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Neonatal EmergenciesNeonatal Emergencies
Joy Loy MDMarch 2009
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1.discuss the underlying pathophysiology of
selected neonatal emergencies,
2.explain the anesthetic implications and
3.describe safe anesthetic plans for each.
ObjectivesObjectivesParticipants will be able toParticipants will be able to
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• Maternal and perinatal history
• Recreational drug use
• Birth history
• Minimum labs: glucose and CBC
• Look for associated anomalies
• Cardiac and respiratory status
• Metabolic and electrolyte imbalance
• Hydration status
• Coagulation profile
• IV access
Preoperative EvaluationPreoperative Evaluation
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric Stenosis
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric Stenosis
Most common GI obstructive anomaly in neonates
Hypertrophy of the muscular layer of the pylorus
A medical emergency but not a true surgical emergency
Incidence: 1 – 3 :1,000 live births
2 - 5x more common in first born, M > F (4:1)
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric Stenosis
Etiology : unknown
? acquired condition with hereditary
predisposition
Symptoms are apparent between 2nd-6th wk of life
Presents with nonbilious projectile vomiting, signs of dehydration, jaundice (2%)
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric Stenosis
Physical Exam
visible gastric peristalsispalpable “olive-shaped” mass to the right
of the epigastric areasigns of dehydration
Labs: CBC serum electrolytes EKG ABG BUN
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric Stenosis
Diagnosis history and physical exam
abdominal ultrasound
upper GI series with barium contrast
not recommended
pathological
pyloric wall thickness ≥ 4 mm
pyloric length of > 16 cm
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric Stenosis
Metabolic Abnormalities
• hyponatremia
• hypochloremia
• hypokalemia
• 1° metabolic alkalosis
• compensatory respiratory
acidosis
• paradoxical acidic urine
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Preoperative Preparation
supportive treatment
surgical management
check lab indices for safe
anesthesia
Pyloric Stenosis
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric StenosisPreoperative PreparationPreoperative Preparation
Supportive therapy
• Correction of fluid deficits
maintenance: D5 0.2% NaCl + KCl
20 - 40 mEq/L
replacement: LR, albumin, normal saline
• Correction of electrolyte imbalance
• Prevention of aspiration : NGT
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric Stenosis
Surgical Management
Pyloromyotomy definitive treatment open or laparoscopic
Lab indices for safe anesthesia
serum Cl >100 mEq/L HCO3 < 28 mEq/L
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric Stenosis
Anesthetic Concerns
• pulmonary aspiration
• severe dehydration
• metabolic alkalosis
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric StenosisIntraoperative ManagementIntraoperative Management
Monitors : ASA standard
Decompress the stomach
GA: Induction: controversial
awake intubation
rapid sequence IV induction and
intubation with cricoid pressure
inhalation induction with cricoid
pressure
± muscle relaxant
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Pyloric StenosisIntraoperative Management
Cook-Sather, 1998 (CHOP)
• prospective, nonrandomized study
• awake vs paralyzed intubation (RSI and MRSI)
• faster and more successful tracheal intubation
with muscle paralysis
• awake intubation does not protect from
bradycardia and desaturation
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric Stenosis
IntraoperativeIntraoperative ManagementManagement
Maintenance
IV narcotics: rarely needed inhalational agents
Postop pain relief
acetaminophen 30-40 mg/kg PR caudal epidural LA infiltration of surgical incision
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Pyloric StenosisPyloric Stenosis
Extubate awake
Postoperative concerns
respiratory depression and apnea hypoglycemia
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Congenital Diaphragmatic Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia Hernia
a problem unresolveda problem unresolved
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Herniation of abdominal viscera into the thorax
Result from failure of the pleuroperitoneal canal
to close at ~ 8th wk of gestation or early
return of midgut to the peritoneal cavity
Most challenging and frustrating of all neonatal
surgical emergencies
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
