41
THE CENTRALITY OF THE BUDDHIST TEACHER
GURU-YOGA IN THE TIBETAN TRADITIONS
Georgios T. Halkias (University of Hong Kong)
ABSTRACT
The centrality of having a ‘spiritual teacher, or friend’ (Pāli kalyanamitta; Skt.
kalyānamitra Tib. dge ba’i bshes gnyen) has been emphasized in Buddhism since the times
of Buddha Śākyamuni himself. In the Meghiya Sutta of the Pāli canon the Buddha stressed
the necessity and advantages of having a spiritual friend to “ensure success in the Buddhist
path.” Throughout the history of Buddhism, the requirements of a spiritual friend shifted
to reflect the concerns of the tradition without their being any doubt as to the importance
of a qualified teacher to guide disciples in the path of meditation and ensure an unbroken
continuity of the lineage. In Vajrayāna Buddhism, the centrality of the guru (Tib. bla ma)
takes the form of a particular type of meditation known as ‘guru-yoga’ (Tib. lha ma rnal
’byor), or the practice of uniting one’s awareness with that of the teacher. In this paper, I
will introduce this meditation practice shared by all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, discuss
some of the techniques and stages of visualization whose ultimate aim is to identify with
the inner teacher, our buddha-nature that is the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice.
KEYWORDS
Buddhist Teacher, Spiritual Friend, Kalyānamitra, Lama, Guru-yoga
42
I. INTRODUCTION
མྱ་ངན་མ་བྱེད་ཀུན་དགའ་བོ། །སྱེ་སྔགས་མ་འདོན་ཀུན་དགའ་བོ། །ང་ཉིད་ཕི་མའི་དུས་ཀི་ཚེ།
།དགྱེ་བའི་བཤྱེས་གཉྱེན་ཉིད་སྤྲུལ་ནས། །ཁྱེད་ལ་སོགས་པའི་དོན་བྱེད་འགྱུར།།
Don’t be sad Ānanda, don’t sob Ānanda,
In future times I will emanate in the form of spiritual teachers,
To benefit you and others.
Great Drum Sūtra
Following a religious teacher or guru is a general characteristic of Indian culture
that goes back to the Vedic period.1 For Buddhism the importance of a teacher or ‘spiritual
friend’ (Pāli kalyanamitta; Skt. kalyānamitra Tib. dge ba’i bshes gnyen) varies from one
tradition to another. In hagiographical narratives of Śākyamuni’s life we read that
Siddhārtha Gautama studied with several guides before becoming a Buddha – like the well-
known master Ārāda Kālāma with whom he was trained to enter into the ‘sphere of
nothingness,’ and Udraka Rāmaputra who taught him how to meditate on the ‘sphere
beyond consciousness and unconsciousness.’2 Tradition has it that Siddhārtha found his
mentors lacking in penultimate understanding and proclaimed his awakening by relying on
his own efforts. He spent the rest of his life taking disciples and teaching them the dhamma
that he had discovered. It is said that a few days before entering parinibbāna he instructed
his close disciple Ānanda, “the Doctrine-and-Discipline, which I have taught and enjoyed,
is to be your teacher after my passing.3 And also “be islands unto yourselves, refuges unto
yourselves, seeking no external refuge; with the dhamma as your island, the dhamma as
your refuge, seeking no other refuge” (DN 16.33).
The parting instructions of Śākyamuni to his disciples would seem to imply that one
should rely on the dhamma as one’s refuge and teacher. Hence, throughout the history of
Buddhism the sangha served as the preserver and transmitter of the dhamma and the notion
of a ‘religious teacher’ came to occupy different levels of importance shifting from a
relatively secondary position (that of a ‘spiritual friend’ on the path) to a place of paramount
importance for one’s spiritual progress (equal to the ‘Buddha himself’) in the tantric phases
of Indo-Tibetan Mahāyāna Buddhism.
In the following study, I will briefly trace the visibility of this concept in some early
and later Buddhist sources and outline the significance of the mentor for the Buddhist
contemplative life. Specifically, I will examine how an understanding of the ‘teacher’ came
to inform central contemplative perspectives and meditation practices in Tibetan
Buddhism. As we will see, the guru or lama (Tib. bla ma), which serves as a surrogate of
the Buddha and a living example of the dhamma, provides the conducive circumstances
and contributory causes for realization during the path of meditation. It is a means to an
1 Padoux (2000: 41). References to the significance of the guru abound in the literature of the Upanishads with
the following often-cited verses from the Advaya-Tārakopaniṣad: “The syllable ‘gu’ indicates darkness, the
syllable ‘ru’ means its dispeller. Because of the quality of dispelling darkness, the Guru is so termed” (16); “The
Guru alone is the transcendent Brahman; the Guru alone is the supreme goal; the Guru alone is the transcendent
wisdom and the Guru along is the last resort” (17); and “The Guru alone is the ultimate limit; the Guru alone is
the highest wealth. For the reason that he teaches THAT, therefore is the Guru greater than all else” (18); see
Ayyangar (1938:8). 2 Frauwallner (1973: 139). 3 Quoted in Karunadasa (2013: 1, n.4).
43
end and not as an end in itself.
II. THE ‘SPIRITUAL TEACHER’ FOR ŚRĀVAKAS AND BODHISATTVAS
He who seeks eloquence should have devotion for his guru.
Śūraṅgamasamādhi-sūtra
In Pāli canonical sources there are discernible advantages for seeking out a ‘spiritual
friend’. In the Meghiya Sutta (AN 9.4), one acquires spiritual or admirable friendships for
the sake of being virtuous, for hearing the “advantages of an austere life that opens the heart
and brings forth the knowledge and vision of liberation,” for abandoning unwholesome
qualities, and eventually for coming to possess the “wisdom that discerns arising and
passing away and leads to the complete destruction of suffering.” In the Dīghajāṇu Sutta
(AN 8.54) we read an explanation of ‘admirable friendships’:
There is the case where a lay person, in whatever town or village he may
dwell, spends time with householders or householders' sons, young or old,
who are advanced in virtue. He talks with them, engages them in discussions.
