GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5831
Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in
emerging globalization era
Mahabir P. Gupta1
1Center for Pharmacognostic Research on Panamanian Flora, School of Pharmacy, University of Panama,
Panama, Republica de Panama, e-mail: [email protected]
(Based on a paper presented at Expert Group Meeting on Priority Needs of Developing Countries in the field of
MAPS. International Center for Science and High Technology (ICS/UNIDO), Trieste, Italy, 21 – 22 February
2011)
INTRODUCTION
The mankind has relied on nature to cater for its basic needs. Plants, in particular,
have formed the basis of sophisticated traditional medicine systems. Plant-based medicines
continue to play an essential role in health–care, and their use by different cultures has been
extensively documented. The World Health Organization has estimated that approximately
80% of the World´s population rely mainly on plant-derived traditional medicines for their
primary health care, while plant products also play an important role in the health care
systems of the remaining population, mainly in developed countries (1). A survey of plant –
derived compounds used as drugs indicated that of 122 compounds identified, 80% were used
for the same or related ethnomedical purposes and were derived from only 84 plant species
(2).
The rich plant diversity of developing countries in globalization area is a reservoir of
unexplored sources of drugs and aromatic plants. Despite the intensive investigation of
terrestrial flora, it is estimated that only 6% of the approximately 300,000 species (some
estimates are as high as 500,000 species) of higher plants have been systematically
investigated pharmacologically, and only some 15% phytochemically. The endophytic
microorganisms that reside between living plant cells have received little attention. Of
particular significance has been the production of anticancer agents in small quantities from
endophytic fungi isolated from plants. Examples include taxol from Taxomyces and many
Pestalotiopsis species, as well as camptothecin, podophyllotoxin, an epimer of the precursor
to the anticancer drug, etoposide, vinblastine and vincristine from endophytic fungi isolated
from the original source plants. It has been demonstrated that these compounds are not
artifacts, and so the identification of the gene/geneproduct controlling metabolite production
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5832
by these microbes could provide an important tool in the increased production of these
metabolities (3).
Historically, natural products have provided an endless source of medicine, and
despite reduced funding for natural products-based drug discovery, natural products remain an
undiminished source of new pharmaceuticals. Even though industrial funding specifically
allocated for natural product based drug discovery declined from 1984 to 2003, the percentage
of natural-products derived, small – molecule patents has remained relatively unchanged. A
comprehensive review of human drugs introduced between 1981 and June 2006 suggests that,
out of 1010 NCES, 43(4.3%) were unaltered natural products, and a further were derived from
natural products (usually by semisynthesis) and the remaining 735 were synthetic molecules.
However, 262 of the synthetic molecules had a natural–products derived pharmacophore or
could be considered natural products analogs (4 – 8, 12).
It is often noted that 25% of all drugs prescribed today come from plants. This
estimate suggests that plant–derived drugs make up a significant segment of natural product–
based pharmaceuticals. Out of many families of secondary metabolites, nitrogen-containing
alkaloids have contributed the largest number of drugs to modern pharmacopoeias, ranging in
effects from anticholinergics (atropine) to analgesics (opium alkaloids) and from
antiparasitics (quinine) to anticholinestearases (galanthamine) to antineoplastics (vincristine,
vinblastine). Terpenoids (including steroids) have made an equally important contribution to
human health. They range from digitalis for congestive heart failure to antineoplastic
paclitaxel to antimalarial artemisnin, to anti-inflammatory triptolide. Phenolics (mostly
phenylpropanoids) contributed aspirin and podophyllotoxin to modern medicine. Fig 1
summarizes the most important structural classes of pharmacologically active secondary
metabolites from plants (5).
IMPORTANCE OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN DRUG DISCOVERY
Medicinal plants remain an important source of new drugs, new drug leads, and New
Chemical Entities (NCEs) (6-8). In both 2001 and 2002, approximately one quarter of the
best selling drugs worldwide were natural products or derived from natural drugs (9,10). Four
new medicinal plant – derived drugs have been introduced in the US Market: Artether,
(Artemotil®) Galanthamine, (Reminyl
®) Nitisimone (Orfedin
®), and Tiotropium (Spiriva
®).