50% mortality regardless of the method of treatment
Incidence: 1:2,000-5,000 live births
M<F 1:1.8, frequently full term
Etiology: unknown no genetic factors have been implicated
Antenatal history: polyhydramnios
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Classification
• Absent diaphragm : rare
• Diaphragmatic hernia
80% posterolateral L >R
(Bochdalek)
2% anterior (Morgagni)
15 - 20% paraesophageal
• Eventration (15 - 20%)
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Associated anomalies (20-50%)
cardiovascular 13 - 23%
CNS 28%
gastrointestinal 20%
genitourinary 15%
• increase the mortality rate
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Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Classic Triad
Dyspnea
Cyanosis
Apparent dextrocardia
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Physical Exam
scaphoid abdomen and barrel chest
bowel sounds in the chest
displaced heart sounds
Laboratory Studies
CBC ABG
electrolytes calcium
glucose
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Diagnosis: chest x-ray
• loops of bowel in the
chest
• mediastinal shift
• absent lung markings
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
IMMEDIATE
Intubation
+
Stomach Decompression
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Determinants of Survival
• degree of pulmonary hypoplasia
ipsilateral lung > contralateral lung
• development pulmonary vasculature
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Goals of Management
• maximize arterial oxygenation
mechanical ventilation: use low inflating
pressures
increases pulmonary blood flow
• prevention of pain
fentanyl infusion 3-10 mcg/kg/hr
• correction of acidosis
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Standard Management Strategy
Reduce pulmonary HTN
Moderate alkalosis
pCO2 < 40 mmHg
PaO2 >100 mmHg
Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
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Recent Strategy
• Permissive hypercapnia and hypoxemia
• Pressure-limited ventilation (<25 cmH2O)
• Postductal pCO2 40-65 mmHg
• Preductal SpO2 85-90%
• Postductal SpO2 ignored unless pH is
< 7.20 or pCO2 > 65
Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Bohn (1986)
reevaluation of the traditional “mad dash” surgical strategy
recommended 24 – 48 hrs medical stabilization
assessment of efficacy of delayed approach
infants unresponsive to initial therapy will fail to survive with surgery or any other treatment including ECMO
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The Relationship Between PaCO2 and Ventilation Parameters in Predicting Survival in CHD
• Arterial CO2 accurately reflects the degree of
lung development
• Poor survival in the presence of severe pulmonary hypoplasia
• CO2 retention and severe preductal shunting
have 90% mortality Bohn, DJ, et alBohn, DJ, et alJ of Pedia Surg 19: 666-671, 1884J of Pedia Surg 19: 666-671, 1884
Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
nomogram:
to predict the degree of pulmonary hypoplasia in
the infants and chance of survival
used the preop PaCO2 and an index of ventilation (Vi)
If PaCO2 < 40 and Vi < 1000: survival almost universal
If PaCO2 > 40 and Vi > 1000: death virtually inevitable
Vi = mean airway pressure x respiratory rate ٭
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Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Relationship of Alveolar-arterial Oxygen Tension Difference in Diaphragmatic
Hernia in the Newborn
A-aDO2 on 100% O2
< 400 mmHg: usually survive
400 - 500 mmHg: intermediate chance
> 500 mmHg: unlikely to survive
Harrington J, et al Anesthesiology 56: 473-476,
1982
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High Mortality
pH < 7.0
pCO2 >60 mmHg
pO2 < 50 mmHg
Boix-Ochoa J, et al Boix-Ochoa J, et al
J Pediatric Surg 9:49-57, 1974J Pediatric Surg 9:49-57, 1974
Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Acid Base Balance and Blood Gases in Prognosis and Therapy of CHD
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Indications of Surgical Repair
• Reversal of ductal shunting
• O2 index of < 40
• Arterial pCO2 maintainable under
40 mmHg
• Hemodynamic stability
Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
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Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Preoperative Preparation
• Look for associated anomalies
• Labs: CBC, electrolytes, ABG, glucose,
blood type and crossmatch
• Ancillary procedures: CXR, Echo
• Venous access: upper extremities
preferred
• Prevention of hypothermia
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Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Intraoperative ManagementIntraoperative Management
