once
ive
thes
e va
rious
est
ates
and
cla
sses
as
spec
ific
term
s of
a g
ener
al e
xpre
ssio
n, a
s su
bord
inat
e va
riet
ies o
f th
e sp
ecie
s, a
s ev
olut
iona
ry p
hase
s of
Man
. T
his
subs
umin
g of
ind
ivid
uals
und
er d
efin
ite c
lass
es c
anno
t be
abo
l-
ishe
d un
til a
cla
ss h
as t
aken
sha
pe w
hich
no
long
er h
as a
ny p
artic
ular
cl
ass
inte
rest
to a
sser
t aga
inst
the
ruli
ng c
lass
. T
he
tran
sfor
mat
ion
of p
erso
nal
into
mat
eria
l po
wer
s (r
elat
ion-
sh
ips)
thro
ugh
the
divi
sion
of
labo
r ca
nnot
be
tran
scen
ded
by d
ism
issi
ng
the
gene
ral i
dea
of i
t fr
om o
ne's
min
d bu
t on
ly b
y in
divi
dual
s ag
ain
con-
tr
ollin
g th
ese
mat
eria
l po
wer
s an
d tr
ansc
endi
ng t
he d
ivis
ion
of l
abor
. ((
Feue
rbac
h: b
eing
and
ess
ence
)) T
his
is n
ot p
ossi
ble
with
out
the
com
- m
unity
. O
nly
in c
omm
unity
do
the
mea
ns e
xist
for
eve
ry i
ndiv
idua
l to
cu
ltiva
te h
is t
alen
ts i
n al
l di
rect
ions
. O
nly
in t
he c
omm
unity
is
pers
onal
fr
eedo
m p
ossi
ble.
In
prev
ious
sub
stit
utes
for
the
com
mun
ity, i
n th
e st
ate,
et
c., p
erso
nal f
reed
om h
as e
xist
ed o
nly
for
the
indi
vidu
als
who
dev
elop
ed
with
in t
he r
ulin
g cl
ass
and
only
ins
ofar
as
they
bel
onge
d to
thi
s cl
ass.
T
he
illus
ory
com
mun
ity, i
n w
hich
ind
ivid
uals
hav
e co
me
toge
ther
up
till
now
, alw
ays
took
on
an in
depe
nden
t exi
sten
ce in
rela
tion
to th
em a
nd w
as
at th
e sa
me
time
not o
nly
a co
mpl
etel
y ill
usor
y co
mm
unity
but
als
o a
new
fe
tter
beca
use
it w
as t
he c
ombi
natio
n of
one
cla
ss a
gain
st a
noth
er.
In a
re
al c
omm
unity
indi
vidu
als o
btai
ned
thei
r fr
eedo
m i
n an
d th
roug
h th
eir
asso
ciat
ion.
The G
erm
an Id
eolo
gy
145
Indi
vidu
als
have
alw
ays
star
ted
with
the
mse
lves
tho
ugh
with
in t
heir
gi
ven
hist
oric
al c
ondi
tions
and
rel
atio
nshi
ps,
not
with
the
"pu
re"
indi
- vi
dual
in
the
sens
e of
the
ide
olog
ists
. B
ut i
n th
e co
urse
of
hist
oric
al
deve
lopm
ent a
nd p
reci
sely
thro
ugh
the
inev
itabl
e fa
ct th
at i
n th
e di
visi
on
of l
abor
soc
ial r
elat
ions
hips
ass
ume
an i
ndep
ende
nt e
xist
ence
, the
re o
c-
curs
a d
ivis
ion
in th
e lif
e of
eac
h in
divi
dual
, ins
ofar
as
it is
per
sona
l an
d de
term
ined
by
som
e br
anch
of
labo
r an
d by
the
con
ditio
ns p
erta
inin
g to
it.
(T
his
does
not
mea
n th
at,
for
exam
ple,
the
ren
tier,
the
cap
italis
t, et
c.,
ceas
e to
be
pers
ons;
but
the
ir p
erso
nalit
y is
con
ditio
ned
and
dete
rmin
ed
by v
ery
defi
nite
cla
ss r
elat
ions
hips
, and
the
dif
fere
ntia
tion
appe
ars
only
in
the
ir o
ppos
ition
to
anot
her
clas
s an
d, f
or t
hem
selv
es, o
nly
whe
n th
ey
go b
ankr
upt.)
In
the
esta
te (
and
even
mor
e in
the
tri
be)
this
is
as y
et
conc
eale
d. A
nob
lem
an,
for
inst
ance
, will
alw
ays
rem
ain
a no
blem
an a
nd
a co
mm
oner
alw
ays
a co
mm
oner
apa
rt f
rom
his
oth
er r
elat
ions
hips
, a
qual
ity i
nsep
arab
le f
rom
his
ind
ivid
ualit
y. T
he
diff
eren
tiatio
n be
twee
n th
e pe
rson
al a
nd c
lass
indi
vidu
al a
nd t
he a
ccid
enta
l nat
ure
of t
he c
ondi
- tio
ns o
f lif
e fo
r th
e in
divi
dual
app
ears
onl
y w
ith t
he r
ise
of t
he c
lass
w
hich
itse
lf i
s a
prod
uct
of t
he b
ourg
eois
ie. C
ompe
titio
n an
d th
e st
rug-
gl
e of
ind
ivid
uals
am
ong
them
selv
es e
ngen
der
and
deve
lop
this
acc
iden
- ta
l cha
ract
er. I
n im
agin
atio
n, in
divi
dual
s see
m f
reer
und
er t
he r
ule
of t
he
bour
geoi
sie
than
bef
ore
beca
use
thei
r co
ndit
ions
of
life
seem
acc
iden
tal
to t
hem
. In
rea
lity
they
are
less
fre
e, b
ecau
se t
hey
are
mor
e su
bjec
ted
to
the
dom
inat
ion
of t
hing
s. T
he
diff
eren
ce f
rom
the
est
ate
is b
roug
ht o
ut
part
icul
arly
in
the
anta
goni
sm b
etw
een
the
bour
geoi
sie
and
the
pro-
le
tari
at.
Whe
n th
e es
tate
of
urba
n bu
rghe
rs, t
he c
orpo
ratio
ns,
etc.
, em
erge
d in
op
posi
tion
to t
he l
ande
d no
bilit
y, t
heir
con
ditio
n of
exi
sten
ce,
nam
ely,
m
ovab
le p
rope
rty
and
craf
t la
bor
alre
ady
exis
ting
late
ntly
bef
ore
thei
r se
para
tion
from
feu
dal
ties,
app
eare
d as
som
ethi
ng p
ositi
ve w
hich
was
as
sert
ed a
gain
st f
euda
l la
nded
pro
pert
y an
d he
nce
at f
irst
too
k on
a
feud
al fo
rm. C
erta
inly
the
esc
aped
ser
fs c
onsi
dere
d th
eir
prev
ious
ser
vi-
tude
as
som
ethi
ng a
ccid
enta
l to
the
ir p
erso
nalit
y. B
ut t
hey
wer
e on
ly
doin
g w
hat e
very
cla
ss fr
eein
g its
elf
from
a f
ette
r do
es. A
nd t
hey
did
not
free
them
selv
es a
s a
clas
s bu
t as
sep
arat
e in
divi
dual
s. T
hey
did
not
rise
ab
ove
the
syst
em o
f es
tate
s, b
ut m
erel
y fo
rmed
a n
ew e
stat
e an
d re
tain
ed
thei
r pr
evio
us m
ode
of l
abor
eve
n in
the
ir n
ew s
ituat
ion,
dev
elop
ing
it fu
rthe
r by
fr
eein
g it
from
its
ear
lier
fett
ers
whi
ch n
o lo
nger
cor
re-
spon
ded
to th
e de
velo
pmen
t alr
eady
atta
ined
. Fo
r th
e pr
olet
aria
ns,
on t
he o
ther
han
d, t
he c
ondi
tion
of t
heir
exi
s-
tenc
e, l
abor
, an
d th
us a
ll th
e co
nditi
ons
gove
rnin
g m
oder
n so
ciet
y ha
ve
beco
me
som
ethi
ng a
ccid
enta
l, so
met
hing
ove
r w
hich
the
y, a
s se
para
te
prol
etar
ians
, ha
ve n
o co
ntro
l an
d ov
er w
hich
no
soci
al o
rgan
izat
ion
can
146
Wri
tings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
listn
give
the
m c
ontr
ol.