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5833
Compounds, M6G, morphine-6-glucuronide, a metabolite of morphine is under phase III
clinical trials for use as an alternate pain medication with fewer side effects. Vinflunine, a
derivative of vinblastine for use as an anticancer drug with improved efficacy and Exatecan®
an analogue of camptothecin for cancer area also in Phase III Clinical trials (11).
Before the 20th
century, medicines relied exclusively on multicomponent medicines,
obtained from natural sources. In contrast, the modern pharmaceutical industry almost
exclusively uses single – ingredient drugs, known as New Chemical Entity. However, the
rate of NCE discovered has slowed down significantly during the last decade (9,10). FDA
approval of new drugs reached a 24 – year low as of 2007, and drugs approved in Europe
have been rejected by that agency (13). An increasing number of diseases are being treated
with combination of single–component drugs. These combination therapies are designed to
lower the incidence of resistance or target several pathological processes simultaneously.
These combinations are particularly important in treating HIV, malaria, cancer and metabolic
syndrome.
Studies have documented the ability of plant secondary metabolites including
quercetin, catechins, resveratrol and curcumin to potentiate the activity of various cancer
drugs. Some plant secondary metabolites have been shown to overcome multiple drug
resistance in tumors or in pathogenic bacteria when used in combination with antibiotics.
Therefore, drug discovery strategies based on natural products and traditional medicines are
reemerging as attractive options. Patwardhan and Mashelkar (14) suggest that rationally
designed, carefully standardized, synergistic traditional herbal formulations and botanicals
can also be alternatives. A reverse pharmacology approach, inspired by traditional medicine
and Ayurveda, can offer a smart strategy for new candidates to facilitate discovery and for the
development of rational synergistic formulations. Table 1. shows categories of botanical
therapeutics, their characteristics and US regulatory classification. Recently, a set of
regulations on botanical mixtures is the “Guidance for Industry: Botanical Drug Products,
published by the FDA Center for Drug Evaluation and Research in 2004
http://www.fda.gov/cder/guidance 4592 fnl.htm)
MARKET OF HERBAL MEDICINAL PRODUCTS
The World Bank estimated global trade in MAPs and their products at US $5.0 trillion
by 2050. Global herbal market is around $70.5 billion with an average growth of 10–12%.
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5834
The European union is the largest consumer of herbal products (45%) followed by Asia
(19%), Japan (16%) North America (11%), Rest of Europe (4%) and others (7%). These fall
into the following therapeutic categories in decreasing order of importance: cardiovascular
diseases, respiratory disorders, digestives, tonics, miscellaneous disorders, hypnotics and
sedatives and topical herbal applications. Table 2 shows total global exports (US$ 11.145
billion) of botanicals, raw materials, extracts and oils. Top five exporters are China, India,
Germany, USA, and Kenya, China and India constitute 25% of the world market. Table 3
shows summary of some South American botanical exports in volume and value. In 2007
World export value of MAPs classified under HS code 1211 amounted to US$1.615 billion
(Table 4).
The potential and growth of nutraceuticals in different countries in descending order
are United States: Europe, Japan, Asia Pacific, Canada, Latin America. Herbal supplement
sales have risen in all channels in 2009 (15). Table 5 shows estimated herb sales in all
channels during the period 1999 – 2009. Nutritional Business Journal arrived at a total figure
for all US herbal dietary supplement sales in 2009 of US$ 5,030,000,000.00. Tables 6 and 7
show top selling herbal dietary supplements in food, drug, and mass market channels in the
United States for 2009. While according to SPIN Scan, the top seeling botanical dietary
supplements in the Natural health food channels in the United States were Vaccinium
macrocarpon (craneberry), Glycine max (soy), saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), Garlic (Allium
sativum), Echinacea spp. (Echinaceae), Ginkgo biloba (gingko), milk thistle (Sylibum
marianum), Hypericum perforatum (St John´s wort), Panax ginseng (Ginseng), Acatea
racemosa (Black cohosh), Camelia sinensis (Green Tea), Oenothera biennis (Evening
primrose), Valeriana officinalis (Valerian), Horny Goatweed (Epimedium spp.), Vitis vinifera
(Grape seed), Zingiber officinales (Zinger), Aloe vera (Ginger) and Aesculus hippocastanum
(Horse chestnut seed). Data from Nutrition Business Journal also show that herbal sales
increased 4.8% in 2009 compared to 2008 (www. Nutritionbusinessjournal.com).
