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Tropical Crops
Agricultural Science and Resource Management in the Tropics and Subtropics
ARTS
FRUIT AND INDUSTRY CROPS
PTS 140
Participants
Prof. Dr Marc JanssensProf. Dr. Jrgen Pohlan
Abrefa Danquah JonesAlex Pacheco Bastas
Alexander R. MendonzaAlfonso Cabrera
Keshav Prasad DahalMarina PiattoMartina Arenz
Said Wali Dadshani
Wintersemester 2002/03
Bonn, Germany
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Summary
Author/Subject Page
Table 3
1.Nepthelium Lappaceum L., Abrefa Danquah Jones 4
2.Dimocarpus Longan,Alex Pacheco Bastas 11
3.Paullinia cupana, Alexander R. Mendoza 22
4.Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq., Alfonso Cabrera 33
5.Litchi chinensis, Keschav Prasad Dahal 37
6.Blighia sapida K. Konig, Marina Piatto 50
7.Nephelium mutabile, Martina Arenz 61
8.Nephelium lappaceum L., Said Wali Dadshani 71
References 76
Sites references 77
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The most species of Sapindaceae
Tropical CropsNephelium
lappaceum L.(Rambutan)
DimocarpusLongan
(Longan)
Paulliniacupana
(Guaran)
MelicoccusBijugatus
Jacq.
LitchiChinensis(Litchi)
Blighia sapidaK. Konig(Akee)
Country Philippine/Malaysia
East-India/ThailandVietnam
Brazil/Venezuela
Caribbean South-China/Vietnam
West-African
Habitat 10 to 20 m to 25 m 2 to 5 m 15 to 30 m 8 to 10 m to 20 m
Growingconditions PH 5,5 to 7,0 -
- -PH 4,0 to 8,0 -
Temperature > 22C-
- -
Max. 23 to32 C,
Min. >6 C>20 C
Precipitation 2000 to 3000 1200 to 1800 1400 to 4500 1200 to 3500 1500 to 2000
>1200
FruitRound, 3 to 5cm, 4 to 8 cmlong, green,yellow or red.
Round, 2,5 to3 cm, yellow-rot. Smoothshell.
2,5 to 5 cmlong, green-yellow, flatter,orange-color.
Round, 2,5 to4 cm, shell,flatter,orange-color.
Round, 2,5 to4 cm, yellow-red shell
Round, 2,5 to 4cm, 5 to 6 cmlong, red, shell.Fruits are toxic.
R5y
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1. Nepthelium Lappaceum L.(Rambutan)
By Abrefa Danquah Jones from Ghana - [email protected]
1.1.The tree
The rambutan is a medium sized tree producing a red or yellow fruit round to
oval in shape with hairs or tubercles on its skin. The flesh or aril is translucent
and sweet. Most rambutan trees propagated from seed are not true-to-type
and usually sour. Male rambutan trees are also not uncommon. The rambutan
has a small crop in June - July and a heavy crop in November to January.
Selected clones produce thick, firm flesh, which are sweet.
Rambutan is indigenous to the Malay Archipelago and has been widely
cultivated throughout the region in Thailand, South Vietnam, Indonesia, the
Philippines, India and Sri Lanka. In Malaysia is rambutan cultivated in almost
all part of the country but is concentrated mainly the states of Perak, Pahang,
Kedah, Kelantan, Johor dan Terengganu.
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1.2.Cultivars
A large number of rambutan clones is available in the country but
recommendations of clones for planting is made complicated by the inevitable
effects of environment as some clones perform well in one environment or
area but not in other areas. Clones, which are recommended for general
planting, are R134, R156, R162, R167, R170, R191 and R193.
1.3.Popular clones
ClonePopular
nameOrigin Characteristics
R167Chai Tow
ChengPenang
Large oral fruit. Sweet juicy and firm flesh.Crimson skin and the seed separate easilyfrom the aril or flesh. Fine long hairs onfruit.
R134 - SingaporeMedium sized red fruit with firm sweet fleshand good flavour.
R156Muar
GadingJohore
Large, round and yellow fruit with thick, firmaril of sweet juicy flavour. Have small seed,slightly spaced thick hairs on the fruit.