Th
e co
ntra
dict
ion
betw
een
the
pers
onal
ity o
f ea
ch
sepa
rate
pro
leta
rian
and
lab
or,
the
cond
ition
of
life
forc
ed u
pon
him
, is
ve
ry e
vide
nt to
him
, fo
r he
is s
acri
fice
d fr
om h
is y
outh
on
and
with
in h
is
clas
s ha
s no
cha
nce
of a
rriv
ing
at c
ondi
tions
whi
ch w
ould
pla
ce h
im i
n an
othe
r cl
ass.
N
.B.
It m
ust n
ot b
e fo
rgot
ten
that
the
ser
fs v
ery
need
to
exis
t and
the
im
poss
ibili
ty o
f la
rge-
scal
e ec
onom
y w
ith
dist
ribu
tion
of
allo
tmen
ts
amon
g th
e se
rfs
soon
red
uced
the
dut
ies
of t
he s
erfs
to
an a
vera
ge o
f pa
ymen
ts in
kin
d an
d st
atut
e-la
bor
for
thei
r lo
rd.
Thi
s en
able
d th
e se
rf
to a
ccum
ulat
e m
ovab
le p
rope
rty,
fac
ilita
ted
his
esca
pe f
rom
the
pos
ses-
si
on o
f hi
s lo
rd,
and
gave
him
the
pro
spec
t of
m
akin
g hi
s w
ay
as a
bu
rghe
r. I
t al
so c
reat
ed g
rada
tions
am
ong
the
serf
s; t
he r
unaw
ay s
erfs
w
ere
alre
ady
half
burg
hers
. It
is o
bvio
us th
at t
he s
erfs
who
wer
e tr
aine
d in
a c
raft
had
the
bes
t cha
nce
of a
cqui
ring
mov
able
pro
pert
y.
Whi
le t
he r
unaw
ay s
erfs
onl
y w
ishe
d to
bec
ome
free
in
orde
r to
de-
ve
lop
and
asse
rt th
ose
cond
ition
s of
exi
sten
ce a
lrea
dy p
rese
nt a
nd h
ence
in
the
end
only
arr
ived
at f
ree
labo
r, th
e pr
olet
aria
ns,
if th
ey a
re to
ass
ert
them
selv
es a
s in
divi
dual
s, m
ust
abol
ish
the
very
con
diti
on o
f th
eir
exis
- te
nce
whi
ch h
as b
een
that
of
all
soci
ety
up t
o th
e pr
esen
t: la
bor.
Thu
s th
ey f
ind
them
selv
es d
irec
tly o
ppos
ed t
o th
e fo
rm i
n w
hich
ind
ivid
uals
co
mpo
sing
soc
iety
hav
e gi
ven
them
selv
es c
olle
ctiv
e ex
pres
sion
, the
sta
te:
and
they
mus
t ove
rthr
ow th
e st
ate
in o
rder
to r
ealiz
e th
eir
pers
onal
ity.
It i
s cl
ear
from
wha
t ha
s be
en s
aid
that
the
com
mun
al r
elat
ion-
sh
ip, i
nto
whi
ch t
he i
ndiv
idua
ls o
f a
clas
s en
tere
d an
d w
hich
was
det
er-
min
ed b
y th
eir
com
mon
inte
rest
s ov
er a
gain
st a
thi
rd p
arty
, was
alw
ays
a co
mm
unity
to w
hich
the
se i
ndiv
idua
ls b
elon
ged
only
as
aver
age
indi
vid-
ua
ls, o
nly
inso
far a
s th
ey li
ved
with
in t
he c
ondi
tion
s of
exi
sten
ce o
f th
eir
clas
s-a
rela
tions
hip
in w
hich
the
y pa
rtic
ipat
ed n
ot a
s in
divi
dual
s but
as
mem
bers
of
a cl
ass.
On
the
oth
er h
and,
it
is j
ust
the
reve
rse
with
the
co
mm
unity
of
revo
lutio
nary
pro
leta
rian
s w
ho t
ake
thei
r co
ndit
ions
of
exis
tenc
e an
d th
ose
of a
ll m
embe
rs o
f so
ciet
y un
der
thei
r co
ntro
l. T
he
indi
vidu
als
part
icip
ate
in t
his
com
mun
ity a
s in
divi
dual
s. I
t is
thi
s co
m-
bina
tion
of i
ndiv
idua
ls (a
ssum
ing
the
pres
ent
stag
e of
pro
duct
ive
forc
es,
of c
ours
e) w
hich
put
s th
e co
nditi
ons
of t
he f
ree
deve
lopm
ent a
nd m
ove-
m
ent
of
indi
vidu
als
unde
r th
eir
cont
rol,
cond
itio
ns w
hich
wer
e pr
e-
viou
sly
aban
done
d to
cha
nce
and
had
acqu
ired
ind
epen
dent
exi
sten
ce
over
aga
inst
sep
arat
e in
divi
dual
s be
caus
e of
the
ir s
epar
atio
n as
indi
vid-
ua
ls a
nd b
ecau
se o
f th
e ne
cess
ity o
f th
eir
com
bina
tion
whi
ch h
ad b
een
dete
rmin
ed b
y th
e di
visi
on o
f la
bor
and
thro
ugh
thei
r se
para
tion
had
beco
me
a bo
nd a
lien
to th
em.
Up
till n
ow t
he c
ombi
natio
n, b
y no
mea
ns
an a
rbitr
ary
one
as e
xpou
nded
in t
he C
ontr
at s
ocia
l bu
t a
nece
ssar
y on
e,
was
an
agre
emen
t on
thes
e co
nditi
ons
with
in w
hich
the
indi
vidu
als w
ere
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
14
7
free
to e
njoy
acc
iden
ts o
f fo
rtun
e (c
ompa
re,
for
exam
ple,
the
for
mat
ion
of t
he N
orth
Am
eric
an s
tate
and
the
Sou
th A
mer
ican
rep
ublic
s).
Thi
s ri
ght
to t
he u
ndis
turb
ed
enjo
ymen
t of
acc
iden
ts o
f fo
rtun
e, t
houg
h w
ithin
cer
tain
con
ditio
ns,
has
been
cal
led
pers
onal
fre
edom
.-The
se
cond
ition
s of
exi
sten
ce a
re,
of c
ours
e, o
nly
the
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
and
fo
rms
of i
nter
actio
n of
the
par
ticul
ar t
ime.
[Com
mun
ism
: Pr
oduc
tion
of t
he F
orm
of
Inte
ract
ion
Itse
B C
omm
unis
m
diff
ers
from
all
prev
ious
mov
emen
ts b
ecau
se i
t ove
rtur
ns t
he b
asis
of
all
prev
ious
rel
atio
ns o
f pr
oduc
tion
and
inte
ract
ion,
and
for
the
fir
st t
ime
cons
ciou
sly
trea
ts a
ll na
tura
l pre
mis
es a
s cr
eatio
ns o
f m
en, s
trip
s th
em o
f th
eir
natio
nal c
hara
cter
, an
d su
bjec
ts t
hem
to
the
pow
er o
f un
ited
indi
- vi
dual
s. It
s or
gani
zatio
n, th
eref
ore,
is
esse
ntia
lly e
cono
mic
, the
mat
eria
l pr
oduc
tion
of t
he c
ondi
tions
of
this
uni
ty.
It t
urns
exi
stin
g co
nditi
ons
into
con
ditio
ns o
f un
ity.
Th
e re
ality
tha
t co
mm
unis
m c
reat
es i
s th
e ac
tual
bas
is f
or m
akin
g it
impo
ssib
le th
at a
nyth
ing
shou
ld e
xist
inde
pen-
de
ntly
of
indi
vidu
als,
ins
ofar
as
this
rea
lity
is o
nly
a pr
oduc
t of
the
pr
eced
ing
inte
ract
ion
of i
ndiv
idua
ls th
emse
lves
. C
omm
unis
ts in
pra
ctic
e tr
eat
the
cond
ition
s cr
eate
d un
til n
ow b
y pr
oduc
tion
and
inte
ract
ion
as
inor
gani
c co
nditi
ons,
with
out i
mag
inin
g, h
owev
er, t
hat
it w
as t
he p
lan
or
the
dest
iny
of p
revi
ous
gene
ratio
ns t
o pr
ovid
e th
em m
ater
ial a
nd w
ithou
t be
lievi
ng t
hat
thes
e co
nditi
ons
wer
e in
orga
nic
for
the
indi
vidu
als
crea
t-
ing
them
. T
he
diff
eren
ce b
etw
een
the
indi
vidu
al a
s a
pers
on a
nd w
hat
is a
cci-
de
ntal
to
him
is
not
a co
ncep
tual
dif
fere
nce
but
a hi
stor
ical
fac
t. T
his
dist
inct
ion
has
a di
ffer
ent
sign
ific
ance
in d
iffe
rent
per
iods
, fo
r ex
ampl
e,
the
esta
te a
s so
met
hing
acc
iden
tal
to t
he i
ndiv
idua
l in
the
eig
htee
nth
cent
ury
and
the
fam
ily m
ore
or l
ess
acci
dent
al t
oo.