He emulates consummate conviction in those who are consummate in
conviction, consummate virtue in those who are consummate in virtue,
consummate generosity in those who are consummate in generosity, and
consummate discernment in those who are consummate in discernment. This
is called admirable friendship.4
Similarly, for the Itivuttaka (1.17):
With regard to external factors, I don't envision any other single factor like
admirable friendship as doing so much for a monk in training, who has not
attained the heart's goal but remains intent on the unsurpassed safety from
bondage. A monk who is a friend with admirable people abandons what is
unskilful and develops what is skilful.5
The significance of relying on spiritual friendships is made explicit in the dialogue
transpiring between Ānanda and Śākyamuni in the Upaddha Sutta (SN 45.2):
[Ānanda] “Venerable Sir, this is half of the holy life, that is good friendship,
good companionship, good comradeship.”
[Śākyamuni] Not so, Ānanda! Not so, Ānanda! This is the entire holy life,
Ānanda, that is good friendship, good companionship, good comradeship.
When a bhikku has a good friend, a good companion, a good comrade, it is
to be expected that he will develop and cultivate the Noble Eightfold
Path…by relying upon me as a good friend, Ānanda, beings subject to birth
4 http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an08/an08.054.than.html, translation by Thanissaro Bhikkhu,
accessed on March 20th, 2017. 5 http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/iti/iti.1.001-027.than.html#iti-017, translation by Thanissaro
Bhikkhu, accessed on March 20th, 2017.
44
are freed from birth; beings subject to aging are freed from aging; beings
subject to death are freed from death…by this method, Ānanda, it may be
understood how the entire holy life is good friendship, good companionship,
good comradeship.6
Thus relying upon a ‘spiritual friend’ who possesses virtuous qualities and has
knowledge of the dhamma is an essential factor for leading a holy life on the path of
liberation. This view seems to have prevailed among śrāvaka-s up to the 5th century. The
Indian Buddhist commentator and scholar Buddhaghoṣa explains that it constitutes a
serious fault if one is not able to “find a good friend as a teacher or the equivalent of a
teacher or a preceptor or the equivalent of a preceptor” (Visudhimagga, 2.18).
With the development of Mahāyāna ideals, the notion of a ‘spiritual friend’ acquired
prominence and came to include anyone (lay person or monastic) that has the qualifications
to guide bodhisattvas on the path of awakening. In the final section of the Avataṃsaka
Sūtra, the Gaṇḍavyūha (Tib. Sdong po bkod pa’i mdo), we read:
It is from spiritual friends that bodhisattvas learn the practice of
bodhisattvas; it is through spiritual friends that all bodhisattvas’ virtues are
perfected; spiritual friends are the source of the stream of all bodhisattva
vows; the roots of goodness of all bodhisattvas are produced by spiritual
friends; the provisions for enlightenment are produced by spiritual friends;
the purification of all ways to enlightenment derives from spiritual friends;
the accomplishment of all studies of bodhisattvas are based on spiritual
friends.7
In the same work we read that “spiritual guides…born within the Buddha’s wisdom
clan” are like eldest children of a universal monarch.
Because they engender in you the positive qualities of the enlightened
heritage, they are like mothers. They accomplish wide ranging helpful acts
like fathers. They protect you from wrongdoing, like mothers. They possess
all forms of training like masters. They have entered the path of the
transcendent perfections, like guides. They cure the mental afflictions’
sicknesses like healers. They protect you from dangers like warriors. They
liberate you from the river of the round of rebirth, like boatmen. All conduct
of bodhisattvas depends upon spiritual guides.8
With the centrality of the mentor on the Buddhist path, discoursing on the
qualifications that a Buddhist guide ought to possess became necessary for a number of
Mahāyāna treatises. Before we look at some of these we should note that investigating the
qualities of teachers are also found in early Buddhism. In the Vīmamsaka Sutta (III.4) the
Buddha presented instructions by which a monk can test the Tathāgata “to evaluate his
claim to be perfectly enlightened.” And if a monk is not able to see directly into the
Buddha’s own mind, he can observe the Buddha’s physical deeds and words and indirectly
infer whether or not the Buddha is free from defilements, and whether, his mental states
6 See Bhikkhu Bodhi (2012:1523); italics mine. 7 Cleary (1987:34). 8 ibid., 63.
45
“are exclusively pure, uninfluenced by greed, hatred and delusion.” While, the Buddha
encouraged his disciples to approach him and directly inquire about his mental states, the
ultimate test is to enter the practice of the dhamma and thereby gain invincible faith through
one’s own realization (Bhikkhu Bodhi, 2005: 86-87).
In the 4th century, the Indian Mahāyāna scholar Ārya Asaṅga discusses the
characteristics that a Buddhist guide ought to possess:
(1) a virtuous way of life adhering to [the precepts of] a bodhisattva;
(2) extensive learning of the three baskets;
(3) virtuous qualities that derive from meditation of quiescence and insight;
(4) compassion and dedication for the welfare of others;
(5) self-confidence when teaching the dharma;
(6) patiently forbearing unwelcome and undesirable remarks and wrongful
behaviour carried out by others;
(7) being tireless and with careful consideration teaching Dharma to the fourfold
following (i.e., monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen);
(8) skilful qualities of speech.9
In another influential work of Indian Buddhism, Maitreya’s Ornament for the Great
Vehicle Sūtras (Skt. Mahāyanāsūtrālamkāra; Tib. Mdo sde rgyan), we read that a
practitioner who needs a teacher should seek a bodhisattva “who has vast learning, who has
seen the truth, who is a wise philosopher, who is loving and indefatigable” (Chapter XIII,
p. 168). One should serve a spiritual friend “who is disciplined, tranquil, serene,
outstanding in good qualities, energetic, rich in (knowledge of) scripture, awakened to
reality, skilled in speech, compassionate, and indefatigable” (Chapter XVII, p. 224). The
equal emphasis on the synthesis of scriptural learning and contemplative experience gave
rise to the model of the ‘scholar-siddha’ (Tib. mkas-sgrub). In Indian Buddhism this model
of the spiritual master who possesses the ‘qualities of a guru’ (Tib. bla ma’i thugs rgyud
kyi yon tan), i.e., having ‘correct view and genuine compassion’ (Tib. bla ma mtshan nyid
dang ldan pa), and who has deep knowledge of the Buddhist scriptures and mastery over
different kinds of meditation, prevailed also in Tibet and became the highest ideal in many
schools.10
A notable Buddhist scholar from Eastern Tibet, Choying Tobden Dorje (Chos
dbyings stobs ldan rdo rje, 1787–1848), describes eight different kinds of Buddhist masters:
(1) spiritual guides; (2) supreme wish-fulfilling spiritual masters; (3) spiritual masters
whose qualities are naturally complete; (4) spiritual masters liberated from existence; (5)
spiritual masters of vast sublime insight; (6) spiritual masters who hold the blessings of the
successive lineage; (7) spiritual masters who compassionately lead on the path; and (8)
spiritual masters who reveal the ultimate essential meaning.11 In the same work he explains
that one should rely on genuine Buddhist masters because they have the ability to provide
lasting and useful advise; to teach correct conduct; to accelerate the development of
9 Bodhisattva Stages (Skt. Bodhisattvabhūmi; Tib. Rnal ’byor spyod pa’i sa las byang chub sems dpa’i sa), Asaṅga
(2016: 396-397). Butön, quoting Śākyaprabha’s Advice for Novice Monks in three hundred verses, states that
“one is acclaimed as a spiritual master if he/she keeps the vows, knows the formal procedures of monastic
discipline, is caring towards the sick, is surrounded by pure individuals, strives to be of spiritual and material
aid, and gives timely counsel” (2013: 60). 10 The emphasis on learning is seen during the time of Buddhagosa (c. 5th cent.) where guru qualifications entailed
taking an accomplished scholar of Buddhist doctrine, an ācārya, as the spiritual friend. 11 Choying Tobden Dorje (2014: 47).