Monitors:
ASA standard
invasive : arterial line ± CVP
foley catheter
* 2 pulse oximeters: preductal and postductal
* precordial stethoscope on the right axilla
NGT to decompress the stomach
Adequate IV access
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Intraoperative ManagementIntraoperative Management
Induction
awake intubation
rapid sequence IV induction and
intubation with assisted or controlled
ventilation
* avoid mask ventilation or PPV before intubation
Supine position, left subcostal incision
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
IntraoperativeIntraoperative
Maintenance of anesthesia
volatile agents + IV narcotics + muscle relaxants
TIVA
avoid nitrous oxide
avoid increase in PVR leading to R→L shunting:
hypoxia, acidosis, hypothermia, pain
treat metabolic acidosis
replace significant blood loss
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
IntraoperativeIntraoperative
Mechanical Ventilation
adjust FiO2 to achieve
PaO2 80 -100 mmHg
SpO2 95 - 98%
small tidal volume to keep airway pressure
< 20-30 cm H2O
high respiratory rate 60-120 /min to
PaCO2 25-30 mm Hg
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Surgical repair
primary closure
staged procedure
Transabdominal subcostal incision
Thoracoscopic repair has been reported
Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic HerniaIntraoperativeIntraoperative
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
IntraoperativeIntraoperative
Potential Problems
• Hypoxemia
distension of stomach
1° pulmonary hypoplasia / pulmonary
HTN
• Contralateral pneumothorax
• Hypotension or IVC compression
• Cardiac arrest
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Postoperative Care Ventilatory support
Close fluid management
Hemodynamic monitoring
“Honeymoon Period” followed by deterioration
increase abdominal pressure
impaired peripheral and visceral perfusion
limited diaphragmatic excursion
worsening of pulmonary compliance
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Management of PPHN
• Minimize ETT suctioning
• Vasodilators : rarely effectivetolazoline isoproterenol PGE1
nitroglycerin SNP
• Inhaled nitric oxideendothelium - derived relaxing factor
(EDRF)
selective pulmonary vasodilation
rapidly metabolized
has not been shown to improve survival
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Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO)
• Use: controversial
• Allows the lungs to develop & restructure
• Expensive
• improved survival in neonates with
> 80% mortality
Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Criteria for ECMO
• Gestational age ≥ 34 wks
• Reversible disease process present
• Weight ≥ 2000 grams
• Predicted mortality ≥ 80%
estimated by oxygenation index of > 40
FiO2 x mean airway pressure x 100
PaO2
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Congenital Diaphragmatic HerniaCongenital Diaphragmatic Hernia
Contraindications
Gestational age < 34 wks
Weight < 2000 grams
Preexisting intracranial hemorrhage (≥ grade II)
Aggressive respiratory treatment > 1 wk
Congenital heart disease
Congenital or neurological abnormality
incompatible with good outcome
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TracheoEsophageal Fistula TracheoEsophageal Fistula (TEF)(TEF)
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Tracheoesophageal FistulaTracheoesophageal Fistula
Incidence: 1:4000 live births
M > F (25:3)
10-40% are preterm
Antenatal history: polyhydramnios (60%)
Etiology: failure in mesenchymal separation of upper foregut
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Tracheoesophageal FistulaTracheoesophageal Fistula
Clinical Presentation
choking on 1st feed
coughing
cyanosis
excessive salivation
aspiration pneumonia
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Tracheoesophageal FistulaTracheoesophageal Fistula
Diagnosis
• inability to pass a suction catheter
into the stomach
• CXR: coiled orogastric tube in the
cervical pouch; air in the stomach
and intestine
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Esophageal AtresiaEsophageal Atresia Tracheoesophageal Tracheoesophageal FistulaFistula
Turnage RH, et al, Sabiston Textbook of Surgery,17Turnage RH, et al, Sabiston Textbook of Surgery,17 thth Ed. 2004 Ed. 2004
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TracheoEsophageal Fistula
5 Types (Gross and Vogt)
Gregory GA, ed, Pediatric Anesthesia, 3Gregory GA, ed, Pediatric Anesthesia, 3 rdrd edition, edition, 19961996
7.7% 0.8% 86% 0.7% 4.2%
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
35-65% have associated anomalies