We
do n
ot h
ave
to
mak
e th
is d
istin
ctio
n fo
r ea
ch a
ge;
rath
er,
each
age
its
elf
mak
es i
t fr
om
the
diff
eren
t el
emen
ts w
hich
it
find
s in
exi
sten
ce,
not
acco
rdin
g to
a
conc
ept
but
com
pelle
d by
mat
eria
l co
llisi
ons
of l
ife.
Ele
men
ts w
hich
ap
pear
acc
iden
tal
to a
lat
er a
ge i
n co
mpa
riso
n w
ith a
n ea
rlie
r on
e, i
n-
clud
ing
thos
e ha
nded
dow
n by
th
e ea
rlie
r ag
e, c
onst
itute
a f
orm
of
inte
ract
ion
whi
ch c
orre
spon
ded
to a
par
ticul
ar s
tage
of
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
. T
he r
elat
ion
of t
he p
rodu
ctiv
e fo
rces
to
the
form
of
inte
ract
ion
is t
he
rela
tion
of t
he f
orm
of
inte
ract
ion
to t
he o
ccup
atio
n or
act
ivity
of
the
indi
vidu
als.
(O
f co
urse
, the
fun
dam
enta
l for
m o
f th
is a
ctiv
ity is
mat
eria
l; al
l ot
her
form
s, i
ntel
lect
ual,
polit
ical
, re
ligio
us, e
tc.,
depe
nd o
n it.
Th
e di
vers
e sh
apin
g of
mat
eria
l lif
e is
alw
ays
depe
nden
t on
nee
ds a
lrea
dy
deve
lope
d, a
nd t
he p
rodu
ctio
n as
wel
l as
sat
isfa
ctio
n of
the
se n
eeds
is
itsel
f a
hist
oric
al p
roce
ss n
ot f
ound
with
a s
heep
or
a do
g (t
he p
erve
rse
prin
cipa
l ar
gum
ent
of S
tirne
r's a
dver
sus
hom
inem
) th
ough
she
ep a
nd
Wri
tings
on
His
tori
cal M
ater
ialis
m
dogs
in
thei
r pr
esen
t fo
rm a
nd i
n sp
ite o
f th
emse
lves
are
pro
duct
s of
a
hist
oric
al p
roce
ss.)
Th
e co
nditi
ons
unde
r w
hich
ind
ivid
uals
inte
ract
so
long
as
cont
radi
c-
tion
is s
till
abse
nt a
re n
othi
ng e
xter
nal
to t
hem
but
are
con
diti
ons
per-
ta
inin
g to
the
ir i
ndiv
idua
lity,
con
diti
ons
unde
r w
hich
the
se p
artic
ular
in
divi
dual
s liv
ing
in p
artic
ular
cir
cum
stan
ces
can
prod
uce
thei
r m
ater
ial
life
and
wha
t is
con
nect
ed w
ith i
t. T
hey
are
the
cond
itio
ns o
f th
eir
self
- ac
tivity
and
are
pro
duce
d by
thi
s se
lf-a
ctiv
ity. (
(Pro
duct
ion
of t
he f
orm
of
inte
ract
ion
itsel
f.))
In t
he a
bsen
ce o
f co
ntra
dict
ion
the
part
icul
ar c
ondi
- tio
n un
der
whi
ch t
hey
prod
uce
thus
cor
resp
onds
to
the
actu
ality
of
thei
r co
nditi
oned
nat
ure,
th
eir
one-
side
d ex
iste
nce,
th
e on
e-si
dedn
ess
of
whi
ch s
how
s on
ly w
hen
cont
radi
ctio
n en
ters
and
thu
s on
ly e
xist
s fo
r la
ter
indi
vidu
als.
The
n th
is c
ondi
tion
app
ears
as
an a
ccid
enta
l fe
tter
, and
the
co
nsci
ousn
ess t
hat i
t is
a fe
tter
is im
pute
d to
the
earl
ier
age.
T
hese
var
ious
con
ditio
ns,
whi
ch a
ppea
r fi
rst
as c
ondi
tion
s of
se
lf-
activ
ity a
nd la
ter
as fe
tter
s up
on it
, for
m in
the
who
le e
volu
tion
of h
isto
ry
a co
here
nt s
erie
s of
for
ms
of i
nter
acti
on. T
he
cohe
renc
e co
nsis
ts o
f th
e fa
ct th
at i
n th
e pl
ace
of a
n ea
rlie
r fo
rm o
f in
tera
ctio
n, w
hich
has
bec
ome
a fe
tter,
is p
ut a
new
one
cor
resp
ondi
ng t
o th
e m
ore
deve
lope
d pr
oduc
- tiv
e fo
rces
and
thu
s to
an
adva
nced
mod
e of
the
sel
f-ac
tivity
of
indi
vid-
ua
ls,
a fo
rm w
hich
in
turn
bec
omes
a f
ette
r to
be
repl
aced
by
anot
her.
Si
nce
thes
e co
nditi
ons
corr
espo
nd a
t ev
ery
stag
e to
the
sim
ulta
neou
s de
velo
pmen
t of
pro
duct
ive
forc
es,
thei
r hi
stor
y is
at
the
sam
e ti
me
the
hist
ory
of t
he e
volv
ing
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
take
n ov
er b
y ea
ch n
ew g
ener
a-
tion
and
henc
e th
e hi
stor
y of
th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
the
for
ces
of
the
indi
vidu
als
them
selv
es.
Sinc
e th
is e
volu
tion
proc
eeds
nat
ural
ly a
nd i
s no
t su
bord
inat
ed t
o a
gene
ral
plan
of
free
ly u
nite
d in
divi
dual
s, i
t st
arts
out
fro
m v
ario
us l
o-
calit
ies,
tri
bes,
nat
ions
, br
anch
es o
f la
bor,
etc
., ea
ch o
f w
hich
dev
elop
s in
depe
nden
tly o
f th
e ot
hers
and
onl
y gr
adua
lly e
nter
s in
to r
elat
ions
hip
with
the
oth
ers.
It
proc
eeds
onl
y ve
ry s
low
ly.
Th
e va
riou
s st
ages
and
in
tere
sts
are
neve
r co
mpl
etel
y ov
erco
me
but
only
sub
ordi
nate
d to
the
w
inni
ng i
nter
est
and
drag
alo
ng w
ith i
t fo
r ce
ntur
ies.
Th
us
we
see
that
ev
en w
ithin
a n
atio
n th
e in
divi
dual
s, a
part
fro
m t
heir
pec
unia
ry c
ircu
m-
stan
ces,
hav
e qu
ite d
iffe
rent
dev
elop
men
ts. W
e se
e th
at a
n ea
rlie
r in
ter-
es
t, w
hose
pec
ulia
r fo
rm o
f in
tera
ctio
n ha
s al
read
y be
en s
uppl
ante
d by
a
form
bel
ongi
ng to
a la
ter
inte
rest
, re
mai
ns f
or a
lon
g ti
me
afte
rwar
ds i
n po
sses
sion
of
a tr
aditi
onal
pow
er i
n th
e ill
usor
y co
mm
unit
y (s
tate
, la
w)
whi
ch h
as b
ecom
e in
depe
nden
t of
ind
ivid
uals
, a
pow
er t
hat
can
only
be
brok
en b
y re
volu
tion.
Th
is e
xpla
ins
why
, w
ith r
efer
ence
to
part
icul
ar
poin
ts w
hich
per
mit
a m
ore
gene
ral
sum
mar
y, c
onsc
ious
ness
can
som
e-
times
app
ear
furt
her
adva
nced
than
con
tem
pora
ry e
mpi
rica
l rel
atio
nshi
ps
The
Ger
mat
z Ide
olog
j~
so o
ne c
an q
uote
ear
lier
theo
retic
ians
as
auth
orit
ies
in t
he s
trug
gles
of
a la
ter
epoc
h.