46
wisdom and goodness; to provide protection from suffering; to assist in the flourishing of
our spiritual qualities; and lastly, because they give us profound teachings (2014: 58).
Teachers bearing these attributes and qualities the ‘spiritual offspring’ of the Buddhas who
assist their pupils in five ways: “they are themselves well-instructed; they cause them to
learn everything; they make them learn quickly; they have a pleasing countenance like
those who are compassionate; and they have no concern for material wealth.”12
For the contemporary Bhutanese Buddhist teacher and film-maker Dzongsar
Jamyang Khyentse (1961–present), the chances of being led astray by a guru are slim if he
is devoted to the three jewels and always tries to “cultivate the atmosphere of paramitas,
the perfect attributes of a bodhisattva.” “Such a guru is more likely to influence you to
meditate and practice, to lead you onto the path of liberation and not side-track you by
encouraging you to be a ‘good person’ with vegetarianism, environmentalism, simple
living, relaxation techniques, mindfulness, ahimsa (nonviolence), and so on.”13
In the Bodhisattva’s Garland of Jewels and in the Eight Verses of Mind Training
we read that one should serve with devotion and respect their master or preceptor. “Those
who possess enlightened vision, and those first setting out upon the path—regard them both
as your spiritual teachers.” The Bengali scholar Atīśa Dīpaṃkara Śrījñāna (982–1054 CE)
said: “Even when someone I have helped, or in whom I have placed great hopes mistreats
me very unjustly, I will view that person as a true spiritual teacher.”14 So while it is clearly
part of the bodhisattva’s career to become a spiritual mentor and adopt the means for
converting others (Skt. upāya-pāramitā),15 it is also part of his own mental training to see
his enemy or adversary as his spiritual mentor. One should grant antagonistic persons the
highest position of respect and gratitude since they provide us with the opportunity to
reflect on forgiveness, loving kindness, and the six pāramitā-s.
To summarize, in Mahāyāna Buddhism the notion of the spiritual teacher serves a
number of functions including but not limited to facilitating the continuity of the Buddha’s
lineage, inciting a certain kind of reverential attitude towards the dharma and its
application, and last but not least serving as a ‘field of merit’ (Skt. puṇyakṣetra; Tib. tshogs
zhing) for Mahāyāna aspirants who receive the bodhisattva vows (Skt. praṇidhāna) from
their teachers. This resonates with the wide-spread doctrine that a bodhisattva must declare
his praṇidhāna “in the presence of a living Buddha, who then predicts his future success in
attaining enlightenment” (Skt. vyākaraṇa)16 – as in the case of the bodhisattva Sumedha
who was granted the prophesy of his enlightenment by Buddha Dīpankara.
Exaggerated and picturesque accounts of the religious teacher that contributed to
the development of the bodhisattva doctrine, need to be tempered by the understanding that
the teacher ought to be a living expression of the dharma and in no way distinct or higher
than the ‘perfection of wisdom’ (prajñāpāramitā). Hence, we read in the Large Sūtra on
12 Maitreya’s Ornament for the Great Vehicle Sūtras, Ch. XIX, p. 298. The famous Tibetan polymath and scholar
Butön (2013:61) attributes five qualities to the teacher: (1) extensive education, the quality of scriptural
transmission; (2) perception of the truth, the quality of realization; (3) verbal eloquence; (4) kindness, paying
no attention to material gain; and (5) lack of discouragement, not complacent in attitude and conduct. 13 Dzongsar Khyentse (2016: 100-105) further explains that a genuine spiritual mentor has tamed his body, speech
and mind and abides by the Buddha’s rules; he is generous, gentle and soothing; brings one to virtuous
surroundings; has pure perception; is non-judgmental; fears wrongdoing; is forgiving and skilful. 14 Above quotations are from the Bodhisattva’s Garland of Jewels and Eight Verses of Mind Training, Rigpa
Translations 2012; see lotsawahouse.org, accessed on 03/20/2017. 15 Dayal (1999: 248) notes, “The Mahayana was a ‘revival’ movement and attached great importance to successful
propaganda. The Bodhisattva-Bhūmi declares that it is the bodhisattva’s duty to be an effective
preacher…Preaching and teaching are known as the bodhisattva’s ‘gift of the doctrine of truth’ (dharma-dāna).” 16 For a discussion on this practice see Dayal (1999: 67-68).
