Starting Point: Pedagogical Resources for Teaching and Learning Economics
Draft Version: December 22, 2009
Support provided by the National Science Foundation - DUE 0817382
Mark H. Maier Department of Economics Glendale Community College Glendale, CA 91208 Tel: 818-240-1000 x5468 Fax: 818-549-9436 [email protected]
KimMarie McGoldrick Department of Economics Robins School of Business University of Richmond Richmond, VA 23173 Tel: 804-289-8575 Fax: 804-289-8878 [email protected]
Scott P. Simkins Director, Academy for
Teaching and Learning 313 Dowdy Building NC A&T State University Greensboro, NC 27411 Tel: 336-334-7705 x2237 Fax: 336-334-7136 [email protected]
Abstract
ThispaperdescribesanewNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)project(DUE0817382)thatmakesinnovativepedagogicalresourcesandeffectiveteachingpracticeseasilyaccessibletoeconomistsviaaweb‐basedpedagogicportal–StartingPoint:TeachingandLearningEconomics.TheStartingPointsiteintroduceseconomiststoteachinginnovationsbothwithinandbeyondthediscipline,providesinstructorswiththetoolstobeginintegratingandassessingtheseinnovationsintheirownclassrooms,andencouragesthesharingofteachinginnovations.TheStartingPoint:TeachingandLearningEconomicsprojectteamisdevelopingatotalofsixteenpedagogicalmodulesforeconomists:ClassroomExperiments;Context‐RichProblems;CooperativeLearning;DocumentedProblemSolving;EffectiveUseofClassroomResponseSystems;InteractiveLectureDemonstrations;InteractiveLectures;InterdisciplinaryApproachestoTeaching;Just‐in‐TimeTeaching;Service‐Learning;TeachingwithCases;TeachingwithComputerSimulations;SpreadsheetsAcrosstheCurriculum;StudentResearch;UsingMediatoEnhanceTeachingandLearning;andQuantitativeWriting.Eachmodulecontainsageneraldescriptionofthepedagogicalmethod,summariesofresearchdemonstratingstudentlearninggains,classroomimplementationguides,andalibraryofeconomics‐basedexamplesthatillustratetheteachingmethodinaction.Inaddition,eachmoduleincludesaprocessforfacultytocontributenewteachingexamples.Thispaperprovidesanoverviewoftheproject,describesexistingandplannedpedagogicalresources,andoutlineswaysthateconomicsinstructorscanbenefitfrom,aswellascontributeto,theseresources.Note:TheauthorswishtoacknowledgethecontributionofPaulGrimes,CollegeofBusinessandIndustry,MississippiStateUniversity,whoconductedthewebsurveydiscussedinsection7ofthepaper.PaulisoneoftwoexternalevaluatorsincludedinthisNSFproject.
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1. AnOverviewoftheStartingPointProject
Nationalsurveysconductedoverthepastdecadeverifythateconomistscontinuetorelyheavilyonlecture‐styleteachingpedagogy,aninstructionalformatthat,accordingtoBeckerandWatts(1998b,p.4),hasbeen“establishedbyconvenience,custom,andinertiaratherthanefficiencyor,especially,bywhatrepresentseffectiveteachingpracticesintoday’sundergraduatecurriculum.”1Withfewexceptions,science,technology,engineeringandmathematics(STEM)disciplinesaremovingmorequicklythaneconomicstosupplementorreplacelecture‐basedinstructionwithteachingmethodsthatmoreactivelyengagestudentsinthelearningprocess.2Physicseducation,inparticular,hasledtheefforttodevelopmoreinteractiveteachingmethods,intheprocessdevelopingarich,cumulativeknowledgebaseofeffectiveteachingstrategiesandcurricularresourcestheoreticallygroundedinthelearningsciencesandempiricallytestedintheclassroom(SimkinsandMaier,2008).WebelievethatthereismuchtogainbymakingeconomistsawareofSTEM‐basedpedagogicalinnovationandpromotingitsadaptationandassessmentineconomics.
ThisideaiscentraltoourdevelopmentofStartingPoint:TeachingandLearningEconomics(hereafterreferencedsimplyasStartingPoint),aweb‐basedpedagogicportalthatprovidesasinglesourceforpedagogicalresourcessupportingundergraduateeconomicsinstruction.BuildingonpastNationalScienceFoundation(NSF)investmentinpedagogicalinnovationintheSTEMdisciplines,StartingPointhighlightsavarietyofresearch‐basedteachinginnovationsthatcanbereadilyadaptedtoeconomicsinstruction.TheStartingPointsitewillmakeiteasierforeconomiststolearnaboutteachinginnovationsbothwithinandbeyondtheirdisciplineandprovidethemwiththetoolstobeginintegratingandassessingtheseinnovationsintheirownclassrooms.Additionally,StartingPointencouragesfacultymemberstosharetheirownpedagogicexamples,creatingadynamicteachingandlearningresourcethatwillcontinuetogrowanddevelopovertime.
TheStartingPointsitenotonlyservesasarepositoryforpedagogicalresources,butalsoasaguidetomoreintentionalandreflectiveteachinginformedbylearningscienceresearchandclassroompractice.EachpedagogyhighlightedinStartingPointincludesnotonlyadescriptionofthepedagogicpractice,butalsoresearch‐basedjustificationfortheteachingstrategyandsuggestionsforeffectiveclassroomusethatdirectlyaddresscriticalstudentlearningareassuchasexpert‐novicelearning,misconceptions,transferoflearning,andmetacognition.3StartingPointencouragesinstructorstothinkcarefullyaboutstudentlearningobjectivesandwhatpedagogicpracticescanhelpstudentsachievethoseobjectives,bothintermsofeconomicsandmoregenerally.Thatis,thepedagogicpracticeshighlightedinStartingPointaremorethansimplehow‐to’sorteachingtips;theyrepresentandillustrateintentionaleducationalprocessesgroundedinanunderstandingofhowstudentslearn.