An estimated 3000 botanical species that are used as medicinal and or aromatic agents
are traded globally, of which the majority of species are wild collected. These plants are
destined for a wide range of commercial uses as components of foods, aromas and flavors,
colorants, dyes, dietary supplements and natural health products, medicines, and textiles (16).
Market News Service of International Trade Center UNCTAD/WTO) is also an excellent
source for obtaining information on market trends of MAPS . Figure 2 shows industrial
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5835
applications of MAPS. Nutraceuticals are a promising sector with enormous growth. The
USA leads the nutraceutical market followed by the countries of Western Europe and Japan.
Asia and Pacific, Latin America, Africa and Middle East will provide the fast growth for the
nutraceutical industry. China will be a big player.
ESSENTIAL OILS
Figure 3 shows productions countries and essential oil production worldwide. Brazil
is the top producer followed by India and USA (17). Emerging developing countries have
great potential for production of essential oils. Sixty five percent is produced in developing
countries. Table 8 shows the essential oil production in different Latin American countries.
Cosmeceuticals represent a great potential for growth. Global market of cosmeceuticals is
estimated at US $ 22.00 billion. It is the fastest growing sector. Production figures of
important essential oils in 2008 are given in Table 9.
Essential oils have a great variety of uses: as flavoring agents, feed additives,
perfumes and cosmetics. They find diverse applications in all fields of pharmacy, balneology,
massage, veterinary medicine, and homeopathy. Aromatherapy has becomes a multimillion
dollar industry. The essential oils are used as biocides and insect repellents. They are also
good sources of novel phytochemicals as starting materials for chemical synthesis. Their
exploitation in emerging developing countries should be given high priority.
PLANT – BASED PHARMACEUTICALS INDUSTRY
Problems and constraints
With the exception of India and China, in most of the emerging developing countries,
especially in Latin America, the plant based pharmaceutical industry is marginal or incipient
and its participation in the total pharmaceutical market is poor. Some of the causes that have
hindered the development of plant – based pharmaceutical industry in developing countries
are:
a. Lack of awareness of socio-economic and medical benefits of this industry.
b. Lack of manufacturing technical know-how.
c. Resilience in prescription of phytomedicinals by the physicians.
d. Lack of a national and sectorial policy.
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5836
e. Unawareness or lack of quality control procedures and methods of standardization.
f. Difficulty in the availability of large quantities of medicinal plants of high quality.
g. Lack of R & D in agrotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, therapeutic validation,
etc.
h. Problems in the registration of phytomedicines and other legal issues
i. Lack of awareness of market trends.
j. Lack of incentives to this industry by the Government, financing, tax
exemptions, etc.
The national pharmaceutical industry does not appear to be predisposed to undertake
the manufacture of phytopharmaceutical products, as it does not find them to be economically
feasible, doesn't have the technology and there is a lack of confidence in the acceptability of
these products. On the other hand, the governments and health authorities, in general, do not
believe that industrialization of medicinal plants will have a significant impact in health care
and a reference to plants is made in the context of recovering cultural values of local
traditions or as a cheaper alternative because of limited resources of medical assistance to that
part of the population, which in many countries, does not have access to drugs.
Both, public and private sector, in general, lack awareness of the socioeconomic and
medical benefits of phytopharmaceutical products.