47
Perfect Wisdom (p.484): “To cut it short, Ananda, just as I am your Teacher, so is this
perfection of wisdom.”17 From a Madhyamaka perspective the ‘conventionally designated
teacher’ (Tib. kun rdzob bla ma) is seen as the basis and method for realizing the ‘ultimate
teacher’ (Tib. don dam bla ma). The distinction between the two is critical in our
exploration of mind-training meditations pursued in Vajrayāna wherein the individual guru
is exonerated of his personhood and is viewed as the Buddha (Tib. bla ma sangs rgyas
dngos su gsungs pa yin te). As stated by the 7th century Indian scholar Chandrakīrti in his
Entering the Middle Way, (Skt. Madhyamakāvatāra; Tib. Dbu ma la ’jug pa),
“conventional truth is the method, and the ultimate its outcome. Not knowing how the two
truth differ, your thoughts will go astray.” (VI, 80).
III. TEACHER-STUDENT ENGAGEMENTS IN VAJRAYĀNA
The foundation of all the perfections is the kind guru. Having seen that
proper reliance on him is the root and basis of all the paths, inspire me to
relate to him with every effort.
Tsongkhapa (Yon tan gzhir gyur ma)
The spiritual mentor, not unlike the Buddha, is compared to a physician that cures
us of our ignorance with his medicine the dharma.18 For the early Kadam master Potowa
Rinchen Sal (Po to ba in chen gsal, 1031–1105) in order to reach liberation there is nothing
more important than a lama.
Even in simple things of this present life, with things that you can learn just
by sitting down and watching someone, you can’t get anywhere without a
person to show you. So how on earth are you going to get anywhere without
a lama, when you want to go somewhere you’ve never gone before, and
you’ve only just arrived from a journey through the lower births?19
It is essential to the practice of esoteric Buddhism, or Vajrayāna (the vehicle of the
Vajra) to cultivate ‘clear-minded faith’ (Tib. dang ba’i dad pa) and a ‘sacred outlook,’ or
‘pure perception’ towards the guru. In the Jewel Ornament of Liberation the Kagyu scholar
Gampopa (Sgam po pa, 1079–1153) argued that a living master is a contributory cause for
one’s realization of the dharma. One develops clear-mind faith when one’s mind is clear
with “regard to relying with devotion and without doubt to the three jewels and the lama”:
17 The Buddha explains: “One would expect him to have found the ‘teacher’, or a succession of preceptors who
represent him and who lead a spiritual life. And why? For this very perfection of wisdom should in this context
be regarded as the ‘teacher’, nor is the teacher one thing and the perfection of wisdom another, but just the
perfection of wisdom is the teacher and just the teacher is the perfection of wisdom. And why? Because those
who have trained in this perfection of wisdom will appear in the world as the Tathagatas of the past, future, and
present;” the Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom Conze (1975: 271), italics mine. 18 This recalls the famous saying from the Gaṇḍavyūha sūtra: “Noble one, think of yourself as someone who is
sick, of the dharma as the remedy, of your spiritual teacher as a skilful doctor, and of diligent practice as the
way to recovery.” 19 Quoted in Tsongkapa (1988: 40).
48
Clear faith is relying on the three excellent and rare objects, then giving rise
to them. It is a clear mind having respect and devotion for the excellent rare
objects: the jewel of the Buddha who shows the path; the jewel of the dharma
as being the path; and the jewel of the sangha as being the [spiritual] friends
who accomplish the path.20
In India it was customary for the ‘Vajrayāna master’ (Skt. vajrācārya) to be viewed
as the embodiment of the refuge jewels; his mind conceived as that of the Buddha, his
speech no different from the dharma, and his body as an expression of the sangha.21 In the
Tantra of the Secret Community (Skt. Guhyasamāja Tantra; Tib. Gsang ’dus rtsa rgyud)
we read: “Child of good family, all the bodhisattvas and tathāgatas look on [the guru] as
the Vajra mind of enlightenment. Why? Because the master and the mind of enlightenment
are the same – they are not divisible into two.”22
From a Tibetan Buddhist perspective, the role of guru is very important because it
is only after the initiatory empowerment, elucidating instructions, and personal guidance
that the disciple is ready to commence with tantric practice. There are many people who
are suspicious of Vajrayāna because of the intensity of the guru-disciple relationship and
the force of projections that occur in the interactions between mentors and students. Ray
(2002: 175) nicely sums this when he writes that one cannot deny the “dangers in this as in
all other intimate human relationships.” And although there can be no “complete guarantee
against mistakes and abuses,” the best defence against potential misunderstandings and
misuses is having sound knowledge and understanding of teacher-disciple relationships. 23
To begin with, the cultivation of a sacred outlook towards one’s Buddhist guide should not
be maintained if he goes against the precepts of the Buddhist dharma. The Tibetan tradition
advises prospective Vajrayāna students to carefully examine their teacher’s conduct,
reputation and activities and ascertain if he or she possesses the necessary qualifications to
serve as a religious guide. In the Fifty Verses of Guru Devotion attributed to Aśvagosha, a
text held definitive in Tibetan tantric Buddhism, we read that we can be devoted to a guru
who is “steady and calm, intelligent, patient, forthright, without craft or falsehood,
knowledgeable in the practice of mantra and tantra, kind and well-read, proficient in the
ten principles, skilled in the drawing of the mandalas, knowledgeable in the practice of
explaining the mantra, possessed of great faith and calm senses.”24
For the Tibetan ‘treasure-discoverer’ (Tib. gter-ston) Jigme Lingpa (’Jigs med gling
pa, 1729–1798) there are four kinds of gurus to be avoided. Those who constantly talk
about their family, lineage, history and monastery—they are compared to a ‘wooden
millstone’ that is very noisy but doesn’t do the job. Those who are like ‘frogs in a well’
because they think they are special for being born in good and influential families, because
they are powerful, charismatic and good-looking but do not possess any enlightened
20 Quoted in Jamgön Kongtrul (1999: 75). 21 In addition to going for refuge to the three jewels, a tantric practitioner takes refuge to the three roots of
Vajrayāna practice: the lama, the meditational deity (Tib. yi dam), and the sky-goers or ḍākinī (Tib. mkha’ gro).