1SeealsoBeckerandWatts(1996,1997,1998a,2001,2007),Siegfried,et.al.,(1996),andBenzingandChrist(1997).2Onenotableexceptionisthegrowinguseofeconomicexperimentsforclassroominstruction.3ThesearefourcriticalareashighlightedinHowPeopleLearn:Brain,Mind,ExperienceandSchool(2000),aconcisebutcomprehensivesummaryofclassroom‐applicableresearchfindingsfromthelearningsciencesoverthepastthirtyyears.
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ThelongtermgoalofthisStartingPointprojectistoenhancestudentlearningineconomics,takingadvantageofexistingeffortsinotherdisciplinesandresearchfindingsfromthelearningsciences.Keytoachievingthisgoalwillbehowtheprojectsupportsdevelopmentofnewlearningmaterials,introductionofteachingstrategiestoeconomics,enhancementoffacultyexpertise,implementationofeducationalinnovations,andcreationofacommunityofteacher‐scholars.Thedescriptionthatfollowsdemonstrateshowtheprojectisdedicatedtoeachofthesecomponents,fromitsfoundationsthroughtoitsdeliverableproducts.2. TheFoundationsoftheStartingPointProject:BuildingonPreviousWork
StartingPointbuildsonavarietyofpreviousprojectsfocusedonadaptingpedagogicalinnovationsinitiallydevelopedinotherdisciplines,disseminatingclassroom‐testedteachingpractices,andpromotingasharedinterdisciplinaryteachingcommons.
Adaptingpedagogicalinnovationsacrossdisciplines.OverthepastdecadeMarkMaierandScottSimkinshavebeenexploringtheadaptationandadoptionofSTEM‐basedteachinginnovationsineconomicsthroughaseriesofNSF‐fundedresearchprojects.Theirinitialwork(DUE00‐88303)exploredtheadaptationofJust‐in‐TimeTeaching(JiTT)ineconomics(SimkinsandMaier,2009,2004),whileasecondproject(DUE04‐11037)examinedtheapplicabilityofabroaderbaseofpedagogicpracticesforeconomicsinstruction,includingcontext‐richproblems(Helleretal1992),interactivelecturedemonstrations(Sokoloffetal1997)andpeerinstruction(Mazur1997).StartingPointprovidesanopportunitytomakeeconomistsawareofthese(andother)pedagogicalinnovations,whichotherwisemightremainunknownbecauseoftheirdevelopmentoutsideofeconomics.BecauseeconomicsstudentsencountermanyofthesamelearningchallengesastheirpeersintheSTEMdisciplines(e.g.developingfacilitywithmultiplerepresentationsoftheoreticalconcepts,analyticalproblemsolving,conceptualmodeling,andtransferofconceptsfromonesettingtoanother),webelievethatthesepedagogicalpracticescansuccessfullyenhancestudentlearningineconomicsinthesamewaysthattheyhaveinSTEMdisciplines.TheinterdisciplinarynatureoftheStartingPointprojectisanaturaloutgrowthoftheseearlierprojects.
Disseminatinginteractiveteachingpractices.Duringthepastsixyears,theNSF‐fundedTeachingInnovationsProgram(TIP)ineconomics(DUE03‐38482)providedover300instructorswithanopportunitytolearnaboutinnovativepedagogiesthroughworkshops,mentoredclassroomimplementation,andclassroom‐basedscholarshipofteachingandlearning(SoTL).4Historically,mostscholarshiponeconomiceducationhasrequiredformalpresentationofquantitativelyestimatedimpactsofpedagogicalchangesonstudentlearning.StartingPointisspecificallydesignedtoenhancethesharedunderstandingofteachingpracticebyprovidingavenueforinstructorstosharetheirworkatallstagesofdevelopment,includingreflectiveenhancementofexistingcoursesandformativeevaluationofstudentlearning.Moreover,StartingPointencouragesthesubmissionofclassroomexamplesthatillustratetheuseofpedagogicalpracticeshighlightedonthesite.
4TheTIPprogramisdescribedat:http://www.vanderbilt.edu/AEA/AEACEE/TIP/TIP.htm
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Promotingtheteachingcommons.Intheirreevaluationoftheeconomicsmajorinlightofliberaleducationvalues,ColanderandMcGoldrick(2010)identifytheneedfora“teachingcommons”topromoteashiftfromcurrentdominantlectureteachingmethodstomoreactivepedagogicpractices.Suchateachingcommonsis“aconceptualspaceinwhichcommunitiesofeducatorscommittedtoinquiryandinnovationcometogethertoexchangeideasaboutteachingandlearningandusethemtomeetthechallengesofeducatingstudents.”(HuberandHutchings,CarnegieFoundationfortheAdvancementofTeaching,2005)The“teachingcommons”HuberandHutchingsenvisionservesasapublicspaceforsharing–andcommentingon–teachingexamples,techniques,andideas.Unlikejournalpublications,whichrequirerigorousproofofstudentlearning,ateachingcommonsprovidesacollectionofdocumentedexamples,organizedthroughanintentionalframework,illustrating“pedagogyinaction.”Suchexamplesincludecomprehensivedescriptionsoflearningobjectives,instructionalcontext,requiredpre‐requisiteknowledge,andassessmentguidance,inadditiontoadescriptionoftheactivity.StartingPointseekstofunctionasatypeof“teachingcommons”foreconomics,whereinstructorscometothesitenotonlytobenefitfromothers’examples,butalsotocontributetheirownaspartofagrowinglibraryofpedagogicalexamplesfocusedoneconomicsinstruction.