The problem of quality control and standardization of medicinal plants and
phytomedicinals represents a serious constraint. Some countries have official monographs on
medicinal plants and phytomedicinals but, in general, there are no well established criteria to
determine purity, authenticity and quality of raw materials. The same is true of the finished
products. There is a need for more and better qualified personnel for the industrial
transformation of plants into the finished pharmaceutical products. There is a dearth of
chemical engineers, technicians and other related professionals. There exist very few
postgraduate programs in industrial pharmacy/pharmaceutical technology.
Another problem that hinders development of this sector is the difficulty in obtaining
information on process technology for the manufacture of products.
A general lack of acceptance of phytomedicinals by the physicians is another major
obstacle. The physicians are resilient in prescribing these products. This is due to the fact
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5837
that in many countries during their training, the disciplines related to phytotherapy are not
included. Countries such as Germany and France make a special emphasis on this topic.
At the present time, in developing countries it is difficult to assure a continuous supply
of medicinal plants of high quality and in the quantities required. This is due to the fact that
the majority of the plants are collected from wild sources. With a few noted exceptions,
medicinal plants are not cultivated scientifically in this region. There is a lack of
agrotechnological research; optimum time of plant collections is not known, neither are on-
going studies on topics such as genetic improvement, clonal micropropagation, in vitro
cultivation of medicinal plants, pos tharvest treatment, domestication of wild species and
generation of propagable material.
A lack of awareness of World market trends in medicinal plants and phytomedicinals
is another serious hurdle.
Research & Development
Agrotechnological Aspects
One of the requirements for industrialization of medicinal plants is the systematic
cultivation of the species after its correct taxonomic identification and the identification of its
optimal chemotypes. The collection of plants from wild sources is not acceptable because of
the danger of species extinction and there is no quality control, as a result the content of the
active principles is very variable. Each country must select the species that should be
cultivated. Selection of the species should be based upon such factors as: climatic conditions,
the abundance of the species that can be used for primary health care for the treatment of
diseases for which there are no modern drugs and their export potential. Brazil for example
has selected the species for cultivation based on their uses for adults: arterial hypertension,
acute respiratory infections, skin affections, gynecological problems, and arthritis, and for
children- diarrhoea, parasitic diseases, respiratory diseases and skin infections.
Cultivation of medicinal plants makes it possible that raw material produced be of a
reliable and consistent quality in relation to its chemical composition. Cultivation of
medicinal plants represents alternative crops and the countries can diversify their agricultural
production.
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5838
Technology transfer for genetic improvement of plant species is a necessity. It is necessary to
carry out research on the improvement of plant collection and techniques, continuous
regeneration of propagable materials for industrialization of medicinal plants, conservation
and exchange of materials form their gene pools and on the biosynthesis of important
phytoconstituents.
Studies are also needed to determine the optimal period of plant collection as well as
on the methods of transportation and storage. Post harvest preservation is also an important
area of study.
Formulation and Industrial Production
Another problem in the development of medicinal plants-based industry is the lack of
experience in formulation and preparation of phytopharmaceutical products, as well as in the
development of process technology and the quality assurance of raw materials. More
experience in the preparation of simple pharmaceutical dosage forms is also needed.
Preparations based on traditional medicine should be stimulated using modern methods of
industrial processing and the programs for preclinical and clinical validation of these
preparations should also be stimulated and intensified. Methods for the analysis and quality
control also need to be developed.
The political vision of the government is a crucial factor. The development of local
pharmaceutical industry will only be possible if the governments provide incentives for
investments, promulgate laws that protect locally manufactured products and a clear
acceptance of safe and efficacious phytomedicinals in their basic drug formularies. The
National Science and Technology organizations should assign high research priority to this
area.
It is necessary to initiate a concerted research program involving botany, plant
genetics, agronomy, phytochemistry, pharmacology, chemical engineering, pharmacy, clinical
studies and marketing oriented towards the production of phytomedicinals.
It is important to study world markets to know the demand of medicinal plants. In this aspect,
ITC can provide a good orientation.