In this arrangement, the guru serves as the root of blessings, the yidam as the root of spiritual accomplishments,
and the ḍākinī as the root of activities. 22 In other words, the ‘outer guru’ (the living teacher) and the ‘inner guru’ (one’s enlightened awareness) are
meant to be understood as one and the same; see Tsongkhapa (1999:59). 23 The chapter on the guru in Chögyam Trungpa’s Cutting through Spiritual Materialism (2008) makes for an
informative introduction to this topic, as is Rig’dzin Dorje’s Dangerous Friend: The Teacher-Student
Relationship in Vajrayana Buddhism (2013). 24 Tsongkhapa (1999:41).
49
qualities. They are like proud frogs who live in a well boasting about their home without
being able to fathom frogs which live in a lake. The third kind to be avoided are ‘mad
guides’ who though may have had good teachers and may possess some knowledge indulge
in reckless activities without care about benefiting beings. And lastly, they are those who
are characterized as ‘blind captains’ referring to mentors who guide beings that are at a
higher level than them and can’t advance them further.25
The ecumenical Tibetan scholar Jamgön Kongtrul (’Jam mgon kong sprul blo gros
mtha’ yas, 1813–1899), explains that there are different kinds of Buddhist masters with
corresponding qualifications: ‘Prātimokṣa Vow Masters’ (Skt. Prātimokṣa-ācārya; Tib. so
sor thar pa’i slob dpon) whose qualifications ought to relate to the vows of monastics;
‘Bodhisattva Vow Masters’ (Tib. byang chub kyi slob dpon) whose qualifications have
been discussed in the previous section;26 and ‘Vajrayāna Vow Masters’ (Tib. sngags kyi
slob dpon) who should have ideally reached the first bodhisattva bhumi and possess
characteristics as so listed in Aśvaghoṣa’s Fifty Verses of Guru-Devotion (Skt.
Gurupancasika; Tib. Bla ma lnga cu pa). Furthermore, they should be able to visualize and
construct the mandalas of the various deities, know the essential points for performing
mudras for the various tantric rituals (Tib. cho ga), recite mantras, maintain one-pointed
concentration, know the ten essential points of suchness (Tib. de kho nan yid bcu) and the
ten secret essential points (Tib. gsang ba’i de nyid bcu) (1999: 40-47).
Just as one should not accept a teacher without carefully examining if he possesses
the qualifications to serve as a mentor (Tib. bla ma brtags par bya ba; lit. to examine a
teacher), it is just as necessary for the prospective students to possess certain qualities and
be ‘suitable vessels’ for the level of training they aspire to engage in. The qualifications of
prospective students are discussed in several texts. According to Jamgön Kongtrul (1999:
55-62), a student set on engaging in prātimokṣa training ought to be disciplined physically
and mentally (i.e., be diligent with his studies and in possession of meditative concentration
to subdue negative habits); have ‘devotion and esteem for the lama’ (Tib. bla ma bsnyen
bkur); and maintain ethical conduct and patience with others. For bodhisattva training the
student ought to have: (a) faith in his wisdom teacher and the Mahāyāna sūtra-s and śastra-
s; (b) compassion for all sentient beings without exception; (c) intelligence to understand
the instructions on emptiness (Skt. śūnyatā); and (d) willingness to engage in the practice
of the six perfections (Skt. pāramitā), namely, generosity, moral discipline, tolerance,
diligent effort, meditation, and wisdom. In short, he should be inspired by the teachings on
emptiness, be joyfully in his wish to bring beings to liberation, and possess uninterrupted
effort for the practices of bodhisattvas. Lastly, the student who aspires for Vajrayāna
training he ought to possess devotion for all enlightened ones and compassion for all
sentient beings. He should have confidence in the efficacy of tantric practice and the ability
to understand the tantric view and keep the tantric commitments.
According to the Net of Illusion Tantra (Skt. Māyājāla-mahā-tantra-rāja; T. Rgyud
kyi rgyal po chen po sgyu ’phrul drab ba) a disciple is someone who is virtuous and always
reverent towards the guru, enjoys meditation and makes offerings to the devas.27 And just
as there are clear explanations concerning the qualities and qualifications of Mahāyāna
25 See Dzongsar Khyentse (2016: 114) who summarizes: “If a fresh banana leaf is wrapped around a piece of old
fish, the leaf will acquire that fishy smell. Likewise, if you follow a nonvirtuous friend, you will acquire
nonvirtuous tendencies. Negative habits are contagious”. 26 For the Bodhisattva Vow Masters Jamgön Kongtrul draws a list of qualifications from the
Mahāyanāsūtrālamkāra and from Nāgārjuna’s Letter to a Friend (Skt. Suhṛllekha; Tib. Bshes springs). 27 Tsongkhapa (1999: 47).
50
teachers and their disciples, there are also clear instructions on the kinds of people one
needs to avoid as they will hinder one’s Buddhist practice. These are listed as the fools, the
faithless and apathetic, those of the lesser way, those without view, meditation and
meditative states, those with the five poisonous mental afflictions, those who feel no
disengagement from the round of rebirths, and those who purposeful mislead others for
their own benefit.28
Unlike other Buddhist traditions, training in Vajrayāna commonly presupposes
having received initiation or empowerment (Skt. abhiṣeka; Tib. dbang) often through “a
complex ritual, involving detailed visualizations, prayers, and supplications, offerings,
special ritual instruments and substances.” Powers (2007: 269) explains that the purpose of
initiation is “to establish the initiate in the proper frame of mind, forge a karmic bond with
the lama and meditational deity, purify defilements, grant permission to practice a
particular tantra, and give instruction concerning how this should be done.” Traditionally,
prior to receiving tantric initiations the aspirant ought to have completed the ‘prerequisite
practices’ (Tib. sngon ’gro) comprising prostrations, mantra recitations and visualizations
of the Vajrassatva deity, mandala offerings, and guru-yoga practices. Hopkins (1977: 47)
clarifies that it might be ruinous if one assumes an advanced practice inappropriate to his
capacity. For this reason, one’s mental continuum ought to have been ripened by the
practices common to both “Sūtra and Tantra Mahāyāna” that include: realization of
suffering and impermanence, love and compassion, altruistic mind, and the emptiness of
inherent existence.