3. TheStartingPointPedagogicalPortal:BuildingandRevisingaCollectionof
ReusablePedagogicModules
Highlightingtheinterdisciplinarynatureofthisproject,theStartingPointpedagogicportalhasbeendevelopedincollaborationwiththeScienceEducationResourceCenter(SERC)atCarletonCollege.OverthepastdecadeSERChasdevelopedaflexiblecontentmanagementsystemthatmakespedagogicalmodulesdevelopedbySERCpartnersaccessibleonthewebviaapedagogicaldatabase.Originallydevelopedforthegeosciences,thispedagogicdatabasenowsupportsadiscipline‐genericPedagogyinActionwebportalthatincludespedagogicmodulesforover40teachingmethods.5Eachpedagogicmoduleincludesinformationabouttheteachingmethod,theoreticalandempiricalsupportforitsuse,detailedguidanceonitsuseintheclassroom,references,andalibraryofexamplesoftheteachingmethod.ThepedagogicmodulesarepartofacentralpedagogicdatabasethatservesoutpedagogiccontentdynamicallythroughaPedagogicServicesframework.6
TheStartingPointprojectusestheunderlyingmoduleframeworkdevelopedbySERC,butfocusesonsixteenteachingpracticesthatwebelievearemostapplicabletoeconomics.NineofthesixteenpedagogicmoduleswearedevelopinginthisprojectarenewandwillbecomepartofSERC’scomprehensivepedagogiclibrary,whileseveninvolveextensiverevisionsofexistingSERCpedagogicmodules,whichwillreplacethecurrentSERCmodulesinthelibrary.Inaddition,foreachofthemoduleswearedevelopingasection,“UsingXinEconomics”,whereXdenotesthepedagogybeinghighlightedinthemodule.Thus,eachmodulecontainsbothgenericinformationaboutaspecificteachingmethodaswellasdiscipline‐specificinformationaboutthatteachingmethod’suseineconomics.
5Seehttp://serc.carleton.edu/sp/index.htmlandhttp://serc.carleton.edu/sp/library/pedagogies.html.6FindoutmoreaboutSERC’sNSF‐supportedPedagogicServiceproject,partoftheNationalScienceDigitalLibrary(NSDL),at:http://serc.carleton.edu/sp/service/index.html.
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ThemodularframeworkoftheunderlyingcontentmanagementsystemdevelopedbySERCmeansthatpedagogicmodulescanbesimultaneouslysharedacrossavarietyofportals.Thatis,thesamepedagogiccontentdevelopedfortheStartingPointprojectcanbere‐usedbythePedagogyinActionsiteandotherSERCPedagogicServicepartners.7Forexample,thesamecontentfromthecooperativelearningpedagogicmodulecansimultaneouslyappearinmultiplewebportals,asillustratedinFigure1onthefollowingpage.Inaddition,themodularframeworkoftheunderlyingpedagogicdatabase,inconjunctionwiththenew“UsingXinEconomics”modulecomponentintheStartingPointsite,makesiteasyforotherdisciplinestocreatetheirownpedagogicportals.Forexample,adisciplinesuchassociologycouldcreateitsownpedagogicportalbyre‐usingthegenericpedagogicresourcesfromthegeneralmodulelibraryandsubstitutingitsown“UsingXinSociology”modulecomponentfordiscipline‐specificpedagogicalinformation.Thus,theStartingPointprojectisadvancingSERC’sroleasaprimarypedagogicresourceproviderintwoways:(1)BycontributingnewpedagogicmodulestoSERC’spedagogicresourcelibrary,ourprojectismakingavailablenewpedagogicresourcestomultipleportals;and(2)Bydevelopingadiscipline‐basedpedagogicportalthatincludesbothdiscipline‐genericpedagogicinformationaswellasa“UsingXinEconomics”modulecomponent,theStartingPointportalprovidesaframeworkthatmakesitrelativelyeasyforotherdisciplinestodeveloptheirownpedagogicportals.
ThesixteenpedagogicmodulesincludedintheStartingPointportal,alongwithatimelineoftheirplannedavailabilityandtheeconomistscoordinatingdevelopmentofthemodules,arelistedbelow.
Fall2009• ContextrichProblems‐JoannBangs,CollegeofSt.Catherine• JustinTimeTeaching‐ScottSimkins,NorthCarolinaA&TStateUniversity• QuantitativeWriting‐StevenGreenlaw,UniversityofMaryWashington• TeachingwithCases‐AnnVelenchik,WellesleyCollege• CooperativeLearning‐KimMarieMcGoldrick,UniversityofRichmondSpring2010• ClassroomExperiments‐SherylBall,VirginiaPolytechnicInstituteandState
University• Teachingwith(Computer)Simulations‐BettyBlecha,SanFranciscoState
University• EffectiveuseofClassroomResponseSystems‐JosephCalhoun,FloridaState
University• InteractiveLectureDemonstrations‐MarkMaier,GlendaleCommunityCollege• StudentResearch‐ElizabethPerry‐Sizemore,RandolphCollege
7ForalistofcurrentSERCPedagogicServicepartners,see:http://serc.carleton.edu/sp/service/partners.html.