R191Anak
sekolahRongrein
ThailandAverage sized elongated crimson fruit.Sweet, thick, firm flesh and easilyseparates from the small seed.
R193 Deli Baling KedahLarge, oval-shaped, attractive red fruit withthick firm aril, fairly sweet and peels well.Fruit has fine long hairs with green kips.
R162 Oh Heok Penang
Large elongated orange-red fruit with thick,
firm crunchy sweet flesh, which is easilyseparated from seed.
R170 Deli Cheng SelangorLarge elongated red fruit with sweet, thick,firm flesh peeling without testa.
1.4.Soil and weather requirements
The rambutan is well adapted to the tropical and humid climate. A warm
climate is ideal for its growth and high yield. It is suitable for most types of
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soil, except the waterlogged and peat areas. However, rambutan requires a
lot of moisture and is not suitable in the hilly terrain. It does not perform well
on sandy areas. Deep alluvial soil and those, which contain high organic
matter, is ideal for its growth and development. These soils should be well
drained. Soils, which have a high water table, are not favourable.
1.5.Propagation
Budding, approach grafting, and air layering easily propagate Ambulant.
Budding is the most common method of vegetative propagation. The
recommended spacing for planting is 10m x 10m and ideal planting holes are
0.6m x 0.6m x 0.6m. After the holes are dug some organic matter with
phosphate fertilizer and limestone are incorporated to mix into the planting
holes before introducing the seedlings.
1.6.Fertilizer
For the first 1-3 years a compound fertilizer consisting of nitrogen, phosphate
potash and magnesium in the proportion of 15:15:6:4 are given. From the 4th
year onwards the proportion is 12:12:17:2+TE
1.7.Weeding
The weeds compete for sunlight, water and nutrients with the seedling and
must be removed early. Circle weeding is done manually or chemically to
prevent overgrowth of cover crops. Parquet, dalapan and glyphosphate are
common herbicides used against weeds.
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1.8.Pruning
An open centre pruning system is recommended. Pruning is also done during
harvesting to encourage the growth of fruiting branches for the next crop.
Removal of dead, broken or diseased branches and water shoots is done
regularly.
1.9.Pests and diseases
Larvae of the leaf roller, adoxophytes privatana walk, roll and feed on young
leaves. It can be controlled chemically. Larvae of the fruit borer bore into the
fruit. All fallen and infected fruits should be destroyed. The are three weevil
pests - apogonia SPP., adoretus SPP and Hypomeces Squamosus which
feed on and cut leaves. They are only active at night. Spraying with
Trichlorphon or BHC can chemically control this. The rambutan is relatively
free of serious diseases. Powdery mildew (oidium nephelli) infects fruits
causing them to split and drop. For control spray immature fruits with sulphur
when symptoms appear. Corky stem canker (Dolobra nepheliae) is quite
common in rambutan. It attacks branches and twigs causing the formation of
corky tissue. There is no effective control but improving air circulation helpsreduce its incidence. Sooty mould ( Meliola nephelii) is normally a secondary
infection , after insect damage, often transmitted by wind. Both leaves and
fruit develop a black sooty mould on the surface. The aril is normally not
affected but the fruit is rendered unsightly. Spraying with copper oxychloride,
benomyle or other fungicide can control this.
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1.10.Harvesting
Rambutans fruit twice a year. Trees begin flowering from March to May and
August to October. Fruits mature from 15-18 weeks after flowering. The main
fruiting season is from July to November and secondary fruiting season is
from March to July. A variation of 4-6 weeks may occur in the periods for
fruiting depending on locality and climatic conditions. The fruit bunch is
harvested when a majority of the fruits has turned red or yellow.
1.11.Yield
Yield may begin at 1.2 tonnes per hectare for the first year of fruiting reaching
as high as 20 tonnes per hectare for trees over ten years old. Yield normally
varies from 12-16 tonnes per hectare. An average tree may produce between
5000 -6000 fruits although trees producing 10000 fruits have been observed.