IV. THE GURU-YOGA MEDITATION
The master's words, having entered your heart,
are like beholding a treasure in the palm of your hand
Saraha (c. 8th cent. CE)
To feel no devotion whatsoever for your guru is like being a stone on the
floor of the deepest part of the ocean. There is a whole ocean above you,
and there you are, a round pebble that can’t absorb even one drop of
water.
Dzongsar Khyentse, The Guru Drinks Bourbon
Vajrayāna scriptures differ from other Mahāyāna texts in their use of diverse
contemplative methods and techniques aimed at accumulating merit, purifying negativities
and obscurations, and realizing wisdom. Aspirants of the tantric view are introduced to a
new vision of reality not bound by ordinary conceptuality but based on an understanding
of emptiness as manifestation. Essential to this training is the ability to transform, like a
magician, ordinary appearances (that are not fixed, permanent, or independent) into
something extraordinary. This is said to be an efficacious technique for lessening our
attachment to concretized notions of ‘place, self, and other.’ For this reason, during the
reception of Vajrayāna teachings one does not consider the place where the dharma is
taught as impure, and the teacher and the teachings as ordinary. One visualizes oneself as
28 For a detailed discussion see Choying Tobden Dorje (2014: 71-78).
51
a perfect being aspiring for awakening in a retinue of male and female bodhisattvas and
surrounding deities, the mentor as a perfect Buddha (like Samantabhadra, Vajradhara, etc),
the teachings as pure dharma, and the environment as the perfect place, a buddha-field or
pure land.29 Guru devotion is essential to this sacred outlook and method of transforming
our ordinary negative emotions into their inherent enlightened aspects.
The past Kalu Rinpoche (1905–1989) explained how in early Buddhism we respect
the teacher and have immense gratitude for his kindness in giving us the dharma, whereas
in Mahāyāna we consider him to be a spiritual friend and “a counsellor at the inner level.”
For Vajrayāna he is the root lama, or the lama who personally guides us and we regard him
as the Buddha Vajradhara, “the essence and union of all the buddhas of the three times and
the ten directions.”
He is the Buddha’s equal in his qualities, and even more esteemed than any
other aspect of Buddha because of his kindness in transmitting the teaching
to us. It is this essential relationship that allows the transmission of the
blessing and provides the spiritual direction at deepest level, the Vajrayana
level (1977:178).
Said in a different way, if we understand not “just in mere words, the way in which
Buddhas and bodhisattvas of the past help the beings of the present age, it comes down to
the qualified gurus.”30 Ray (2002: 164) explains that in Vajrayāna we approach our teacher
“initially with only a dim awareness of a world beyond our samsaric version” and
eventually it is he who introduces us “to the mystery, the power, and the magic of the
phenomenal world.”
Through our Hinayana and Mahayana practice, we begin to slow down, soften, and
become more sensitive to the world beyond thought. When we enter the Vajrayana, we are
being introduced to and reconnected with this true, naked, raw reality…the Vajra master is
like a magician, not in the sense of contravening the basic order of the universe, but rather
in his ability to tap the self-existing magic that exists.
Arguably, the essence of all contemplative-cum-ritual practices in tantra is the
meditation known as ‘guru-yoga’ (Tib. lha ma rnal ’byor), the practice of uniting one’s
awareness with that of the guru.31 The aim of this essential Vajrayāna meditation shared by
all schools of Tibetan Buddhism is to visualize the merging of one’s mind with the teacher’s
mind and receive the blessings of his lineage.32 The ultimate aim of this practice is for one’s
‘realization to become identical with that of the guru’ (Tib. bla ma dang dgongs pa mnyam
par gyur ba). Other benefits associated with this practice entail receiving inspiration along
the Buddhist path, purifying our awareness by visualizing the lama as an embodiment of
the pure and exalted wisdom of the Buddha, and cultivating and trusting in our own inner
qualities.
According to the tathāgatagarbha doctrine, every sentient being possesses the seed
of enlightened awareness or buddha-nature. In other words, each one of us naturally has
29 For an elaboration of this visualization see Patrul Rinpoche (2011: 9-10). 30 Tenzin Gyatso (2009: 48) 31 In fact, guru-yoga is so widespread in Tibet and so central to Tibetan Buddhist praxis that there are many
manuals exclusively devoted to this practice. Other practices centred on the lama include lama-chöpa (Tib. bla
ma mchod pa), guru-puja or a liturgy of offering real and visualized offerings to the guru and his assembly, and
zab-tën (Tib. zhabs brtan), long life rituals performed for one’s master. 32 In some ways the transmission of the lineage blessings resonates with the importance that Chan Buddhism
places in direct mind-to-mind transmission between master to pupil.
52
the qualities of awakened consciousness. The fact that we don’t have this realization is the
reason for wandering in saṃsāra. As said in the Tathāgatagarbha section (I.27) of
Maitreya’s Treatise on the Sublime Continuum (Skt. Mahāyānottaratantra Śāstra; Tib.
Theg pa chen po rgyud bla ma’i bstan bcos): “Because the perfect ‘buddha-kaya’ (Tib.
sangs rgyas sku) is pervasive, because reality is without differentiation, and because they
all possess the ‘lineage’ (Skt gotra; Tib. rigs), ‘embodied beings’ (Tib. lus can kun) always
have the ‘buddha essence’ (Tib. sangs rgyas snying po”. In Vajrayāna there are many
different methods for recognizing this buddha essence. Of these, it is said that the quickest
and easiest way is having been ‘accepted as a disciple by a spiritual-friend lama’ (Tib. bla
ma dge ba’i bshes gnyen gyi rjes su gzung ba) and ‘recollecting the lama’s kindness’ (Tib.
bla ma’i bka’ drin dran pa). Finally, one comes to recognize and identify with the inner or
absolute lama, one’s own ‘buddha-nature’ (Skt. tathāgatagarbha; Tib. bde gshegs snying
po) that is the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice.
In order to understand the significance of this contemplative practice in a candid
way we need to be acquainted with the different meanings behind the term lama.