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Figure1:ThePowerofSharingOneModule,ThreeSimultaneousInstances
CooperativeLearningModule‐PedagogyinAction
CooperativeLearningModule‐CAUSEweb.org
CooperativeLearningModuleStartingPoint:TeachingEntryLevelGeoscience
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Fall2010• InterdisciplinaryApproachestoTeaching‐ArtGoldsmith,WashingtonandLee
University• ServiceLearning‐AndreaZiegert,DenisonUniversity• SpreadsheetsacrosstheCurriculum‐MilesCahill,CollegeoftheHolyCross• DocumentedProblemSolving‐LindaWilsonUniversityofTexas‐Arlington• UsingMediatoEnhanceTeachingandLearning‐DirkMateer,PennState
University• InteractiveLectures‐GailHoyt,UniversityofKentucky
4. CommonPedagogicModuleDesign
EachpedagogicmoduleintheStartingPointportalincludesthefollowingcomponents,
whichappearasseparatesetsofwebpagesonthesite,linkedusingacommonnavigationmenu:
(a)Moduleintroduction(b)Descriptionofthepedagogicpractice(c)Effectivenessinpromotingstudentlearning(d)Howtoimplementthepedagogicpractice(e)Usingthepedagogyineconomicscourses(f)Examplesofthepedagogybeingusedineconomics(g)References/Resources
TheintroductorypageforoneofthemodulesincludedintheStartingPointsite,
context‐richproblems,isillustratedinFigure2onthefollowingpage.Thefigureshowsthepage,currentlyinthedevelopmentstage,aspartofthePedagogyinActionsite;whencompleteitwillbeincludedintheStartingPointportal.Notetheleft‐hand‐sidenavigationmenuthatincludeseachofthecomponentslistedabove.AsimilarmenuappearsoneverywebpagewithintheStartingPointsite,makingitquickandeasyforvisitorstothesitetofindtheinformationthattheyareseekingfromanywhereinamodule.Liketheillustratedmenu,theStartingPointnavigationmenuwillalsoincludethefulllibraryofmodulesavailableatthesite.
Thegoalofeachpedagogicmoduleistoprovidethefullrangeofinformationthatafacultymemberneedstosuccessfullyimplementaspecificteachingmethod.ThecommonmodularformatdevelopedandevaluatedbySERCmakesiteasyforinstructorstobrowseacrossmultipleteachingmethods.Asnotedpreviously,eachmoduleincludesbothdiscipline‐independentcontent(relatedtothegeneralpedagogicalpractice)anddiscipline‐specificissuesandexamplesillustratinghowthepedagogicalpracticeisusedineconomics.
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Figure2
Top‐levelPage–Context‐RichProblemsModule(DevelopmentVersion)
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Belowwebrieflydescribethepurposeandcontentofeachmodulecomponent,whicharecommonacrossallpedagogicmodules.
(a)Moduleintroduction.Themoduleintroductionpageservesasatableofcontentstothemoduleandcontainsaconcisedefinitionofthepedagogicalpracticeaswellasabriefsummaryof(andlinksto)thefiveremainingcomponents.(b)Descriptionofthepedagogicpractice.Designatedasthe“whatis?”page,thiscomponentofthemoduledescribestheteachingmethodanditsdistinguishingfeatures.Thissectionanswersquestionssuchas:
Whatarethecentralattributesofthismethod? Whatdifferentiatesthisteachingmethodfromothers? Whatconditionsareoptimalforthisteachingmethod?(Classsize,learning
environment,etc) Arethereanyrequiredresourcesortechnology(orothertraitsofalogistical
nature)?(c)Effectivenessinpromotingstudentlearning.Thisisdesignatedasthe“whyuse?”pageanddescribeswhenandwhythemethodisparticularlyeffective,withreferencestotheoreticalandempiricaleducational(generalandeconomics‐specific)andlearningsciencesresearch.Acriticalroleofthispageistocreateabridgebetweenpracticalfacultyinterestineffectiveteachingmethodsandeducationalresearchthatprovidescriticalinsightintoteachingandlearningoutcomes(andhowthispedagogycanhelpachievethoseoutcomes).Thus,thispageprovidesanswerstoquestionssuchas:
Whatarethepotentiallearningoutcomespromotedbythisteachingmethod? Whatlearningsciencesareas(e.g.misconceptions,expert‐novicelearning,
transferoflearning,metacognition)doesthisteachingmethodaddress? Whatisthepotentialforassessmentoflearningoutcomes(usingthisteaching
method)? Whatdoescurrentresearch(generallyordiscipline‐based)havetosayabout
thisteachingmethod? Whatistheevidence(qualitativeand/orquantitative)thatthismethodsworks?
Underwhatcircumstancesdoesitenhancestudentlearning?Whydoesitenhancelearning?
(d)Howtoimplementthepedagogicpractice.This“howto”page,themostpopulardestinationforinstructorsaccordingtoresearchconductedbySERC,describeshowtousethemethodeffectivelyandincludestipsfortheinstructor.Thissectionworkstogetherwiththespecificexamplestoenabletheinstructortousethemethodeffectively.Instructions,framing,andtipsthatapplytoallexamplesaresummarizedatthislevelinthemodule,providingcriticalassistancefornoviceusers.SERCanalysisofexistingmodulesincludesusercommentsontheimportanceofthissectioninprovidingenoughguidancetogenerateconfidencetotrythemethod,clearinstructionon
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where/howtostartwiththemethod,andaframeworkforthinkingaboutfullimplementationoftheteachingmethod.Thus,thissectionisgenerallyprescriptiveandincludes:
step‐by‐stepinstructions formativeassessmentactivitiestoassessstudentlearning listofchallenges tipsforfirsttimeuse classroommanagementtechniques suggestionsfortypesofcontentbestsuitedforthismethod
(e)Usingthepedagogicpracticeineconomics.Thiscomponentisanewfeatureofthepedagogicmodulesbeingdevelopedaspartofthisproject.Thispagegoesbeyondthegenericpedagogicadviceincludedinthe“howtouse”page,andprovidesdiscipline‐specificadviceonhowthispedagogycanbeusedmosteffectivelywithinthediscipline.Thus,thispageprovidesanswerstoquestionssuchas:
Whymakesthispedagogyespeciallyusefulineconomics?Underwhatconditions?Forwhatconcepts,topics,ideas,andskills?