VATER and VACTERL
V vertebral anomalies or VSD
A anorectal malformation
C cardiac anomalies (common)
T TEF
E esophageal atresia
R renal abnormalities
L limb/radial malformation
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Preoperative Preparation
Minimize pulmonary complication
npo
head-up position
sump tube (repogle) on low continuous suction
± gastrostomy under local anesthesia
CXR, abdominal x-ray, renal ultrasound
12-L EKG and Echocardiogram : mandatory
IV access ± arterial line
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Laboratory studies
CBC
Electrolytes
Glucose
Calcium
ABGs
Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Preoperative Preparation
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Preoperative Preparation
24-48 hr medical stabilization
Antibiotics: ampicillin and gentamicin
Ensure availability of blood in the OR
Optimize volume status and metabolic state
Intubation preferably in the operating room
under controlled situation
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Intraoperative Management
Main Concern
oxygenation and ventilation
securing the airway
Monitors
ASA standard
± invasive : arterial line
* precordial stethoscope in the L axillary area
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Anesthetic Technique
• “classic approach”
GA without muscle paralysis
• combined light GA + epidural (Bosenberg)
• GA with muscle paralysis
Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Intraoperative Management
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Intraoperative Management
Induction
• awake intubation
• rapid sequence IV induction
• inhalation induction spontaneous
ventilation without muscle
relaxant
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Intraoperative Management
Assessment of ETT position
Goal: ETT just above the carina and just below
the fistula
• Right mainstem intubation and withdraw ETT
until bilateral breath sounds
• Left mainstem intubation: poorly tolerated
due to insufficient pulmonary reserve
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• If g-tube present, place
end of g-tube under water
seal: ETT above fistula
→ (+) bubbles
• Connect capnograph to
g-tube: (+) ETCO2 if ETT
above the fistula
• ? rigid bronchoscopy
- not proven
Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Intraoperative Management
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Intraoperative Management
Berry FA, Anesthetic Management of Difficult and Routine Pediatric Patients, 2nd Ed. 1990
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Intraoperative Management
Beware of gastric distention
gentle positive pressure ventilation
gastrostomy: open if present
TEF + RDS combination
now what???!!
gastrostomy under local anesthesia
fogarty embolectomy catheter
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Intraoperative Management
Lateral decubitus position
Posterolateral thoracotomy
Maintenance of Anesthesia
Narcotic technique
Inhalation technique + regional
anesthesia
? Use of nitrous oxide
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Intraoperative Management
Surgical repair
• ligation of fistula
check air leak in suture line
• esophageal repair
identify the pouch
placement of feeding tube
• chest tube placement and closure of
thoracic cavity
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Intraoperative Management
Intraoperative problems
• Endobronchial intubation
• Intubation of fistula
• Obstruction of ETT
• V/Q mismatch
lateral decubitus position
nondependent lung retraction
• Vagal response to tracheal manipulation
• Return to transitional circulation and shunting
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Postoperative Management
Early extubation desirable
caution: disruption of surgical repair with
reintubation
Postop Pain Management
1. IV narcotics
2. epidural infusion: 0.1% bupivacaine +
fentanyl 0.5 mcg/ml at 01.-0.2 ml/kg/hr
3. rectal Tylenol + LA infiltration of incision
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Tracheoesophageal Fistula
Main Cause of Mortality
associated anomalies
survival rates 85-90%
Long Term Complications
GE reflux
anastomotic stricture
tracheomalacia
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Abdominal Wall Defects
Gastroschisis
Omphalocoele
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Gastroschisis
Greek word for “belly cleft”
Evisceration of gut through a 2-3 cm defect in
the anterior abdominal wall lateral to the
umbilicus, usually on the right
Absence of covering or sac
chemical peritonitis infection
ECF loss heat loss
Incidence: 1:15,000-30,000 live births