Traditionally, there are four different kinds of gurus, or religious mentors. There is the
individual teacher who is the holder of the lineage (Tib. gang zag brgyud pa’i bla ma), the
living human guru who belongs to an established lineage of masters (Tib. bla ma brgyud
pa). There is the transmission teacher (Tib. rgyal ba bka’ yi bla ma) that refers to the
teachings of all enlightened beings. There is the symbolic teacher of all that appears (Tib.
snang ba brda yi bla ma), and finally there is the ultimate teacher (Tib. rig pa don gyi bla
ma), the enlightened intend of our awareness, the nature of our awakened mind. Mullin
(1999: 62) clarifies that by relying upon these four types of gurus; i.e., the living master,
the sacred words of transmission one’s ordinary experiences and one’s ultimate nature, one
attains enlightenment quickly.
According to the level of tantric practice, guru-yoga is usually divided into the
‘outer and inner forms of the lama’ (Tib. bla ma gnyis). As explained by Dilgo Kyentse
(1995: 9-10), “technically guru-yoga is part of the so called preliminary practices, but in
fact it is the heart of the main practice,” for on the absolute level the teacher is one with the
“very nature of our own mind, which is itself the essence of Buddhahood, the
tathagatagarbha.” The method for realizing the inner lama and bringing this awareness
within ourselves is by following our outer or conventional ‘teacher’s pith instructions’ (Tib.
bla ma’i gdams ngag). Hence, the practice of guru-yoga entails remembering the lama “in
all our activities, whether in meditation or in postmeditation periods…it is appropriate for
all occasions and circumstances, as well as for practitioners of all levels.”
For the success of the practice of guru-yoga one should be able to generate ‘faith
and devotion towards one’s guru’ (Tib. bla ma’i mos gus) and with uncontrived faith think
that the teacher’s mind is realized and equal in all aspects to the Buddha. This is expressed
in the saying that the lama is the Buddha and the lama is the dharma (Tib. bla ma sangs
rgyas bla ma chos) recalling a passage from the Vakkali Sutta (SN 22.87) where the Buddha
said to Vakkali: “He who sees Dhamma, Vakkali, sees me; he who sees me sees Dhamma.
Truly seeing Dhamma, one sees me; seeing me one sees Dhamma.” Tibetans often say that
if we envision our guru as an ordinary individual we receive the blessings of an ordinary
person, if we see him as a bodhisattva we receive the blessings of a bodhisattva, and if we
see him as a Buddha we receive the blessings of a Buddha. It is also said that our teacher
is kinder than all the Buddhas because we can meet him in person in this life time and
receive precious instructions, while though the blessings of Buddha Amitābha, for
example, are great, because of our obscurations we cannot meet him face to face. Thus,
53
‘the lama occupies a unique position’ (Tib. bla ma kho na gal che ba yin pa) for the success
of our practice. Tenzin Gyatso (1988:15) shares similar sentiments when he writes:
Although meditational deities have great power, and also the buddhas have
high qualities, we do not have the ability to see them and they are not directly
accessible to us. But the complete transmissions of both the profound and
vast practices have been given to us in an unbroken lineage, which starts
from Lord Buddha himself, by our root gurus. Among the root gurus that we
have, there might be ordinary beings, bodhisattvas, and so forth, but
irrespective of what they might be from their side, on our part we have to
view them as actual Vajradharas, and the source of inspiration.
V. THE CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICE
All beings are Buddhas
But this is concealed by adventitious stains.
When their stains are purified, their buddhahood is revealed.
Hevajra Tantra
At the highest level of training, the practice of guru-yoga meditation presupposes
that one has received initiation into the mandala of a particular deity so that one is ripe to
generate from emptiness and dissolve back into emptiness a Buddhist deity (yidam) and its
retinue. During the stages of visualization, practitioners train to project all enlightened
qualities to their lama who is perceived as the embodiment of the Buddhas of the three
times (Tib. bla ma dus gsum gyi sangs rgyas), and conceive themselves as something
extraordinary, as a bodhisattva or a tantric deity based on their state of practice and
understanding. Generally speaking, the full technique involves a series of preliminary
practices that may incorporate going for refuge to the ‘four jewels’ (namo gurubhyah, namo
buddhaya, namo dharmaya, namo sanghaya), generating the mind of enlightenment (Skt.
bodhicitta), setting the altruistic motivation to engage in the practice of guru-yoga for the
sake of placing all sentient beings into the supreme state of the guru-deity. 33 After
consecrating the surrounding environment and the offerings, one invokes the guru’s
wisdom mind and generates the meditational guru-deity in front of oneself surrounded by
a succession of teachers belonging to the lineage of one’s Buddhist teacher (the field of
merit). At last one dissolves the guru-deity into oneself. The Tibetan Buddhist master Lama
Thubten Yeshe (1935–1984) described the process in the following way:
We then meditate upon the feeling that our guru, who in essence is identical
with the deity, and our own subtle consciousness have become
indistinguishably one. The essence of the guru is wisdom, the perfectly clear
and radiant state of mind in which bliss and the realization of emptiness are
inseparably unified…By visualizing in this way and thinking of the personal
33 Tenzin Gyatso (2009: 56) states the motivation as follows: “I shall liberate all mother sentient beings from
suffering And lead them to the great bliss of buddhahood. To this end I now shall practice the profound path
of guru-deity yoga.”
54
kindness shown to you by your guru, a powerful connection is established...
The purpose of seeing the guru in an exalted aspect…is solely to speed your
own spiritual evolution.34
With conviction in the efficacy of the process, we envision the central deity and ‘the
succession of transmission of lineage masters’ (Tib. bla ma brgyud pa’i rim pa) merging
into one another and dissolving in the form of light into our body through the aperture at
the crown of our head. During this practice we are encouraged to develop a feeling of close
connection with our mentor who is identical with the deity and with our own primordial
awareness.