In c
ount
ries
lik
e N
orth
Am
eric
a w
hich
beg
in i
n an
alr
eady
adv
ance
d hi
stor
ical
epo
ch,
deve
lopm
ent p
roce
eds
very
rap
idly
. Suc
h co
untr
ies
have
no
oth
er n
atur
al p
rem
ises
tha
n th
e in
divi
dual
s w
ho s
ettle
d th
ere
and
wer
e in
duce
d to
do
so b
ecau
se t
he
form
s of
in
tera
ctio
n in
th
e ol
d co
untr
ies
did
not
corr
espo
nd t
o th
eir
wan
ts.
Thu
s th
ey b
egin
with
the
m
ost
adva
nced
ind
ivid
uals
of
the
old
coun
trie
s an
d w
ith t
he c
orre
spon
d-
ingl
y m
ost
adva
nced
for
m o
f in
tera
ctio
n, e
ven
befo
re t
his
form
of
inte
r-
actio
n ha
s be
en e
stab
lishe
d in
the
old
cou
ntri
es. T
his
is t
he c
ase
with
all
colo
nies
whi
ch a
re n
ot m
ilita
ry o
r tr
adin
g st
atio
ns.
Car
thag
e, t
he G
reek
co
loni
es, a
nd I
cela
nd i
n th
e el
even
th a
nd t
wel
fth
cent
urie
s ar
e ex
ampl
es
of t
his.
A s
imila
r re
latio
nshi
p is
est
ablis
hed
by c
onqu
est
whe
n a
form
of
inte
ract
ion
whi
ch h
as e
volv
ed e
lsew
here
is
intr
oduc
ed c
ompl
ete
into
the
co
nque
red
coun
try.
Whi
le i
t w
as s
till
encu
mbe
red
with
int
eres
ts a
nd
rela
tions
hips
from
ear
lier
~e
rio
ds at
hom
e, it
can
and
mus
t be
esta
blis
hed
com
plet
ely
and
with
out
hind
ranc
e in
the
con
quer
ed c
ount
ry t
o as
sure
th
e co
nque
rors
' la
stin
g po
wer
. (E
ngla
nd a
nd N
aple
s af
ter
the
Nor
man
C
onqu
est,
whe
n th
ey r
ecei
ved
the
mos
t pe
rfec
t fo
rm o
f fe
udal
org
a-
niza
tion.
) Thi
s w
hole
inte
rpre
tati
on o
f hi
stor
y ap
pear
s to
be
cont
radi
cted
by
the
fact
of
conq
uest
. V
iole
nce,
war
, pi
llage
, mur
der,
etc
., ha
ve b
een
seen
as
the
mot
ive
forc
e of
his
tory
. We
mus
t lim
it ou
rsel
ves
here
to
the
chie
f po
ints
and
tak
e up
onl
y th
e m
ost
stri
king
exa
mpl
e, th
e de
stru
ctio
n of
an
old
civi
lizat
ion
by a
bar
baro
us p
eopl
e an
d th
e re
sult
ing
form
atio
n of
an
entir
ely
new
org
aniz
atio
n of
soc
iety
(R
ome
and
the
barb
aria
ns;
feud
alis
m
and
Gau
l; th
e B
yzan
tine
Em
pire
and
the
Tur
ks).
As
indi
cate
d ab
ove,
with
th
e co
nque
ring
bar
bari
an p
eopl
e, w
ar is
stil
l a re
gula
r fo
rm o
f in
tera
ctio
n w
hich
is
the
mor
e ea
gerl
y ex
ploi
ted
as t
he p
opul
atio
n in
crea
ses
and-
re
quir
es n
ew m
eans
of
prod
ucti
on t
o ta
ke t
he p
lace
of
the
trad
ition
al a
nd
the
only
pos
sibl
e cr
ude
mod
e of
pro
duct
ion.
In
Italy
, how
ever
, con
cent
ra-
tion
of l
ande
d pr
oper
ty (
caus
ed n
ot o
nly
by p
urch
ases
and
inde
bted
ness
, bu
t al
so b
y in
heri
tanc
e, s
ince
the
old
fam
ilies
die
d ou
t fr
om l
oose
liv
ing
and
rare
mar
riag
es a
nd t
heir
pos
sess
ions
fel
l int
o th
e ha
nds
of a
few
) an
d its
con
vers
ion
into
gra
zing
lan
d (c
ause
d no
t on
ly b
y co
mm
on e
cono
mic
fo
rces
stil
l ex
istin
g to
day
but
also
by
the
impo
rtat
ion
of p
lund
ered
and
tr
ibut
e gr
ain
and
the
resu
ltant
lac
k of
dem
and
for
Ital
ian
grai
n) m
ade
the
free
pop
ulat
ion
disa
ppea
r al
mos
t co
mpl
etel
y. S
lave
s di
ed o
ut a
gain
and
ag
ain
and
cons
tant
ly h
ad t
o be
rep
lace
d by
new
one
s. S
lave
ry r
emai
ned
the
basi
s of
the
ent
ire
prod
uctiv
e sy
stem
. T
he
pleb
eian
s st
andi
ng b
e-
twee
n fr
eem
en a
nd s
lave
s ne
ver
succ
eede
d in
bec
omin
g m
ore
than
pro
- le
tari
an ra
bble
. Ind
eed,
Rom
e ne
ver
beca
me
mor
e th
an a
city
. Its
con
nec-
150
Wri
tings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
Th
e Ger
tnan
Ideo
logy
tion
with
the
pro
vinc
es w
as a
lmos
t ex
clus
ivel
y po
litic
al a
nd c
ould
eas
ily
be b
roke
n by
pol
itica
l eve
nts.
N
othi
ng i
s m
ore
com
mon
tha
n th
e no
tion
tha
t in
his
tory
up
till
no
w t
akin
g ha
s be
en
the
thin
g th
at c
ount
s. T
he
barb
aria
ns
take
the
R
oman
Em
pire
, an
d th
e tr
ansi
tion
fro
m t
he o
ld w
orld
to
the
feud
al
syst
em is
exp
lain
ed w
ith t
his
fact
of
taki
ng.
In th
is ta
king
by
barb
aria
ns i
t is
im
port
ant
whe
ther
the
con
quer
ed n
atio
n ha
s in
dust
rial
pro
duct
ive
forc
es,
as i
s th
e ca
se w
ith m
oder
n pe
ople
s, o
r w
heth
er i
ts p
rodu
ctiv
e fo
rces
are
bas
ed f
or t
he m
ost
part
mer
ely
on a
ssoc
iatio
n an
d co
mm
unity
. T
akin
g is
fur
ther
det
erm
ined
by
the
obje
ct t
aken
. A
ban
ker's
fo
rtun
e co
nsis
ting
of p
aper
can
not b
e ta
ken
wit
hout
the
take
r's s
ubm
itti
ng to
the
co
nditi
ons
of
prod
ucti
on a
nd i
nter
acti
on i
n th
e co
untr
y ta
ken.
It
is
sim
ilar
with
the
tot
al i
ndus
tria
l ca
pita
l of
a m
oder
n in
dust
rial
cou
ntry
. Fi
nally
, tak
ing
very
soo
n co
mes
to
an e
nd,
and
whe
n th
ere
is n
othi
ng
mor
e to
tak
e, o
ne m
ust b
egin
to
prod
uce.
Fro
m t
his
nece
ssity
of
prod
uc-
ing,
whi
ch c
omes
abo
ut v
ery
soon
, it
follo
ws
that
the
for
m o
f co
mm
unit
y ad
opte
d by
th
e se
ttli
ng c
onqu
eror
s m
ust
corr
espo
nd t
o th
e st
age
of
deve
lopm
ent o
f th
e pr
oduc
tive
forc
es th
ey f
ind
in e
xist
ence
; or
, if
this
is
not
the
case
fro
m t
he s
tart
, it m
ust c
hang
e to
acc
ord
with
the
pro
duct
ive
forc
es. T
his
expl
ains
wha
t peo
ple
say
they
hav
e no
ticed
eve
ryw
here
in
the
peri
od a
fter
the
Gre
at M
igra
tion
, na
mel
y, t
hat
the
serv
ant
was
mas
ter
and
that
the
con
quer
ors
very
soo
n ad
opte
d th
e la
ngua
ge,
cult
ure,
and
m
anne
rs o
f th
e co
nque
red.