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Gastroschisis
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Etiology
exact cause unknown
Theories
• intrauterine occlusion of omphalo-
mesenteric artery → ischemia and
atrophy of abdominal muscles
• early fetal rupture of an omphalocoele
Gastroschisis
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Gastroschisis
• rupture of umbilical cord at the site
of the resorbed right umbilical vein
• ? Maternal: smoking, ETOH,
recreational drugs, medications
(NSAIDS, pseudoephredrine)
• associated anomalies - rare
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OmphalocoeleOmphalocoele
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Omphalocoele
External herniation of abdominal viscera into
the base of the umbilical cord through a
central defect
Defect: small or large
Umbilical cord is inserted into the apex of the
lesion
Presence of covering or sac (amnion and
peritoneum)
Incidence: 1-5,000-10,000 live births
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Omphalocoele
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Omphalocoele
Etiology
• incomplete return of the gut to the
abdominal cavity due to an abdominal
lateral fold defect
• Failure of migration and fusion of cranial,
caudal and/or lateral folds of the embryonic
disc at ~ 3rd wk of gestation
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Omphalocoele
Cranial Fold : Pentalogy of Cantrell
Epigastric omphalocoele
Sternum cleft
Diaphragmatic defect
Ectopia cordis
Cardiac anomaly
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Omphalocoele
Lateral Fold
omphalocoele with cord coming of
the center of the sac
Caudal Fold
Hypogastric omphalocoele
Extrophy of the bladder
Imperforate anus
Colonic agenesis
Vesicointestinal fistula
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Omphalocoele
Associated Congenital Anomalies: 75-80%
chromosomal: trisomy 13, 15, 21
cardiac anomalies: 20%
craniofacial
gastrointestinal
Beckwith-Wiedeman Syndromeomphalocoele microcephaly
visceromegaly hypoglycemia
macroglossia hyperviscosity
Pentalogy of Cantrell
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Omphalocoele
Survival: 20% with heart disease
70% without heart disease
Major cause of mortality
cardiac defects
prematurity
Definitive Treatment: surgical repair
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Gastroschisis Omphalocoele
Incidence 1:15,000-30,000 1:6,000
Peritoneal absent present covering/sac
Location of periumbilical within the umbilical defect cord
Herniated matted, edematous normal bowel Associated low (10-15%) high (40-60%) anomalies intestinal atresia congenital heart dis. (15%) Beckwith-Weidman syndrome
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Gastroschisis Omphalocoele
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Anesthetic Concerns
• Hydration / fluid status
warm moist sterile saline-soaked gauze
plastic bowel bag
initial fluid requirement 10 -15 ml/kg/hr; higher
with gastroschisis 100-200 ml/kg/hr
• Heat loss : neutral thermal environment
• Difficulties of surgical closure
• Associated congenital anomalies & prematurity
Abdominal Wall DefectsAbdominal Wall Defects
Preoperative ManagementPreoperative Management
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• Infection and postop nutrition
• Postoperative ventilation
• Airway
• Metabolic status
• Aspiration precautions
• Direct trauma to herniated organ
Abdominal Wall Defects Preoperative Management
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Abdominal Wall Defects Preoperative Management
Lab workup
CBC Electrolytes and Glucose
ABG
Ancillary Procedures
CXR
Echocardiography
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Abdominal Wall Defects Intraoperative Management
Premedication: ± atropine
IV access: 2 large bore IVs preferably above the diaphragm
Monitors:
ASA standard : 2 pulse oximeters
invasive: arterial line
± CVP
foley catheter
intraop airway pressures
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Abdominal Wall Defects Intraoperative Management
Choice of Anesthesia
general anesthesia
spinal (reported) in selected patients
Induction
decompress the stomach
rapid sequence IV induction with cricoid
pressure or
inhalation induction and intubation or
awake intubation
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Abdominal Wall Defects Intraoperative Management
Maintenance of Anesthesia
• Opiate technique or judicious use of
inhalational agents
• Avoid nitrous oxide
• Adjust FiO2: PaO2 50-70 mmHg
SpO2 97-98% term
87-92% preterm
• Muscle relaxant facilitates abdominal closure