Howcanthispedagogybeusedtoassessandaddressstudentpre/misconceptionsineconomics?Tohelpeconomicsstudentstransferlearningtonewsituations?
Howmightthispedagogybeusedtohelpovercomebottlenecksinstudents’learningofeconomicsconcepts?
(f)Disciplinebasedteachingexamples.Thispagecontainslinkstoacollectionofexamplesillustratinghowthepedagogicpracticecanbeusedineconomicscourses.Theexamplesprovideabridgebetweengeneralmodulecontentandtheactualday‐to‐dayteachingexperienceofeconomicsinstructors.Theymakethemodulerelevantandunderstandablebyillustratinghowtousethepedagogyinanactualclass.Eachexampleisintendedtobeself‐contained,providingfullinstructionsonhowtoimplementtheexample,alongwithanyrequiredmaterialsandteachingtips.Whencomplete,eachmodulewillcontainaminimumoften(10)examples,althoughweexpectthisnumbertogrowasStartingPointuserssubmitnewexamplestobepostedonthesite.
Ultimately,eachteachingmethodwillhaveacollectionofexamplesthatprovideabroadrangeofideasforusingthemethodineconomicscourses.Atemplatefordevelopingexamples/activitiesisusedtoensureuniformityandcompletenessofthematerial(e.g.handoutsandworksheets,instructions,instructornotes)andtoensurethatexamplescanbeeasilyfoundthroughtheuseofcommonwebsearchengines,aswellasthroughtheStartingPointsiteitself.Eachexampleincludesatitle,authorcontactinformation,abriefsummaryoftheexercise,contentandconceptsthatstudentsshouldlearnfromtheexercise,contextforuse(educationallevel,classsize,institutiontype,timeneededfortheexercise,backgroundskillsneededbystudents,etc),anarrativedescribingthemechanicsoftheexercise,materialsneededtoimplementtheexercise,teachingnotesaddressingcommonproblemsorexercise
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extensionsandprovidingtips,formativeandsummativeassessmentactivities,andreferences.
(g)ReferencesandResources.Thissectionprovidesreferencestoresourcescitedthroughoutthemodule,aswellaslinkstootherresourcesrelatedtothemodule’sspecificteachingmethod.
5. StartingPointandExistingPedagogicalResourcesinEconomics
Surprisingly,thereisnosingleresourceforcollege‐leveleconomicsinstructorsinterestedinexploringexistingornewpedagogicaltechniquesintheircourses.Asaresult,mosteconomistspracticetheircraftinrelativeisolation.Theextenttowhichtechniquesandexamplesarepubliclydiscussedistypicallylimitedtoformalpresentationsatdisciplinaryconferences,refereedjournalarticles,andspecialbookvolumes.Althoughthereisalong‐standingtraditionofeconomicseducationandafewgeneralonlineresourcesonpedagogyavailabletoeconomicsinstructors,theseresourcesarewidelyscattered,limitingfurtheradoption.8Theresultisanunderutilizationofexistingresourcesandlittlecumulativeimpactonteachingpracticesinthediscipline.
Inaddition,currentlyavailableresourcestypicallystandinisolationfromotherdisciplinesandfromresearchonstudentlearning,furtherlimitingtheireffectiveness.Consequently,economistsareoftenunawareofeducationaldevelopmentswithintheirfield(oracrossdisciplines)andlackthedeepsenseofcumulativeknowledgebuildingthatcharacterizessomeSTEMdisciplines,inparticularphysicseducationresearch.StartingPointbringstogetherresearch‐basedpedagogicalresourcesforeconomicsinstructorsinapurposefulandorganizedmannerthatcomplementsexistingpedagogicalresourcesandallowseconomicsinstructorstosharesuccessfulexamplesofpedagogicalpracticewiththeirpeers.
Takingabroaderviewofstudentlearning.StartingPointpedagogicmodulestakeabroaderviewofpracticethanmostpedagogicalresourcesineconomics.Inadditiontopromotinglearningofeconomiccontentknowledge,pedagogiesfeaturedinStartingPointareexplicitlylinkedtoresearchonstudentlearning,suchasthatsummarizedinHowPeopleLearn(Bransford,Cocking,andBrown,2000).Forexample,themoduleonJust‐in‐TimeTeaching(JiTT)featuresadiscussionofhowthispedagogycanhelpuncoverandaddressstudentmis/preconceptions;themoduleoncontext‐richproblemslinksthispedagogicpracticetoresearchonknowledgetransfer;andthemoduleoninteractivelecturedemonstrationsillustrateshowthispedagogyintentionallybuildsstudents’metacognitiveskills.Eachoftheselearningchallenges–mis/preconceptions,transferoflearning,andmetacognition–playsacentralroleinlearningsciencesresearch.TheStartingPointmoduleshelptoinformeconomistsofthisresearchandhowitcanbeintentionallyusedtoproducedeepanddurablestudentlearning.