1.12.Nutrirional information
ComponentsPer 100g
edible portionFood energy 59.0 calories
Moisture 84.7 gProtein 0.7 g
Fat 0.1 g
Carbohydrate 13.9 gFibre 0.3 gAsh 0.3 g
Calcium 22.0 mgPhosphorous 30.0 mg
Iron 2.5 mgNiacin 0.1 mg
Vitamin C 38.6 mg
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1.13.Uses
Cultivated primaily for its fresh fruit, but also canned in syrup, cooked for
stewed fruit and jams. The colorful fruits are frequently used in displays with
flower and fruit arrangements. The pericarp of rambutan contains tannin and
saponin and is dried and used medicinally in Java. In Malaysia, the roots are
used in a decoction for treating fever; the leaves for poulticing and the bark
for an astringent for tongue diseases. Young shoots are used to produce a
green color on silk that is first dyed yellow with turmeric. The fruit dye is one
of the ingredients to dye silk a black color. The seeds are edible when
roasted, they are bitter and said to be narcotic. A tallow similar to cacao
butter, with a high level of arachidic acid, can be rendered from the seeds.
The rambutan tallow is edible and can be used to make soap and candles.
The reddish colored rambutan wood is fairly hard and heavy, and reputed to
be resistant to insects but not to fungi, however, trees are usually too small to
be valued as timber.
1.14.Production / Export
In 1992, 73,621 tonnes of rambutan was produced
but no export of rambutan took place.Year Fresh Fruits
ProcessedFruits
TotalRM '000
1987 113,454.3 70,202.9 183,657.21988 145,592.1 61,519.2 207,111.31989 169,532.6 64,797.6 234,330.21990 181,081.3 91,390.5 272,471.81991 202,336.0 101,203.7 303,539.71992 211,.94.7 910,211.9 1,121.306.61993 266,277.9 79,024.0 345,301.91994 258,200.2 78,920.4 337,120.6
1995 218,257.7 75,825.7 294,083.4
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Exports of Fresh and Processed Nuts, 1987 - 1995
Year Fresh NutsProcessed
NutsTotal
RM '000
1987 4,975.5 3,507.2 8,482.7
1988 4,293.6 9,393.5 13,687.11989 5,152.0 12,824.1 17,976.11990 6,996.5 19,102.6 26,099.11991 6,112.2 14,632.6 20,744.81992 6,025.6 16,568.7 22,594.31993 7,115.3 16,840.9 23,956.21994 6,810.6 22,716.9 29,527.51995 7,665.5 22,298.6 29,964.1
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2. Dimocarpus Longan(LONGAN)
by Alex Pacheco Bastas from Colombia [email protected]
Closely allied to the glamorous lychee, in the family Sapindaceae, the longan,
also known as dragon's eye or eyeball, and as mamoncillo chino in Cuba, has
been referred to as the "little brother of the lychee", or li-chihnu, "slave of the
lychee".
Botanically, it is placed in a separate genus, and is currently designated
Dimocarpus longan Lour. (syns. Euphoria longan Steud.; E. longana Lam.;
Nephelium longana Cambess.).
The word 'longan' comes from the Chinese and literally means 'dragon-eye' which
is an apt description of the fruit after the skin has been removed.
2.1.Origin and Distribution
The longan originated in China or in the area between Burma and India.
Thailand, China and Taiwan are the main centres of commercial production.
The lungan is more seldom grown under orchard conditions. There is not so
large a demand for the fruit and the trees. It is commonly grown in former
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Indochina (Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam and in Taiwan). The tree grows but
does not fruit in Malaya and the Philippines. In Thailand, production is centred
in the tropical monsoon areas of Chiangmai, Lamphun and Phrae at
elevations between 300 and 600 m above sea level. The main production
centres in China are in the Fujian and Guandong provinces. In Fujian
province, longan is second in importance after citrus and is grown in cooler
subtropical areas.
The longan was introduced into Florida from southern China by the United
States Department of Agriculture in 1903 and has flourished in a few locations
but never became popular. In Hawaii, the longan was found to grow faster and
more vigorously than the lychee but the fruit is regarded there as less flavorful
than the lychee. The longan is closely related to the lychee and is similar in
growth and fruiting habit. The tree is tougher and less demanding, with
respect to climate and soil conditions, than the lychee and it fruits in cooler
and drier areas.