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Prevent hypothermia
full access body hugger heating
blanket
increase room temp plastic wrap
fluid warmer
Fluid requirement
maintenance: D5 0.2% NS
3rd space loss replacement
isotonic fluid 10 -15 ml/kg/hr
blood loss from adhesions
Abdominal Wall Defects Intraoperative Management
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Abdominal Wall Defects Intraoperative Management
Surgical Closure
• optimal method remains controversial
1) primary fascial closure : 80%
± intraop and postop muscle paralysis
2) staged repair
silicone elastometer pouch
primary skin closure
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• Closure dependent on the
1) size of the defect
2) development of abdominal wall
3) presence of associated anomalies
Abdominal Wall Defects
Intraoperative Management
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Abdominal Wall Defects Intraoperative Management
Primary Closure
• monitor: airway pressure, O2 saturation and ABG
• tight abdominal closure
1) impairs diaphragmatic excursion
→ ventilatory compromise
2) impedes venous return → profound hypotension
3) aortocaval compression → bowel ischemia, ↓ CO,
renal and hepatic dysfunction, wound
dehiscence
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Abdominal Wall Defects Intraoperative Management
Unsafe for Primary Abdominal Closure
• Intragastric pressure > 20 cmH2O
• Intravesical pressure > 20 cmH2O
• Change in CVP 4 ≥ mmHg
• ETCO2 ≥ 50 mmHg
• Peak inspiratory pressure ≥ 35 cmH2O
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Abdominal Wall Defects Intraoperative Management
Staged Reduction
• Dacron reinforced silastic silo
• Gradual reduction over 1- 2 weeks
• Ketamine or opioid ± muscle relaxant in
intubated patients or
• Titration of ketamine 0.5 -1 mg/kg IV with
spontaneous breathing unintubated infants
• Final closure in the OR
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Abdominal Wall Defects Intraoperative Management
Silo closureSilo closure
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Abdominal Wall Defects Intraoperative Management
To extubate or not to extubate?
• Size of patient
• Intraoperative events
• Prematurity
• Associated pathology
• Hemodynamic status
• Magnitude of the abdominal defect
• Type of repair
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Abdominal Wall Defects Postoperative Management
NICU
Postop ventilation in most neonates for 24-48 hrs
Fluid requirements may remain high
Prolonged postop ileus: TPN or PPN
Prevent infection: higher with silo
Watch for circulatory compromise
cyanotic lower limbs
Postop HTN due to ↓ renal perfusion and
activation of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
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Abdominal Wall Defects
Early Postoperative Complications
• Necrotizing enterocolitis
• Renal insufficiency
• Pneumonia
• Abdominal wall breakdown
• PDA
• GE reflux
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Necrotizing Necrotizing EnterocolitisEnterocolitis
(NEC)(NEC)
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Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
Life-threatening intestinal inflammation
or injury
Caused by bacterial invasion of previously
injured or ischemic bowel wall
Incidence: 5 -10% in infants <1500g birth
weight
Mortality rate: 10 - 30%
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Single most important factor
PREMATURITY
Can occur in:
premature infants
LBW infants
Full term infants
fed and unfed infants
Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
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Other factors
ischemia
bacterial infection
GI endotoxemia
enteral feeding
use of hyperosmolar formula
congenital heart disease
hx of umbilical arterial catheterization
hx of exchange transfusion
Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
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Early signs
↑ gastric residuals with feedings
temperature instability
poor feeding
bilious vomiting
lethargy
mucoid or bloody stool
apnea and bradycardia
Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
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Late Signs
Hemodynamic instability
Anemia
Thrombocytopenia
Coagulopathy, DIC
Prerenal azotemia
Metabolic acidosis
Necrotizing EnterocolitisNecrotizing Enterocolitis
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Physical Exam
distended and tender abdomen
Labs:
CBC
electrolytes and glucose
platelets and coagulation profile
DIC profile
ABG
Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