8See,forexample,theJournalofEconomicEducationanditsonlinesection,JEEOnline[http://www.heldref.org/pubs/jece/online‐accepted.html];ResourcesforEconomists[http://rfe.org/];theSocialScienceResearchNetwork’s(SSRN)EconomicsResearchNetworkEducator:Courses,CasesandTeachingAbstracts[http://ssrn.com/ern/index.html]andtheHigherEducationAcademy’s(HEA)EconomicsNetwork(UnitedKingdom)[http://www.economicsnetwork.ac.uk].
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Learningfromotherdisciplines.StartingPointpedagogicmodulesalsocrossdisciplineboundaries,enablingeconomiceducatorstolearnfromresearchadvancesandpedagogicalinnovationsacrosstheacademy,whileatthesametimemakingitpossibleforeconomiststosharetheirowninsightswitheducatorsinotherfields,mostnotablywithregardtoclassroomexperimentsandtheuseofquantitativeassessmenttoolstocarryoutdiscipline‐basededucationresearch6. StartingPointBenefitsforEconomicsInstructors
WestartedthispaperbyarguingthateconomistsaremovingmoreslowlythantheircolleaguesinSTEMdisciplinesinadoptingandadaptingnewpedagogicalpracticesgroundedinbothclassroomandlearning‐sciencesresearch.Whythereluctancetoimplementnewteachinginnovations,evenwhenevidencesuggeststhatthenewpracticesarelikelytoenhancestudentlearning?Fromaneconomicperspective,adoptingnewteachingmethodsisacostlydecision.Ittakestimetolearnaboutnewpedagogies,adjustclassroomteachingpractices,andprepareactivitiesandassessmentsthatareconsistentwiththenewpractices.Thesemarginalcostsarerealandup‐frontandtakeawayfromotheralternativeactivities,suchasresearch.Atthesametime,theexpectedmarginalbenefits,intermsofstudentlearninggains(ignoringtheintrinsicbenefitsoflearningaboutpotentiallymoreeffectiveteachingstrategies)areuncertain,inthefutureandaccruetootherparties.Thus,itappearsthatformostpeople,theoddsarestackedagainstpedagogicalchangeunlessthemarginalcostofchangingteachingmethodscanbereducedortheexpectedmarginalbenefitincreased.
So,giventhelowprobabilityofchangingpedagogies(asillustratedbythediscipline’scontinuingrelianceonlecturemethods),whycometotheStartingPointsiteinthefirstplace?Onthecostside,StartingPointoffersaone‐stoppedagogicportal,savingbusyeconomicsinstructorsvaluabletimeinsearchingforinformationoneffectiveteachingpedagogiesandhigh‐qualityclassroomexamples.Forinstructorsseekingready‐to‐usematerialforaspecificpedagogictechniquethatcanbeincorporatedintotheirnextclass,theexamplepages–searchablebycontentarea–provideafullsetofresources,includingstudenthandoutsandinstructorguides,aswellasinformationabouttheappropriateclasssize,timeneededtocompletetheactivity,andlevelofprerequisiteknowledge.Forinstructorswhoareexploringalternativepedagogies,theStartingPointnavigationprovidesacommonformat(whatis?whyuse?howto?)thatreducesthelearningcurveassociatedwithfindingandevaluatingtheappropriatenessofawiderangeoftechniques.Thisstructure,testedandproveneffectivebySERC,hasledoverone‐thirdofallcollege‐levelgeoscienceinstructorstomakeuseofthepedagogicmodulesintheStartingPoint:TeachingEntryLevelGeosciencepedagogicportal(Iverson2009).
Intermsofincreasingthemarginalbenefitofadoptingnewteachingmethods,theStartingPointsiteprovidesafocusedsetofpedagogicpracticesthathavebeenshowntobeeffectiveatenhancingstudentlearning.Thatisnotsurprising,giventhegroundingofthesepracticesinresearchfromthelearningsciences.Ofcourse,adoptingoradaptingthesepedagogiesforuseineconomicsinstructionprovidesnoguaranteeofincreasedstudentlearning;rather,adoptionofthesemethodsandassessmentofstudentlearningoutcomesprovidesadditionalopportunitiesforscholarshipandabetterunderstandingofwhen
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thesepedagogiesaremosteffective.Inaddition,theopportunitytocontributepeer‐reviewedexamplestotheStartingPointsiteprovidesadditionalformsofscholarship.7. WhenWeBuildIt,WillThey(You)Come? It’sonethingtopointoutthebenefitsofStartingPointtopotentialusers,butquiteanothertogetusersto(a)actuallyvisitthesite,and(b)usetheresourceslocatedthere.InanattempttogaininsightaboutpotentialusageoftheStartingPointsite,PaulGrimes,oneoftwoexternalevaluatorsfortheStartingPointproject,conductedaweb‐basedsurveyinfall,2009withmultipleonlinecommunitiesofeconomiceducatorslikelytobeearlyadoptersofStartingPointresources.9Thesurveyfocusedoneconomicsinstructors’teachingpractices,familiaritywithteachingpedagogiesincludedintheStartingPointproject,opennesstopedagogicalexperimentation,andbarrierstoadoptingalternativepedagogicalpractices.The135respondentsareprimarilymale(61%),experienced(50%with15ormoreyearsteachingexperience,and36%with20ormoreyears),andholdpositionsatpublicinstitutions(70%)withawiderangeofadmissionstandards(16%exclusiveorhighlyselectiveand31%withopenadmissions).Asexpected,therespondentsareactivelyengagedinpedagogicreflection:26%frequentlydiscussedteachingmethodswithdepartmentalcolleaguesand37%hadattendedfiveormoreteachingworkshopsinthepastdecade. Consistentwithdiscipline‐widesurveysconductedoverthelastdecade(BeckerandWatts,2007),Grimes’surveyresultsindicatesignificantuseofinstructor‐centered,lecture‐basedteachingpractices.However,20%ofsurveyrespondentsreportedthattheyweredissatisfiedwiththeir“currentoverallapproachtoteachingundergraduateeconomics,”citingreasonssuchas“chalkandtalklosesmanymorestudentsthanitenthralls,”or“IsometimesquestionifwhatIamdoingisthebestway.”Thesurveyresultsalsorevealedastrikingdrop‐offwhenmovingfromknowledgeofspecificteachingtechniques,toclassroomexperimentation,tofulladoption.AsshowninTable1,respondentsreportedbeingfamiliarwithawiderangeofthesixteenpedagogiesincludedintheStartingPointproject.However,withtheexceptionofclassroomexperiments,adoptedby58%ofrespondents,notechniquewaswidelyusedbymorethanone‐halfoftherespondents.Overall,abouthalfofthesurveyrespondentsindicatedthattheyhadexperimentedwithdifferentpedagogiesduringthepastfiveyears.