Developing countries should have the following approach for the development of
plant-based pharmaceutical industry:
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5839
a. Formulation of new technified products based on traditional remedies, including
modern dosage forms.
b. Industrial production of standardized phytomedicinals, according to the good
manufacturing practices and quality assurance programs.
c. Development of drugs through multidisciplinary research, and
d. Modernization of cultivation that can assure a constant supply of high quality plants.
Legal Context
In developing countries one of the serious problems that has hindered
development of plants-based pharmaceutical industry is the lack of appropriate regulations for
registration and quality control of phytomedicinals.
The US FDA classifies herbal products as Dietary Supplements, while phytomedicies
are sold in Europe as drugs mainly through the pharmacies. These products are very often
prescribed by the physicians and are approved by the Ministries of Health of the
corresponding countries as safe and effective drugs. These products are widely accepted by
the consumers and represent currently a market of approximately US $ 5 billion in Western
Europe.
Germany is perhaps the only developed country that permits the marketing of
phytomedicines, provided they have been proven safe and effective. However, the proof
required is very different from the one required by the FDA. The German position may be
considered as of "reasonable certainty" that involves use of data from the existing literature,
anecdotal information supplied by practicing physicians, as well as limited clinical studies.
Because the costs involved are not exhorbitant, a large number of relatively small
pharmaceutical manufacturers market a wide variety of phytomedicinals in Germany. They
also conduct research on them both in-house and by sponsoring investigations in university
laboratories.
PLAN OF ACTION AND STRATEGIES FOR INDUSTRIAL UTILIZATION OF
PLANTS.
Plant Extracts
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5840
Preparation of pure or total plant extracts, standardized qualitatively and
quantitatively, appears to be a viable, ethical and an economic alternative. Plant extracts
have been used since millennium in all parts of the world in the form of simple and
traditional preparations of therapeutics agents. An industry based on these preparations
will require the following:
a. Botanical and agronomical studies on plant species utilized. In order to establish a
plant-based pharmaceutical industry, it is necessary to carry out "economic mapping"
studies to know the quantity of raw material available. Without this information, there
is an imminent danger of extinction of the species.
b. Conservation of germplasms of medicinal plant species, and their cultivation to assure
a continuous supply and to minimize biological variation. Studies should be conducted
to determine the evolution curve of active principles in the plant so that it can be
collected at a time when its content is maximum.
c. Bioactive principles in the plant used should be identified; this can be done on the
basis of published literature.
d. Adequate analytical methodologies for the qualitative and quantitative assay should be
established for diverse phytoconstituents, and for quality control of plant material and
their extracts.
e. Studies should be conducted:
on the best extraction method, with respect to the choice of solvent and technology to
be used.
to develop most appropriate pharmaceutical formulations of the extract (granules,
syrup, liquids, etc) which have an optimum stability, good dosage regimens, good
presentation and high quality.
on pharmacological, toxicological and clinical aspects. Now a days there exist a
variety of in vitro bioassays that permit easily the detection of biological activity in plant
extracts. Studies should also be conducted to validate seriously the plant utilized in order
to guarantee its efficacy and innocuity.
The use of plant extracts with well defined characteristics and of modern instrumental
techniques for quality assurance allows production of phytomedicines in a variety of
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5841
standardized and stable pharmaceutical dosage forms and the populations with little resources
can have an access to them.
Research
Multidisciplinary Research should be encouraged.
Human Resource Development
The lack of highly qualified personnel in different aspects related with the
development of plant-based pharmaceutical industry in developing countries has been one of
the major constraints. It is, therefore, strategically important to create appropriate
infrastructure for human resource development both at the technical as well as the managerial
levels. A comprehensive and multifaceted approach should be used to cover both the physical
and technical infrastructure needed for industrial development.
Postgraduate programs leading to M.S. and Ph.D. degrees should be designed and
initiated. Technical cooperation programs among developing countries are also advisable;
through such programs, short-term and targeted training for scientists of one country in
another can be easily carried out.
CONCLUSIONS
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants are vital resources for developing countries. Now
there are better opportunities to explore the biological activity of previously inaccessible
sources of natural products. Developing countries should make an effort to explore their full
potential. In addition, natural products may also provide useful pharmacological tools.