T
he
feud
al s
yste
m w
as b
y no
mea
ns b
roug
ht c
ompl
ete
from
Ger
man
y.
As
far
as th
e co
nque
rors
wer
e co
ncer
ned,
it h
ad i
ts o
rigi
n in
the
org
ani-
za
tion
of t
he a
rmy
duri
ng t
he c
onqu
est
itsel
f an
d de
velo
ped
afte
r th
e co
nque
st i
nto
the
feud
al s
yste
m p
rope
r th
roug
h th
e ac
tion
of
the
pro-
du
ctiv
e fo
rces
fou
nd i
n th
e co
nque
red
coun
trie
s. T
o w
hat
exte
nt t
his
form
was
det
erm
ined
by
the
prod
ucti
ve f
orce
s is
sho
wn
by t
he a
bort
ive
atte
mpt
s to
ins
titu
te o
ther
for
ms
deri
ved
from
rem
inis
cenc
es o
f an
cien
t R
ome
(Cha
rlem
agne
, etc
.). T
o be
con
tinu
ed.
In b
ig i
ndus
try
and
com
peti
tion
all
the
cond
itio
ns o
f ex
iste
nce,
th
e de
term
inin
g fa
ctor
s, a
nd t
he b
iase
s of
ind
ivid
uals
are
fus
ed t
oget
her
into
the
tw
o si
mpl
est
form
s: p
riva
te p
rope
rty
and
labo
r. W
ith
mon
ey
ever
y fo
rm o
f in
tera
ctio
n, a
nd i
nter
acti
on i
tsel
f, i
s co
nsid
ered
acc
iden
tal
for
indi
vidu
als.
Mon
ey i
mpl
ies
that
all
prev
ious
int
erac
tion
was
onl
y co
mm
erce
of
indi
vidu
als
unde
r pa
rtic
ular
con
diti
ons,
not
of
indi
vidu
als
as i
ndiv
idua
ls. T
hese
con
diti
ons
are
redu
ced
to t
wo:
acc
umul
ated
lab
or
of p
riva
te p
rope
rty,
and
act
ual
labo
r. E
ven
if on
ly o
ne o
f th
ese
ceas
es,
inte
ract
ion
com
es to
a s
tand
stil
l. T
he
mod
ern
econ
omis
ts th
emse
lves
, for
ex
ampl
e, S
ism
ondi
, C
herb
ulie
z, e
tc.,
juxt
apos
e "a
ssoc
iatio
n of
ind
ivid
- ua
ls"
and
"ass
ocia
tion
of c
apita
l."
On
the
oth
er h
and,
the
ind
ivid
uals
them
selv
es a
re c
ompl
etel
y su
bsum
ed u
nder
the
div
isio
n of
lab
or a
nd
brou
ght
into
com
plet
e de
pend
ence
on
one
ano
ther
. Pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty,
inso
far
as i
t is
opp
osed
to
labo
r w
ithin
lab
or i
tsel
f, e
volv
es o
ut o
f th
e ne
cess
ity o
f ac
cum
ulat
ion
and
has
at f
irst
the
for
m o
f co
mm
unity
. But
in
its f
urth
er d
evel
opm
ent i
t ap
proa
ches
mor
e an
d m
ore
the
mod
ern
form
of
pri
vate
pro
pert
y. F
rom
the
out
set,
the
divi
sion
of
labo
r im
plie
s di
visi
on
of t
he c
ondi
tions
of
1~60
1; of
too
ls a
nd m
ater
ials
, an
d th
e sp
litt
ing
up o
f ac
cum
ulat
ed c
apita
l in
to t
he h
ands
of
vari
ous
owne
rs,
and
thus
the
di
visi
on b
etw
een
capi
tal
and
labo
r an
d di
ffer
ent
form
s of
cap
ital
itsel
f.
Th
e fu
rthe
r di
visi
on
of
labo
r pr
ocee
ds
and
the
mor
e ac
cum
ulat
ion
grow
s, t
he m
ore
pron
ounc
ed
does
the
fra
gmen
tati
on b
ecom
e.
Lab
or
itsel
f ca
n ex
ist o
nly
unde
r th
e pr
emis
e of
thi
s fr
agm
enta
tion
. Pe
rson
al e
nerg
y of
the
ind
ivid
uals
of
vari
ous
natio
ns-G
erm
ans
and
Am
eric
ans-
ener
gy
gene
rate
d al
read
y th
roug
h cr
ossb
reed
ing-
he
nce
the
cret
inis
m o
f th
e G
erm
ans-
in
Fran
ce,
Eng
land
, et
c.,
fore
ign
peop
les
tran
spla
nted
to
a la
nd a
lrea
dy d
evel
oped
, in
Am
eric
a to
vir
gin
land
-in
Ger
man
y th
e na
tive
popu
latio
n qu
ietly
rem
aine
d in
its
loca
le.
Thu
s tw
o fa
cts
beco
me
clea
r. F
irst
, th
e pr
oduc
tive
for
ces
appe
ar
as a
wor
ld b
y th
emse
lves
ind
epen
dent
of,
rem
oved
fro
m,
and
alon
gsid
e in
divi
dual
s be
caus
e th
e in
divi
dual
s w
hose
for
ces
they
are
, exi
st a
s sp
lit u
p an
d op
pose
d to
one
ano
ther
. O
n th
e ot
her
hand
the
se f
orce
s ar
e on
ly r
eal
forc
es i
n th
e in
tera
ctio
n an
d as
soci
atio
n of
the
ind
ivid
uals
. T
hu
s w
e ha
ve,
on t
he o
ne h
and,
a t
otal
ity o
f pr
oduc
tive
for
ces
whi
ch,
so to
spe
ak,
have
ass
umed
mat
eria
l fo
rm a
nd a
re f
or t
he i
ndiv
idua
ls n
o lo
nger
the
fo
rces
of
indi
vidu
als
but
of p
riva
te p
rope
rty-
of
indi
vidu
als
only
inso
far
as t
hey
are
owne
rs o
f pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty.
Nev
er b
efor
e ha
ve t
he p
rodu
ctiv
e fo
rces
take
n on
a f
orm
so
indi
ffer
ent t
o th
e in
tera
ctio
n of
ind
ivid
uals
as
indi
vidu
als,
bec
ause
the
ir i
nter
acti
on w
as s
till
res
tric
ted.
On
the
oth
er
hand
, op
posi
ng t
he p
rodu
ctiv
e fo
rces
, the
re i
s th
e m
ajor
ity o
f th
e in
di-
vidu
als
from
who
m t
hese
for
ces
have
bee
n w
rest
ed a
way
and
who
hav
e be
com
e ab
stra
ct
indi
vidu
als
depr
ived
of
al
l re
al
life
cont
ent.
Onl
y th
roug
h th
is f
act,
how
ever
, ar
e th
ey e
nabl
ed t
o en
ter
into
rel
atio
n w
ith
- -..-
one
anot
her
as i
ndiv
idua
ls.
Th
e on
ly c
onne
ctio
n st
ill l
inki
ng t
hem
with
th
e pr
oduc
tive
forc
es a
nd w
ith t
heir
ow
n ex
iste
nce,
lab
or,
has
lost
all
sem
blan
ce o
f se
lf-a
ctiv
ity a
nd s
usta
ins
thei
r lif
e on
ly b
y st
unti
ng i
t. W
hile
in
earl
ier
peri
ods
self
-act
ivity
and
the
pro
duct
ion
of m
ater
ial
life
--
~ -- --
- --
--
wer
e se
para
ted
by t
he f
act
that
th&
dev
olve
d on
dif
fere
nt p
erso
ns a
nd
beca
use
the
prod
ucti
on o
f m
ater
ial
life
was
con
side
red
a su
bord
inat
e m
ode
of s
elf-
activ
ity d
ue t
o th
e na
rrow
ness
of
the
indi
vidu
als
them
- se
lves
, the
y no
w d
iver
ge to
suc
h an
ext
ent t
hat m
ater
ial
life
appe
ars
as t
he
end,
and
lab
or, t
he p
rodu
cer
of t
his
mat
eria
l lif
e (n
ow t
he o
nly
poss
ible
bu
t neg
ativ
e fo
rm o
f se
lf-a
ctiv
ity, a
s w
e se
e), a
ppea
rs a
s m
eans
.