9Theonlinecommunitiesinvitedtoparticipateinthesurveyincludedthetch‐econlistserv,NAEEchatlistserv,TeachingInnovationsProgram(TIP)participantlistserv,andEconomicsforTeachersblog.
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Table1FamiliarityandUseofPedagogicPractices(135SurveyRespondents)
PedagogicPractice Familiar Experimented Adopted
ContextRichProblems 50% 33% 25%
Just‐In‐TimeTeaching 26% 10% 4%
QuantitativeWriting 20% 14% 11%
TeachingwithCases 74% 40% 22%
CooperativeLearning 73% 61% 47%
ClassroomExperiments 93% 77% 58%
ComputerSimulations 60% 35% 14%
PersonalResponseSystems 59% 21% 12%
GuidedInquiry 27% 11% 6%
StudentResearch 68% 50% 36%
ServiceLearning 51% 11% 5%
SpreadsheetsAcrosstheCurriculum
11% 6% 2%
DocumentedProblemSolving 14% 8% 5%
Media‐basedTeaching 45% 34% 26%
InteractiveLecturers 50% 34% 31%
InterdisciplinaryApproaches 45% 23% 17% ThesurveyresultssuggestthatasignificantnumberofeconomistsareopentopedagogicalchangesintheirclassroomandcouldthereforebenefitfromtheresourcesprovidedattheStartingPointsite.Sowhydon’tmoreinstructorsactuallyadoptoneormoreoftheseinnovativepedagogicalpracticesthathavebeenshowntoimprovestudentlearning?Asnotedinthelastsection,adoptingnewpedagogicalpracticesiscostly.Echoingthatsentiment,nearly40%ofsurveyrespondentsbelievethatsignificantbarriersexistforeconomiststointegratealternativepedagogiesintheirclassrooms.Mostcitedamongthosebarriers:(1)theopportunitycostoftimetolearnandadopt,(2)perceivedtrade‐offswithtopiccoverage,(3)inertia,(4)lackofincentivesforchange,and(5)textbookandothercoursematerialsnotreadilyadaptabletochangesinpedagogy.However,aswealsopointedoutintheprevioussection,oneoftheprimaryobjectivesoftheStartingPointsiteistoreduceinstructors’costsassociatedwithlearninghowtoimplementeffectivenewteachingpracticesintheireconomicscourses,therebyloweringthemarginalcostofadoption.
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AsshowninTable2,surveyrespondentsciteawiderangeofsourcesfromwhichtheylearnaboutalternativeteachingmethods.Perhapsnotsurprisingly,amajorityidentifiedcolleaguesintheirdiscipline(67%),disciplinaryworkshops(62%),anddisciplinaryprofessionalconferences(51%)assourcesofinformationaboutnewpedagogicpractices.Interestingly,whilerespondentsidentifieddisciplinaryworkshops(27%)andtheircolleagues(21%)asthemostbeneficialsourcesofinformationonalternativeteachingmethods,theyalsorankedgeneralteachingandeducationconferences(15%)higherthandisciplinaryprofessionalconferences(8%)asthebestsourcesofinnovativepedagogicalinformation.
Onenotablechallengeforthisprojectisthefindingthatonly39%ofrespondentsindicatedthattheyusedtheinternetandweb‐basedsearchesforinformationonpedagogicalmethods,withonly5%indicatingthattheywerethemostbeneficialsource.Bybringingtogetherabroadsetofpedagogicalresourcesinoneweb‐basedportal,webelievethattheStartingPointsitecanchangethis.Creatingaone‐stopweb‐basedsiteforhigh‐qualitypedagogicalinformationwillreducethecostoflocatingandsortingthroughmaterialsthatarecurrentlyscatteredacrossvarioussites,enhancingtheprobabilityofadoption.Thesurveyresultssuggestthatthisismorethanwishfulthinking;whenaskeddirectly,68%ofrespondentsindicatedthattheywoulddefinitelyvisittheStartingPointsiteand27%indicatedadesiretocontributeteachingexamplestothesite.
Table2SourcesofInformationonAlternativeTeachingMethods
(135SurveyRespondents)
SourceNormalSource
MostBeneficial
ColleaguesinDiscipline 67% 21%
ColleaguesinOtherDisciplines 49% 6%
InternetandWeb‐basedSearches 39% 5%
Internet‐basedDiscussionGroups 25% 1%
DisciplinaryWorkshops 62% 27%
DisciplinaryProfessionalConferences 51% 8%
TeachingandEducationConferences 33% 15%
DisciplinaryProfessionalJournals 31% 2%
InterdisciplinaryTeachingandEducationJournals 21% 2%
ImpossibletoSay;SourcesareInterconnected 7%
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8. WaystoContributetoStartingPoint
TheStartingPointprojectseekstoengagethecommunityofeconomicseducatorsandpromotethedevelopmentofateachingcommonsinmultipleways.WeneedyourhelptomakeStartingPointadynamicresourcethatcontinuestoprovidevaluetoeconomicsinstructors.