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5842
REFERENCES
1. Farnsworth, N. R., A Kerele, R. O., Bigell, A. S., Soejarto, D. D., Guo, Z.
Bull.World.Health.Organ. 1985, 63, 965 – 981.
2. Fabricant, D. S. Farnsworth, N. R., Environ. Health Perspect. 2001, 109 (Suppl.), 69
– 75.
3. Cragg, G. M. and Newman, D. J. In Comprehensive Natural Products. In Chemistry
and Biology, Mahender L., Lue, H. – W. Eds. Elservier: Oxford, 2010, Vol. 3 pp. 135 – 175.
4. Balandrin, M. F., Kinghorn, A. D, Farnsworth, N. R. Plant–derived Natural Products
drug discovery and development. An overview. In Human Medicinal Agents from Plants, A.
D. Kinghorn, M. F. Balandrin, Eds. American Chemical Society, Washington, D. C., 1993,
534, pp 2 – 12.
5. Raskin, I., Ribnicky, D. M., Komarnytsky, S., Ilic, N., Poulev, A., Borisjuk, N.,
Brinker, A., Moreno, D. A., Ripoll, C., Yakoby, N., O´Neal, J.M., Cornwell, T., Pastor, I.,
Fridlander, B. Trends Biotechnol. 2002, 20, 522 – 531.
6. Koehn, F.E & Carter, G. T., Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2005, 4, 2006 220.
7. Newman, D. J. & Gragg, G. M. J. Nat. Prod. 2007, 70, 461 – 477.
8. Mccullah, M. Drug Discovery World, Winter 2008/9, pp.1-7.
9. Raking, I. & Rippole, C. Curr. Pharm. Des. 2004, 10, 3419 – 3429.
10. Butler, M. S. J. Nat. Prod. 2004, 67, 2141 – 2153.
11. Balunas, M. J., Kinghorn, A. D. Life Sciences. 2005 78, 431 – 441.
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging
globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira
29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5843
12. Sams – Dodd F., Drug Discov Today 2006. 11, 465 – 472.
13. Jesse, W. – H. & Vederas, J. C. Science 2009. 325, 161 – 165.
14. Patwardhan, B. and Mashelkar, R. A. Drug Discov Today (2009). Doi:
10.1016/jdralis. 2009.05.009.
15. Cavaliere C., Rea, P., Lynch, M. E., Blumenthal, M. HerbalGram 2010; 86, 62- 65.
16. Medicinal Plant Specialist Group. International Standard for Sustainable wild
collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (ISSC – MA). Version 1.0. Bonn, Gland,
Frankfurt and Cambridge: Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BFN), MPSG/SSC/IUCN, WWF,
Germany, and TRAFFIC. 2007 (BFN-Skripten 195). Fair Wild Foundation website.
Available at: www.fairwild.org/documents. Accessed, 2 February 2011.
17. Baser, K.H.C. and Buchbauer, G. Handbook of Essential Oils. Science, Technology,
and Applications. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, Florida. 975 pp.
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO
DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira 29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5844
Fig 1. Structures of pharmacologically active secondary plant metabolites
classified into the groups; nitrogen-containing, terpenoids and steroids,
and phenolics, phenylpropanoids and polyketides
Natural Chemical Biology, 2007, 3(7): 360 – 366.
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO
DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira 29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5845
MAPs
1.Food Industry
- National Food
additives
- Dietetic
- Beverge industry
- Animal Nutrition
- Nutraceutical
- Functional Foods
2. Pharmaceutical
Extracts
- Medicaments
- Semi Synthesis
- Herbal Medicinal
Products
- Homeopathy
- Veterinary Pharmacy
3. Perfumes & Cosmetics
- Colognes, Perfumes,
Cosmetics, Lotions,
Soaps, Bath gels and
salts cosmeteuticals
- Vegetable oils, fats and
wakes
- Essential oils and oleo
- Vegetable saps and
extracts
- Natural colorants
- Raw materials
Fig 2. Industrial application of MAPS
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO
DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira 29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5846
Fig 3. Production countries and essential oil porduction.