152
Wri
tings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
Thi
ngs
have
com
e to
the
poi
nt w
here
ind
ivid
uals
mus
t app
ropr
iate
the
ex
istin
g to
talit
y of
pro
duct
ive
forc
es n
ot m
erel
y to
ach
ieve
sel
f-ac
tivity
bu
t to
sec
ure
thei
r ve
ry e
xist
ence
. T
his
appr
opri
atio
n is
det
erm
ined
by
the
obje
ct to
be
appr
opri
ated
-the
pr
oduc
tive
forc
es d
evel
oped
to a
tota
l-
ity a
nd e
xist
ing
only
with
in a
uni
vers
al i
nter
actio
n.
From
thi
s as
pect
al
one,
thi
s ap
prop
riat
ion
mus
t ha
ve a
uni
vers
al c
hara
cter
cor
resp
ondi
ng
to t
he p
rodu
ctiv
e fo
rces
and
int
erac
tion
. T
he
appr
opri
atio
n of
th
ese
forc
es is
itse
lf no
thin
g m
ore
than
the
dev
elop
men
t of
indi
vidu
al c
apac
i-
ties
corr
espo
ndin
g to
the
mat
eria
l in
stru
men
ts o
f pr
oduc
tion
. Fo
r th
is
very
rea
son,
the
app
ropr
iatio
n of
a to
talit
y of
ins
trum
ents
of
prod
ucti
on
is t
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f a
tota
lity
of c
apab
ilitie
s in
the
ind
ivid
uals
the
m-
selv
es. I
t is
furt
her d
eter
min
ed b
y th
e ap
prop
riat
ing
indi
vidu
als.
Onl
y th
e pr
olet
aria
ns o
f th
e pr
esen
t, co
mpl
etel
y de
priv
ed o
f an
y se
lf-a
ctiv
ity, c
an
achi
eve
a co
mpl
ete
and
unre
stri
cted
sel
f-ac
tivity
invo
lvin
g th
e ap
prop
ria-
tio
n of
a to
talit
y of
pro
duct
ive
forc
es a
nd c
onse
quen
tly t
he d
evel
opm
ent
of a
tota
lity
of c
apac
ities
. All
prev
ious
rev
olut
iona
ry a
ppro
pria
tions
wer
e re
stri
cted
. Ind
ivid
uals
, who
se s
elf-
activ
ity w
as r
estr
icte
d by
a c
rude
in-
st
rum
ent o
f pr
oduc
tion
and
limite
d in
tera
ctio
n, a
ppro
pria
ted
this
cru
de
inst
rum
ent
of p
rodu
ctio
n an
d m
erel
y at
tain
ed a
new
pla
teau
of
limita
- tio
n. T
heir
ins
trum
ent
of p
rodu
ctio
n be
cam
e th
eir
prop
erty
, bu
t th
ey
them
selv
es r
emai
ned
subj
ect
to t
he d
ivis
ion
of l
abor
and
the
ir o
wn
in-
stru
men
t of
prod
uctio
n. I
n al
l ap
prop
riat
ions
up
to n
ow a
mas
s of
ind
i-
vidu
als
rem
aine
d su
bser
vien
t to
a s
ingl
e in
stru
men
t of
pro
duct
ion.
In
the
appr
opri
atio
n by
the
pro
leta
rian
s, a
mas
s of
ins
trum
ents
of
prod
uc-
tion
mus
t be
subs
ervi
ent t
o ea
ch i
ndiv
idua
l and
the
pro
pert
y of
all.
Th
e on
ly w
ay f
or i
ndiv
idua
ls t
o co
ntro
l m
oder
n un
iver
sal
inte
ract
ion
is t
o m
ake
it su
bjec
t to
the
cont
rol o
f al
l. T
he
appr
opri
atio
n is
fur
ther
det
erm
ined
by
the
man
ner
in w
hich
it
mus
t be
carr
ied
thro
ugh.
It c
an o
nly
be a
ccom
plis
hed
by a
uni
on, u
nive
r-
sal
beca
use
of
the
char
acte
r of
th
e pr
olet
aria
t its
elf,
and
thr
ough
a
revo
lutio
n in
whi
ch t
he p
ower
of
the
soci
al o
rgan
izat
ion
and
of e
arlie
r m
odes
of
prod
uctio
n an
d in
tera
ctio
n is
ove
rthr
own
and
the
prol
etar
iat's
un
iver
sal c
hara
cter
and
ene
rgy
for
the
act o
f ap
prop
riat
ion
is d
evel
oped
. Fu
rthe
rmor
e, t
he p
role
tari
at m
ust g
et ri
d of
eve
ryth
ing
still
clin
ging
to it
fr
om it
s ea
rlie
r pos
ition
in s
ocie
ty.
Not
unt
il th
is s
tage
is r
each
ed w
ill s
elf-
activ
ity c
oinc
ide
with
mat
eria
l lif
e, w
ill i
ndiv
idua
ls b
ecom
e co
mpl
ete
indi
vidu
als.
Onl
y th
en w
ill t
he
shed
ding
of
all n
atur
al l
imita
tions
be
acco
mpl
ishe
d. T
he
tran
sfor
mat
ion
of l
abor
int
o se
lf-a
ctiv
ity c
orre
spon
ds t
o th
e tr
ansf
orm
atio
n of
the
pre
- vi
ous
rest
rict
ed i
nter
actio
n in
to t
he i
nter
acti
on o
f in
divi
dual
s as
suc
h.
With
the
app
ropr
iatio
n of
th
e to
tal
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
thr
ough
uni
ted
indi
vidu
als,
priv
ate
prop
erty
cea
ses
to e
xist
. W
hile
in
prev
ious
his
tory
a
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
15
3
part
icul
ar c
ondi
tion
alw
ays
appe
ared
as
acci
dent
al,
now
the
iso
latio
n of
in
divi
dual
s an
d th
e pa
rtic
ular
pri
vate
gai
n of
any
indi
vidu
al h
ave
beco
me
acci
dent
al.
Indi
vidu
als
who
are
no
long
er s
ubje
cted
to
the
divi
sion
of
labo
r ha
ve
been
con
ceiv
ed b
y th
e ph
iloso
pher
s as
an
idea
l un
der
the
nam
e of
"M
an."
The
y ha
ve g
rasp
ed th
e w
hole
pro
cess
des
crib
ed a
s th
e ev
olut
ion-
ar
y pr
oces
s of
"M
an,"
so a
t eve
ry h
isto
rica
l sta
ge "
Man
" w
as s
ubst
itute
d fo
r in
divi
dual
s an
d pr
esen
ted
as t
he m
otiv
e fo
rce
of h
isto
ry T
he
who
le
proc
ess w
as s
een
as a
pro
cess
of
the
self
-alie
natio
n of
"M
an,"
es
sent
ially
be
caus
e th
e av
erag
e in
divi
dual
of
the
late
r st
age
was
alw
ays
fois
ted
on th
e ea
rlie
r sta
ge a
nd t
he c
onsc
ious
ness
of
a la
ter p
erio
d on
the
indi
vidu
als o
f an
ear
lier.
((Se
lf-a
liena
tion)
) T
hrou
gh t
his
inve
rsio
n, w
hich
fro
m t
he
begi
nnin
g ha
s be
en a
n ab
stra
ctio
n of
the
act
ual
cond
ition
s, i
t was
pos
si-
ble
to tr
ansf
orm
all
hist
ory
into
an
evol
utio
nary
proc
ess
of c
onsc
ious
ness
. C
ivil
soci
ety
com
pris
es t
he e
ntir
e m
ater
ial
inte
ract
ion
amon
g in
- di
vidu
als
at a
par
ticul
ar e
volu
tiona
ry s
tage
of
the
prod
uctiv
e fo
rces
. It
co
mpr
ises
the
enti
re c
omm
erci
al a
nd in
dust
rial
life
of
a st
age
and
henc
e tr
ansc
ends
the
sta
te a
nd t
he n
atio
n ev
en t
houg
h th
at l
ife,
on
the
othe
r ha
nd, i
s m
anif
este
d in
for
eign
aff
airs
as
natio
nalit
y an
d or
gani
zed
with
in
a st
ate.