The guru-yoga meditation may include additional elements like the ‘seven-branch
offering’ (Tib. yan lag bdun pa). The seven-branch offerings comprise methods for
accumulating merit and wisdom starting with prostrations as the antidote to pride. As stated
in the Sūtra of Great Liberation: “I join my hands above my head, like an opening lotus-
bud, and with countless bodies amassed in clouds I prostrate to the Buddhas of the ten
directions” (Patrul Rinpoche 2011: 318). Following this one sets out as many offerings as
resources as one’s imagination permits to the three jewels and proceeds to confess harmful
actions with intense shame and regret, promising never to repeat them again. After that one
rejoices at the turning of the wheel of dharma and the activities of bodhisattvas as well as
with virtuous activities one has done in the past, is currently doing, and will be doing in the
future. The next two branches comprise exhorting the Buddhas and bodhisattvas to turn the
wheel of the dharma of the three vehicles for the śrāvaka-s, the pratyekabuddha-s and the
bodhisattvas, and requesting the Buddhas not to enter nirvana but remain in this world for
the benefit of all sentient beings. Finally, one performs the practice of dedicating the merit
that has been generated by this practice. The dedication of merit prayer may go something
like this: “I dedicate the collection of white virtues thus createdto sentient beings that
they may be inseparably cared for in all future lives by venerable gurus kind in the three
ways, and may attain the Vajradhara unification.”35
To conclude, the objective of guru-yoga meditation practice should not aim to
contribute to the making of cult-figures and exaggerate the charisma of individual Buddhist
teachers. Neither should it be used to support institutional agendas or cultivate distorted
and unhealthy forms of dependency between practitioners and persons of clerical authority.
The living guru is an outward projection of our own innermost awakened nature, and guru-
yoga ought to be used as the skilful means of contemplative training for the sake of
experiencing the pure dimension of the guru within our own embodiment of awareness and
within the presence of all phenomena and other beings. This view of all pervasive purity
and continuity of awareness is at the heart of Tantra whose aim is a direct experience of
non-duality arising at all times, with everything and with everyone.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
34 Bucknell and Kang (1997: 188-189). 35 Tenzin Gyatso (2009: 116).
55
Ārya Asaṅga. (2016). The Bodhisattva Path to Unsurpassed Enlightenment. Translated by
Artemus B. Engle. Boulder: Snow Lion.
Ayyangar, Srinivasa G. (1938). The Yoga Upanishads. Madras: The Adyar Library.
Bhikkhu Bodhi. (2012). The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the
Samyutta Nīkāya. Edited by Bhikkhu Bodhi. Boston: Boston: Wisdom Publications.
———. (2005). In the Buddha’s Words: An Anthology of Disocurses from the Pāli Canon.
MA: Wisdom Publications.
Bucknell Rod and Chris Kang. (1997). The Meditative Way: Readings in the Theory and
Practice of Buddhist Meditation. Richmond, Surrey, Curzon Press.
Butön Rinchen Drup. (2013). Butön’s History of Buddhism in India and Its Spread to Tibet:
A Trasury of Priceless Scripture. Translated by Lisa Stein and Ngawang Zangpo.
Boston and London: Snow Lion.
Choying Tobden Dorje. (2014). The Complete Nyingma Tradition from Sutra to Tantra 1
to 10: Foundations of the Buddhist Path. Translated by Ngawang Zangpo, Ithaca,
NY: Snow Lion.
Chögyam Trungpa. (2008). Cutting through Spiritual Materialism. Boston and London:
Sambhala Publications.
Cleary, Thomas. (1993). The Flower Ornament Scripture: A Translation of the Avatamsaka
Sutra. Boulder: Shambhala Publications.
Conze, Edward. trans. (1975). The Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom. Berkeley: University
of California Press.
Dayal, Har. (1999) [Reprint 1932]. The Bodhissatva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit
Literature. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Dilgo Khyentse. (1995). The Wish-Fulfilling Jewel: The Practice of Guru Yoga According
to the Longchen Nyingthig Tradition. Translated by Könchog Tenzin. Delhi &
Kathmandu: Shechen Publications.
Dzongsar Khyentse. (2016). The Guru Drinks Bourbon? Edited by Amira editor Ben-
Yehuda: Boulder: Shambhala.
Frauwallner, Erich. (1973). History of Indian Philosophy: The philosophy of the Veda and
of the epic. Vol. 1. Translated from German by V.M. Bedekar. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass.
Hopkins, Jeffrey. (1977). Tantra in Tibet: The Great Exposition of Secret Mantra by Tsong-
ka-pa. Part One. London: Allen and Unwin.
Jamgön Kongtrül. (1999). The Teacher-Student Relationship. Translated by Ron Garry.
USA: Snow Lion Publications.
Karunadasa, Y. (2013). Early Buddhist teachings: The Middle Position in Theory and
Practice. Hong Kong: Centre of Buddhist Studies, the University of Hong Kong.
Mullin, Glenn. (1999). Gems of Wisdom from the Seventh Dalai Lama. Ithaca and New
York: Snow Lion Publications.
Patrul Rinpoche. (2011). Words of my Perfect Teacher. New Haven and London: Yale
University Press.
Powers, John. (2007). Introduction to Tibetan Buddhism. Boston: Snow Lion.
Padoux, André. (2000). “The Tantric Guru.” In Tantra in Practice, ed. D. G. White.
Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.
Ray, Reginald. (2002). Secret of the Vajra World: the Tantric Buddhism of Tibet. Boston
and London: Sambhala Publications.
Rig’dzin Dorje. (2013). Dangerous Friend: The Teacher-Student Relationship in
Vajrayana Buddhism. Boston and London: Shambhala Publications.
56
Tenzin Gyatso. (2009) [1988]. The Union of Bliss and Emptiness: Teachings on the
Practice of Guru Yoga. Translated by Geshe Thubten Jinpa. Ithaca, New York:
Snowlion Publications.
Tsoṅkhapa. (2000). The Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment. Vol. 1.
Ithaca, New York: Snow Lion Publications.
———. (1999). The Fulfillment of All Hopes: Guru Devotion in Tibetan Buddhism.
Translated by Gareth Sparham. USA: Wisdom Publicatins.
———. (1988). The Principle Teachings of Buddhism, with a Commentary by Pabongka
Rinpoche. Delhi: Classics India Publications.
BIOGRAPHY
Georgios T. Halkias (DPhil Oxon, Oriental Studies), is associate professor and
undergraduate programme director at the Centre of Buddhist Studies at the University of
Hong Kong and author of several works on Buddhism including, Luminous Bliss: A
Religious History of Pure Land Literature in Tibet (2013), Religious Boundaries for Sex,
Gender, and Corporeality (Routledge 2018), and Pure Lands in Asian Texts and Contexts:
An Anthology (2019).