Feedbackonmodulecontent.Inparticular,weseekfeedbackonmodulecontent.Thecommunityofeconomicscholarshasmuchtocontributetothedevelopmentofexistingpedagogicmodulesandwewanttoengagetheirexpertise.Eachmoduleincludesaformthatallowsvisitorstothesitetoprovideconstructivefeedbackandsuggestionsforenhancement.
Examplesubmission.WearealsointerestedinhavinginstructorssharetheirexpertisethroughthesubmissionofexamplesillustratingtheuseofteachingstrategiesincludedintheStartingPointsite.Engaginginthescholarshipofteachingandlearningbymakingtheprivateeffortsoffacultymorepublicwillmovethedisciplinemorequicklyawayfromthedominanceofthelecturemodeofteaching.Toensurethequalityandadaptabilityofsubmittedexamples,contributorswillbeaskedtoprovideinformationforeachoftheexamplecomponentsdescribedaboveusinganonlineform.ExamplesubmissionswillbereviewedbeforebeingacceptedforinclusionontheStartingPointsite.
Ideasfornewmodules.TheStartingPointprojectisscheduledtohave16pedagogicmodulesdevelopeduponcompletion.Clearly,thisisnotanexhaustivelistofpotentialmodulesandweencouragethecommunityofscholarsineconomicseducationtosubmitideasfornewmodules.ThisexpansionofpotentialmodulesshouldnotbelimitedtotechniqueswellknownineconomicsorintheU.S.Forexample,concepttestsarewelldevelopedinavarietyofSTEMdisciplinesbutarelargelyunknownineconomics;similarly,thetopicofthresholdconceptsiswidelydiscussedintheUnitedKingdom,butremainsaminortopicofinterestintheU.S.9. Summary
StartingPointwillserveasatoolforbuildinganinterdisciplinarycommunityofteachingscholars,althoughtheprimaryfocuswillbeoneconomics.TheinterdisciplinaryfocusofStartingPointanditsdevelopmentarefeaturesofthisprojectthatpromisetostimulatebroaddisseminationofpedagogicalinnovationsandcreatenewinterdisciplinarydialoguesonpedagogicalresearch,assessmentprocedures,andstudentknowledge‐building.Nootherresourceofthistypeiscurrentlyavailabletoeconomists.WebelievethateconomistscanbenefitfromthevaluableinsightsgainedfromdecadesofeducationalresearchintraditionalSTEMfields,whichoftenfocusesonstudentlearningchallengesthatarecommonacrossawidevarietyofdisciplines.
Asindicatedintheintroduction,wehopetoachievefourprimaryobjectivesthroughthedevelopmentandimplementationofStartingPoint.
• Creatingnewlearningmaterialsandintroducinginnovativeteaching
strategies.AkeycontributionofthisprojectisthedevelopmentofninenewpedagogicalmodulesandenhancementofsevenexistingmodulesinSERC’spedagogiclibrary.Havingbothgeneralknowledgeofeffectiveteachingpedagogies
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andanextensivecollectionofdiscipline‐specificexamplesavailableinoneweb‐basedresourcewilldraweconomiststotheStartingPointsiteandreducethetimecostofintegratingnewteachingmethodsintheircourses.
• Developingfacultyexpertise.StartingPointwillbroadeneconomists’knowledgeofeffectiveteachingpracticesandencourageadaptationandimplementationofteachinginnovationsintheirowncourses.Inaddition,StartingPointwillmakeeconomistsmoreawareoffundamentalresearchfindingsfromthelearningsciencesandthewaythatSTEMresearchersintentionallylinkbothdiscipline‐basededucationalresearchandpedagogicalinnovationstothesefindingstoproduceacumulativeknowledgebaseofpedagogicalcontentknowledge,effectiveteachingpractices,andcurricularreform.
• Implementingeducationalinnovations.Disseminationofeffective,research‐basedteachingpracticesandimplementationofthesepracticesbyeconomistsisattheheartoftheStartingPointproject.Ouraimistomakeiteasierforeconomicsfacultytolearnaboutandimplementteachingstrategiesthatpreviousresearchhasshowntobeeffectiveandtoencourageadoptionofthesestrategies.Wehopetospurongoingeducationalinnovationineconomics,atboththeindividualanddisciplinelevel,withthegoalofmovingthedistributionofteachingpracticesinthefieldawayfrom“chalkandtalk”andtowardmore“active‐student‐engagement.”
• Buildingacommunityofteacherscholars.StartingPointwillserveasavaluablevehicleforpromotingscholarlyteachingandscholarshiponteachingandlearningbyprovidinganoutletforeducatorstosharediscipline‐specificexamples.AssessmentoftheeffectivenessoftheSERCmodulesystemsuggeststhatithassuccessfullyengageduserswhoultimatelycontributeadditionalexamplestopedagogicalmodules.
Thelong‐termgoalforthisprojectistoimprovestudentlearningineconomicsthrough
recognitionandimplementationofeffective,research‐basedteachingmethodsdrawnfrombothinsideandoutsidetheeconomicsdiscipline.Inaddition,webelievethatincreasedknowledgeandadoptionofeducationalinnovationswillstimulateincreasedpedagogicalassessment.References Becker, W.E. and M. Watts. 2007. A Little More Than Chalk and Talk: Results from a Third
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