Th
e te
rm "
civi
l so
ciet
y" e
mer
ged
in th
e ei
ghte
enth
cen
tury
whe
n pr
oper
ty r
elat
ions
had
alr
eady
evo
lved
fro
m t
he c
omm
unity
of
antiq
uity
an
d m
edie
val
times
. C
ivil
soci
ety
as s
uch
only
dev
elop
s w
ith t
he b
our-
ge
oisi
e. T
he
soci
al o
rgan
izat
ion,
how
ever
, w
hich
evo
lves
dir
ectly
fro
m
prod
uctio
n an
d co
mm
erce
and
in a
ll ag
es fo
rms
the
basi
s of
the
sta
te a
nd
the
rest
of
the
idea
listic
sup
erst
ruct
ure,
has
alw
ays
been
des
igna
ted
by
the
sam
e na
me.
Rel
atio
n of
tlze
Sta
te
and
Law
to
Prop
erty
T
he f
irst
for
m o
f pr
oper
ty i
n an
tiqui
ty a
s in
the
Mid
dle
Age
s is
tri
bal
prop
erty
, det
erm
ined
with
the
Rom
ans
chie
fly
by w
ar a
nd w
ith t
he G
er-
man
ic p
eopl
es b
y ca
ttle
bree
ding
. Si
nce
seve
ral t
ribe
s liv
ed t
oget
her
in
one
tow
n in
the
anc
ient
wor
ld, t
riba
l pro
pert
y w
as s
tate
pro
pert
y an
d th
e ri
ght
of
the
indi
vidu
al t
o it
was
mer
e Po
sses
sio,
con
fine
d lik
e tr
ibal
pr
oper
ty a
s a
who
le t
o la
nded
pro
pert
y on
ly.
With
the
anc
ient
s as
with
- ..-
mod
ern
natio
ns,
real
pri
vate
pro
pert
y be
gan
with
mov
able
Dro
Der
W-
. -
1
c---,
(sla
very
and
com
mun
ity)
(dom
iniu
m e
x ju
re Q
uiri
tum
[ow
ners
hip
from
th
e la
w o
f fu
ll R
oman
citi
zens
hip]
). I
n na
tions
evo
lvin
g fr
om t
he M
iddl
e .-
- -
Age
s, tr
ibal
pro
pert
y de
velo
ped
thro
ugh
seve
ral
stag
es-f
euda
l la
nded
pr
oper
ty, c
orpo
rativ
e m
ovab
le p
rope
rty,
man
ufac
turi
ng c
apita
l-to
mod
- er
n ca
pita
l de
term
ined
by
big
indu
stry
and
uni
vers
al c
ompe
titio
n, p
ure
154
Writ
ings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
priv
ate
prop
erty
fre
e of
all
sem
blan
ce o
f a
com
mun
al i
nstit
utio
n an
d ex
clud
ing
the
stat
e fr
om a
ny in
flue
nce
on it
s de
velo
pmen
t. T
o su
ch m
oder
n pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty c
orre
spon
ds th
e m
oder
n st
ate
whi
ch
has
been
gra
dual
ly b
ough
t by
pro
pert
y ow
ners
thr
ough
tax
es, h
as f
alle
n en
tirel
y in
to t
heir
han
ds t
hrou
gh t
he n
atio
nal
debt
, an
d ha
s be
com
e co
mpl
etel
y de
pend
ent
on t
he c
omm
erci
al c
redi
t th
ey, t
he b
ourg
eois
, ex-
te
nd to
it in
the
rise
and
fal
l of
gove
rnm
ent b
onds
on
the
stoc
k ex
chan
ge.
Bei
ng a
cla
ss a
nd n
o lo
nger
an
esta
te, t
he b
ourg
eois
ie is
forc
ed to
org
aniz
e its
elf
natio
nally
rat
her
than
loca
lly a
nd g
ive
a ge
nera
l for
m to
its
aver
aged
in
tere
st. T
hrou
gh t
he e
man
cipa
tion
of p
riva
te p
rope
rty
from
the
com
- m
unity
, th
e st
ate
has
beco
me
a se
para
te e
ntity
bes
ide
and
outs
ide
civi
l so
ciet
y. B
ut t
he s
tate
is
noth
ing
mor
e th
an t
he f
orm
of
orga
niza
tion
whi
ch t
he b
ourg
eois
by
nece
ssity
ado
pts
for
both
int
erna
l an
d ex
tern
al
purp
oses
as
a m
utua
l gu
aran
tee
of t
heir
pro
pert
y an
d in
tere
sts.
Th
e in
depe
nden
ce o
f th
e st
ate
is f
ound
toda
y on
ly in
cou
ntri
es w
here
est
ates
ha
ve n
ot fu
lly d
evel
oped
into
cla
sses
, whe
re e
stat
es, h
avin
g di
sapp
eare
d in
m
ore
adva
nced
cou
ntri
es,
still
hav
e a
role
to
play
, and
whe
re a
mix
ture
ex
ists
--co
untr
ies
whe
re n
o on
e se
ctio
n of
th
e po
pula
tion
can
atta
in
cont
rol
over
the
oth
ers.
Thi
s is
the
cas
e pa
rtic
ular
ly i
n G
erm
any.
Th
e pe
rfec
t ex
ampl
e of
the
mod
ern
stat
e is
Nor
th A
mer
ica.
Th
e m
oder
n Fr
ench
, E
nglis
h, a
nd A
mer
ican
wri
ters
all
expr
ess
the
opin
ion
that
the
st
ate
exis
ts o
nly
for
the
sake
of
priv
ate
prop
erty
; th
is f
act
has
ente
red
into
the
cons
ciou
snes
s of
the
ordi
nary
man
. Si
nce
the
stat
e is
the
for
m i
n w
hich
the
ind
ivid
uals
of
a ru
ling
cla
ss
asse
rt th
eir
com
mon
inte
rest
s an
d th
e en
tire
civ
il so
ciet
y of
an
epoc
h is
ep
itom
ized
, th
e st
ate
acts
as
an i
nter
med
iary
in
the
form
atio
n of
all
com
mun
al i
nstit
utio
ns a
nd g
ives
the
m a
pol
itica
l fo
rm.
Hen
ce t
here
is
the
illus
ion
that
law
is
base
d on
will
, th
at i
s, o
n w
ill d
ivor
ced
from
its
re
al b
asis
, on
free
will
. In
a s
imila
r fa
shio
n, r
ight
in
turn
is
redu
ced
to
stat
ute
law.
Civ
il la
w d
evel
ops
sim
ulta
neou
sly
with
pri
vate
pro
pert
y fr
om t
he d
isin
- te
grat
ion
of t
he n
atur
al c
omm
unit
y W
ith
the
Rom
ans
the
deve
lopm
ent
of p
rivat
e pr
oper
ty a
nd c
ivil
law
had
no
furt
her
indu
stri
al a
nd c
omm
er-
cial
con
sequ
ence
s be
caus
e th
eir
who
le m
ode
of p
rodu
ctio
n re
mai
ned
unch
ange
d. (
(Usu
ry!)
) In
mod
ern
natio
ns w
here
the
feu
dal
com
mun
ity
was
elim
inat
ed b
y in
dust
ry a
nd tr
ade,
the
re b
egan
with
the
ris
e of
pri
vate
pr
oper
ty a
nd c
ivil
law
a n
ew p
hase
cap
able
of
furt
her
deve
lopm
ent.
Th
e ve
ry f
irst
tow
n w
ith e
xten
sive
sea
trad
e in
the
Mid
dle
Age
s, A
mal
fi, a
lso
deve
lope
d m
ariti
me
law
. As
soon
as
indu
stry
and
tra
de d
evel
oped
pri
vate
pr
oper
ty f
urth
er,
firs
t in
Ital
y an
d th
en i
n ot
her
coun
trie
s, R
oman
civ
il law
was
ado
pted
in
a pe
rfec
ted
form
and
mad
e au
thor
itativ
e. W
hen
late
r th
e bo
urge
oisi
e ha
d ac
quir
ed s
o m
uch
pow
er t
hat
prin
ces
took
up
the
The
Ger
man
Ideo
logy
15
5
inte
rest
s of
the
bou
rgeo
isie
in o
rder
to to
pple
feu
dal n
obili
ty th
roug
h th
e bo
urge
oisi
e, t
he r
eal
deve
lopm
ent
of
law
beg
an i
n al
l co
untr
ies-
in
Fran
ce in
the
six
teen
th c
entu
ry. W
ith t
he e
xcep
tion
of E
ngla
nd,
it pr
o-
ceed
ed e
very
whe
re o
n th
e ba
sis
of t
he R
oman
Cod
ex. E
ven
in E
ngla
nd,
Rom
an le
gal p
rinc
iple
s ha
d to
be
adop
ted
to f
urth
er th
e de
velo
pmen
t of
civi
l law
, pa
rtic
ular
ly i
n re
gard
to
mov
able
pro
pert
y. (
It m
ust
not
be
forg
otte
n th
at la
w h
as ju
st a
s lit
tle in
depe
nden
t his
tory
as
relig
ion.