A preliminary report on the world production of some selected essential oil and countries, Perfumer &
Flavorist, 2009, Vol 34.
Production countries and essential oil production worldwide
(2008)
Hungary 0.1%
France 1.0%
Vietnam 0.1%
Marocco 0.1%
Indonesia 1.9%
India 25.8%
Others 10.0%South Africa 1.0%
China 9.0%
Egypt 0.1%
Brasil 28.6%
Australia 0.6%
Argentina 4.9%USA 16.8%
GUPTA, MP. 2011. Perspectives of medicinal and aromatic plants and their products in emerging globalization era. In: CONGRESSO BRASILEIRO
DE OLERICULTURA, 51. Horticultura Brasileira 29. Viçosa: ABH.S5831-S5855
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011 5847
Table 1.
Categories of botanical therapeutics, their characterization and US
regulatory classification
a The Delaney clause mandates absence of chemicals found to induce cancer in humans or animals.
Natural Chemical Biology, 2007, 3(7): 360 – 366.
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011
Table 2.
CHINA + INDIA = > 25% Total World Exports Value
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011
5849
Table 3.
Summary of South American Botanical Exports 2008
Volume (Kg) and Value (USD)
(Brinkman 2010)
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011
5850
Table 4.
Total Export Value for “HS 1211” Botanicals
(Brinkman 2010)
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011
5851
Table 5.
4.8%5,0302009
0.9%4,8002008
4.3%4,7592007
4.1%4,5612006
2.1%4,3812005
3.5%4,2902004
-2.2%4,4162003
-2.7%4,2382002
3.0%4,3562001
2.9%4,2302000
2.7%4,1101999
% Increase
(-decrease)
$ Total Sales
(millions)
Year
Total Estimated Herb Sales in All Channels, 1999 - 2009
Source: Nutrition Business Journal, www.nutrition.business.com
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011
5852
TABLE 6.
The 20 Top – Selling Herbal Dietary Supplements in the Food, Drug, and Mass Market Channel in the United States for 2009 (per IRI) *
Common Name Latin Name $2009 Sales
(USD)
% Change 2008
1. Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon 31,314,220 23.28
2. Soy Glycine max 19,647,980 -12.35
3. Saw Palmetto Serenoa repens 18,813,300 7.09
4. Garlic Allium sativum 17,908,530 -7.66
5. Echinacea Echinacea spp. 16,230,560 6.94
6. Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba 16,011,830 -8.10
7. Milk Thistle Silybum marianum 11,162,670 19.72
8. St. John´s wort Hypericum perforatum 8,758,233 5.90
9. Ginseng† Panax ginseng 8,292,474 1.65
10. Black Cohosh Actaea racemosa‡ 8,123,878 -0.29
11. Green Tea Camellia sinensis 6,715,113 21.71
12. Evening Primrose Oenothera biennis 4,259,037 9.17
13. Valerian Valeriana officinalis 4,142,231 24.76
14. Horny Goat Weed Epimedium spp. 2,819,403 16.94
15. Bilberry Vaccinium myrtillus 1,983,723 7.41
16. Elderberry Sambucus nigra 1,837,587 -0.42
17. Grape Seed Vitis vinifera 1,783,874 -3.78
18. Ginger Zingiber officinale 1,183,641 24.81
19. Aloe vera Aloe vera 646,164 -4.81
20. Horse chestnut seed Aesculus hippocastanum 558,946 -28.79
Total All Herb Sales (including herbs not shown) Ref: (15) $ 335,585,700 14.38
* Source: Information Resources Inc., FDM Market Sales Data for Herbal Supplements, 52 weeks ending December 27, 2009. † Its is not clear from the IRI data whether this figure also includes the sales of American ginseng root products (made from Panax quinquefoius), the sales of which
are not as high as sales from supplements made form Asian ginseng (P. ginseng)
‡ Synomym: Cimicifuga racemosa
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011
5853
TABLE 7.