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Abdominal X-ray
• signs of bowel obstruction
• ileus with edematous
bowel
• Pneumatosis intestinalis
or intramural air (arrow)
• portal vein air
• pneumoperitoneum
Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
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Medical Management
initial treatment, for 7-10 days
75% successful
Surgical Treatment
10 - 50% mortality
Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
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Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
Medical Management
• No enteral feedings for 10-14 days
• NGT on intermittent suction
• Hydration and correction of electrolytes
• Ventilatory support
• Antibiotics
• Blood and platelet transfusion if needed
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Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
Surgical Indications
• Absolute Indications
1) bowel perforation
new mx: peritoneal drains
under local anesthesia
2) intestinal gangrene
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• Relative Indications• clinical condition
metabolic acidosis
respiratory failure
oliguria, hypovolemia
thrombocytopenia
leucopenia, leukocytosis
• air in the portal vein
• bowel wall edema
• persistent dilated bowel loops
Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
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Necrotizing Enterocolitis
• Non-Surgical Indications
severe GI hemorrhage
abdominal tenderness
intestinal obstruction
gasless abdomen with
ascites
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Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
Preoperative ManagementPreoperative Management
Anesthetic Concerns
• Fluid/volume status
• Significant 3rd space loss
• Full stomach / pulmonary aspiration
• Metabolic abnormalities
acidosis, hyperglycemia
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Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
Preoperative ManagementPreoperative Management
• Electrolyte imbalance: hyperkalemia
• Coagulopathy: thrombocytopenia
• Respiratory failure
• Sepsis / hemodynamic instability
inotropic support
dopamine infusion
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Adequate IV access
Monitors:
ASA standard
invasive: arterial line, ± CVP
foley catheter
Induction
rapid sequence if not intubated
Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
Intraoperative ManagementIntraoperative Management
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Maintenance of Anesthesia
• Narcotic based technique
• Avoid nitrous oxide
• Inhalational agents poorly tolerated
• Massive fluid requirements
• PRBC, FFP and platelets transfusion
Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
Intraoperative ManagementIntraoperative Management
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Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)Necrotizing Enterocolitis (NEC)
• Avoid hypothermia
• Give blood early when indicated
Postop Management
• NICU
• Postop ventilation required
• Continue resuscitation
• Parenteral Nutrition
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SummarySummary
• Almost all neonatal surgical “emergencies” Almost all neonatal surgical “emergencies”
are really “urgencies”are really “urgencies”
• Immaturity of organ system in neonates Immaturity of organ system in neonates
alters pharmacology and physiologyalters pharmacology and physiology
• Thorough preop assessment is required in Thorough preop assessment is required in
all neonatesall neonates
• One anomaly mandates a search for othersOne anomaly mandates a search for others
• Murmurs necessitate a cardiology consultMurmurs necessitate a cardiology consult
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• Successful perioperative outcome depends Successful perioperative outcome depends on open communication and teamwork on open communication and teamwork between neonatologist, anesthesiologist and between neonatologist, anesthesiologist and surgeonsurgeon
• Initial resuscitation of neonatal surgical Initial resuscitation of neonatal surgical candidates includes:candidates includes:
airway protectionairway protection
adequate IV accessadequate IV access
fluid resuscitationfluid resuscitation
temperature stabilizationtemperature stabilization
gastric decompressiongastric decompression
administration of antibioticsadministration of antibiotics
identify associated anomaliesidentify associated anomalies
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Omphalocoele
Embryology
Failure of the midgut to return to the
abdominal cavity by the 10th wk of
gestation