) In
civ
il la
w t
he e
xist
ing
prop
erty
rel
atio
nshi
ps a
re d
ecla
red
to b
e th
e re
sult
of a
gen
eral
will
. T
he
jus
uten
di e
t ab
uten
di [
righ
t of
usi
ng a
nd
cons
umin
g] it
self
exp
ress
es, o
n th
e on
e ha
nd,
the
fact
that
pri
vate
pro
p-
erty
has
bec
ome
entir
ely
inde
pend
ent
of t
he c
omm
unity
, an
d on
the
ot
her
the
illus
ion
that
pri
vate
pro
pert
y its
elf
is b
ased
sim
ply
on p
rivat
e w
ill,
on t
he a
rbitr
ary
disp
ositi
on o
f th
e th
ing.
In
prac
tice,
the
abu
ti ha
s ve
ry d
efin
ite e
cono
mic
lim
itatio
ns f
or th
e ow
ner o
f pr
ivat
e pr
oper
ty if
he
does
not
wis
h to
see
his
pro
pert
y an
d th
us h
is ju
s ab
uten
di p
ass
into
the
ha
nds
of a
noth
er p
erso
n, b
ecau
se t
he t
hing
, co
nsid
ered
onl
y w
ith r
efer
- en
ce t
o hi
s w
ill,
is n
ot a
thi
ng a
t al
l bu
t on
ly b
ecom
es a
ctua
l pr
oper
ty
thro
ugh
inte
ract
ion
and
inde
pend
ently
of
the
righ
t to
the
thi
ng (
a re
la-
tions
hip
whi
ch t
he p
hilo
soph
ers
call
an i
dea)
. ((
Rel
atio
nshi
p for
the
phi
- lo
soph
ers
= i
dea.
The
y on
ly k
now
the
rel
atio
nshi
p "o
f Man
" to
him
self
, an
d th
us a
ll ac
tual
rel
atio
nshi
ps b
ecom
e id
eas
for
them
.))
Thi
s ju
ridi
cal
illus
ion,
whi
ch r
educ
es la
w t
o m
ere
will
, in
furt
her d
evel
opm
ent o
f pr
op-
erty
rel
atio
nshi
ps n
eces
sari
ly l
eads
to
one's
hav
ing
lega
l tit
le t
o a
thin
g w
ithou
t act
ually
hav
ing
it. I
f fo
r ex
ampl
e th
e in
com
e fr
om a
pie
ce o
f la
nd
is l
ost
due
to c
ompe
titio
n, t
he o
wne
r, to
be
sure
, ha
s hi
s le
gal t
itle
to i
t al
ong
with
the
jus
uten
di e
t abu
tend
i. B
ut h
e ca
nnot
do
anyt
hing
with
it. I
f he
doe
s no
t ha
ve e
noug
h ca
pita
l to
culti
vate
his
land
he
owns
not
hing
as
a la
nded
pro
prie
tor.
Thi
s ill
usio
n of
law
yers
als
o ex
plai
ns w
hy f
or th
em,
as f
or e
very
cod
e, i
t is
alto
geth
er a
ccid
enta
l th
at i
ndiv
idua
ls e
nter
int
o-
rela
tions
hips
with
one
ano
ther
, fo
r ex
ampl
e, m
ake
cont
ract
ual
agre
e-
men
ts; w
hy t
hey
hold
the
vie
w t
hat
thes
e re
latio
nshi
ps [
can]
be
ente
red
into
or
not
at w
ill a
nd t
hat
thei
r co
nten
t [r
elst
s en
tirel
y on
the
indi
vidu
al
free
[w
ill]
of
the
cont
ract
ing
part
ies.
E
very
tim
e ne
w
form
s of
[c
omlm
erce
evol
ved
thro
ugh
the
deve
lop[
men
t] o
f in
dust
ry a
nd tr
ade,
for
[e
xam
ple]
ins
uran
ce c
ompa
nies
, et
c.,
the
law
was
com
pelle
d to
adm
it th
em a
mon
g th
e m
odes
of
acqu
irin
g pr
oper
ty.
[The
con
tinu
ous
text
in
Eng
els'
scri
pt e
nds
here
; di
rect
ly b
elow
, in
the
left
col
umn,
Mam
add
ed
the
follo
win
g no
tes.
]
Infl
uenc
e of
div
isio
n of
lab
or o
n sc
ienc
e.
Rep
ress
ion
in s
tate
, law
, mor
ality
, etc
. [I
n] l
aw
the
bour
geoi
s m
ust
pres
ent
them
selv
es
as u
nive
rsal
ju
st
156
Writ
ings
on H
isto
rica
l Mat
eria
lism
beca
use
they
rul
e as
a c
lass
(((C
atho
lic)
relig
ious
con
cept
ions
par
ticul
arly
co
rres
pond
to th
e "c
omm
unity
," to
thi
s bo
nd,
as it
app
ears
in t
he s
tate
of
antiq
uity
, in
the
feud
al s
yste
m, i
n ab
solu
te m
onar
chy)
).
Nat
ural
sci
ence
and
his
tory
. T
here
is n
o hi
stor
y of
pol
itics
, la
w,
scie
nce,
etc
., of
art
, re
ligio
n, e
tc.
Why
ideo
logi
sts
turn
eve
ryth
ing
upsi
de d
omrz
. R
elig
ioni
sts,
law
yers
, pol
itici
ans.
L
awye
rs,
polit
icia
ns (
gove
rnm
ent
offi
cial
s in
gen
eral
), m
oral
ists
, re
- lig
ioni
sts.
Fo
r th
is i
deol
ogic
al s
ubdi
visi
on w
ithin
a c
lass
, 1.
Occ
upat
ion
beco
mes
in
depe
nden
t thr
ough
the
div
isio
n of
lab
or;
ever
ybod
y th
inks
of
his
craf
t as
the
true
one
. B
ecau
se i
t is
det
erm
ined
by
the
natu
re o
f th
e cr
aft
itsel
f,
one
nece
ssar
ily h
as i
llusi
ons
abou
t th
e co
nnec
tion
of
his
craf
t w
ith r
eal-
ity
. In
jur
ispr
uden
ce,
polit
ics,
etc
., re
latio
nshi
ps t
urn
into
con
cept
s in
co
nsci
ousn
ess.
Sin
ce t
hey
do n
ot t
rans
cend
the
se r
elat
ions
hips
, th
e co
n-
cept
s be
com
e fix
atio
ns. A
jud
ge,
for
exam
ple,
app
lies
the
code
. F
or h
im
legi
slat
ion
is t
he t
rue,
act
ive
forc
e. R
espe
ct f
or t
heir
goo
ds b
ecau
se t
heir
oc
cupa
tion
invo
lves
the
univ
ersa
l. Id
ea o
f law
. Id
ea o
f st
ate.
In
ordi
nary
con
scio
usne
ss,
the
mat
ter
is
turn
ed u
psid
e do
wn.
R
elig
ion
from
the
out
set
is c
onsc
ious
ness
of
tr
ansc
ende
nce
[whi
ch]
aris
es fr
om a
rea
l nec
essi
ty.
Thi
s in
a m
ore
popu
lar
man
ner.
T
radi
tion,
in r
egar
d to
law
, rel
igio
n, e
tc.
Indi
vidu
als
have
alw
ays
begu
n, a
lway
s be
gin,
with
the
mse
lves
. T
heir
re
latio
nshi
ps a
re r
elat
ions
hips
of
thei
r ac
tual
lif
e-pr
oces
s. H
ow d
oes
it
happ
en t
hat
thei
r re
latio
nshi
ps b
ecom
e so
met
hing
ind
epen
dent
ove
r ag
ains
t the
m, t
hat t
he f
orce
s of
the
ir o
wn
life
over
pow
er th
em?
Bri
efly
: the
div
isio
n of
lab
or,
who
se l
evel
dep
ends
on
the
prod
uctiv
e po
wer
dev
elop
ed a
t the
tim
e.
Com
mun
al p
rope
rty.
L
ande
d pr
oper
ty, f
euda
l, m
oder
n.
Est
ate
prop
erty
. Man
ufac
turi
ng p
rope
rty.
Ind
ustr
ial
capi
tal.