The 20 Top – Selling Botanical Dietary Supplements in the Natural and Health Foods Channel in the Unites States for
2009 (per SPINS) *
Common Name Latin Name $2009 Sales (USD) % Change 2008
1. Aloe vera Aloe vera 21,853,391 6.27
2. Flaxseed and/or Oil Linum usitatissimum 20,776,836 6.90
3. Wheat or Barley Grass Triticum aestivum or Hordeum
vulgare
13,243,966 2.34
4. Aςaí Euterpe oleracea 10,413,011 133.06
5. Turmeric Curcuma longa 10,199,020 22.70
6. Milk Thistle Silybum marianum 9,387,702 -5.14
7. Stevia Stevia rebaudiana 8,834,816 3.50
8. Elderberry Sambucus nigra 6,850,969 49.27
9. Saw Palmetto Serenoa repens 6,660,475 -2.18
10. Echinacea Echinacea spp. 6,583,991 11.26
11. Garlic Allium sativum 5,538,815 -11.38
12. Echinacea with Goldenseal
Combination
Echinacea spp. And Hydrastis
Canadensis
5,017,058 8.44
13. Oregano Oil Origanum vulgure 4,704,920 6.56
14. Valerian Valeriana officinalis 4,613,969 4.26
15. Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba 4,276,489 -8.71
16. Chlorophyll/Chlorella Chlorophytum arundinaceum 3,960,091 -2.01
17. Black Cohosh Actaea racemosa† 3,645,883 3.23
18. Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon 3,579,839 4.20
19. Evening Primrose Oenothera biennis 3,102,840 -3.20
20. Green Tea Camellia sinensis 2,915,369 5.98
Total All Herb Sales (including herbs not shown) Ref: (15) $249,664,836 4.48
* Source: SPINS scan Natural, 52 weeks ending December 26, 2009 and year ago, SPINS defined herbal category † Synonym: Cimicifuga racemosa
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011
5854
Table 8.
Estimated World Production of Some Essential Oils and Contribution of Latin America
Paraguay 850Cardamom
Paraguay 855Palma Rosa
Guatemala 3020Boldo
Paraguay 250300Petitgrain
Brazil200Vetiver
Brazil 100100Palo rosa
Brazil 300; Guatemala 2001,000Lemongrass
Essential oil
World
Production
(Tons)
Principal Producer in South America
(Tons)
Turpentine 250,000 Brazil, 8,000; Argentina 4,000
Orange oil 30,000 Brazil 18,000; Argentina 200
Mentha arvensis 145,000 Brazil 100; Paraguay 100
Lemon 5,400 Argentina 2,000
Eucalyptus (cineole type)3,000
Brazil 70; Paraguay 30; Bolivia 10;
Uruguay 10
Citronella 2,800 Argentina 200; Brazil 150
Lavander 1,300 Spain 130
Lime 1,200 Mexico and Peru
Schinus molle 0.1? Chile and Mexico
Hortic. bras., v.29, n. 2 (Suplemento - CD ROM), julho 2011
5855
Table 9.
Production Figures of Important Essential Oils (2008)
Essential Oil Production in Metric
Tons (2008)
Main Production Countries
Orange oils 51000 USA, Brasil, Argentina
Cornmint oil 32000 India, China, Argentina
Lemon oils 9200 Argentina, Italy, Spain
Eucalyptus oils 4000 China, India, Australia, South Africa
Peppermint oil 3300 India, USA, China
Clove leaf oil 1800 Indonesia, Madagascar
Citronella oil 1800 China, Sri Lanka
Spearmint oils 1800 USA, China
Cedarwood oils 1650 USA, China
Litsea cubeba oil 1200 China
Patchouli oil 1200 Indonesia, India
Lavandin oil Grosso 1100 Francia
Corymbia citriodora 1000 China, Brazil, India, Vietnam
Source: Perfumer & Flavorist, 2009. A preliminary report on the world production of some selected
essential oils and countries, Vol 34, January 2009.