2.2.Description
The longan tree is handsome, erect, to 9-12 m in height and to 10 m in width,
with rough-barked trunk to 76.2 cm thick and long, spreading, slightlydrooping, heavily foliaged branches. The evergreen, alternate, paripinnate
leaves have 4 to 10 opposite leaflets, elliptic, ovate-oblong or lanceolate,
blunt-tipped; 10-20 cm long and 4-5 cm wide: New growth is wine-colored and
showy.
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Tree shape depends on the cultivar and varies from erect to spreading. The
inflorescences are large (30 to 50 cm long), multi-branched and leafless. They
are borne on new growth produced during mid-summer or autumn. The
flowers are small, inconspicuous and yellow brown. The fruit are similar to
those of lychee in structure, but are smaller, smoother and yellow-tan in
colour. The fleshy aril is white to off-white or pinkish in colour and surrounds a
red brown, brown to black seed, which separates easily from the flesh. The
fruit are milder in flavour and less acidic than lychees.
The lychee fruit can be eaten fresh, frozen, dried or canned. Thawed fruit can
be used in the same way as freshly picked fruit without any loss of colour or
flavour. The fruit can be peeled, pitted and canned and the juice of most
cultivars is sufficiently sweet for the fruit to be processed without adding sugar.
Longans require a period of low minimum temperature to induce panicle and
flower initiation. However, they are sensitive to frost and are killed or severely
injured by prolonged temperatures below freezing.
Productivity of longan is closely linked to climatic conditions during flowering
and fruit maturation. Longan can survive droughts but adequate water is
required for good production. Excessive rainfall during flowering causes flower
drop and prevents pollination and fruit set.
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2.3.Varieties
There is considerable genetic variability in longan cultivars with marked
differences in bark characteristics, yielding ability, disease and wind
resistance, fruit size, flesh recovery and eating quality, tree size, shape, and
canopy density, leaf size, leaf colour and arrangement.
'Wu Yuan'("black ball") has small, sour fruit used for canning. The tree
is vigorous and seedlings are valued as rootstocks. 'Kao Yuan' is
believed to be a slightly better type of this variety and is widely canned.
'Tsao ho' ('Early Rice') is the earliest variety and a form called 'Ch'i
chin tsao ho' precedes it by 2 weeks. In quality, both are inferior to 'Wu
Yuan'.
'She p' i' ('Snake skin') has the largest fruit, as big as a small lychee
and slightly elongated. The skin is rough, the seed large, some of thejuice is between the rind and the flesh, and the quality is low. Its only
advantage is that it is very late in season.
'Hua Kioh' ('Flower Skin'), slightly elongated, has thin, nearly tasteless
flesh, some of the juice is between the rind and the flesh, and the
overall quality is poor. It is seldom propagated vegetatively.
There are 2 improved cultivars grown extensively in Taiwan:
'Fukien Lungan' ('Fukugan') was introduced from Fukien Province in
mainland China.
The other, very similar and possibly a mutant of 'Fukien', is:
'Lungan Late', which matures a month later than 'Fukien'.
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2.4.Soil
The longan thrives best on a rich sandy loam and nearly as well on
moderately acid, somewhat organic, sand.
The best growth and cropping of longan is achieved on deep, well-drained
fertile soils with a pH of 5.5 to 6.0 and low salinity. In Thailand, the highest
production is usually obtained on heavy alluvial soils with access to the water
table. Longan trees thrive on various soil types provided they are well drained.
They do well on alluvial soils, sandy loams, sand and calcareous, rocky soils.
Young longan trees are not flood tolerant and may die quickly after several
days of excessively high soil moisture or flooding. Mature trees appear more
tolerant of excessive soil moisture.
2.5.Climate
Longan is a subtropical tree well adapted to tropical climates with distinctive
wet/dry periods and subtropical areas with a cool, nonfreezing fall/winter
period. Longans are indigenous to lowland and middle elevations. Longans
produce more reliably in areas characterized by low non-freezing
temperatures (15oC or less) and a dry period during the fall and winter
(October-February). Warm temperatures (21-29oC) during spring, followed by
high summer temperatures ( 27-35oC) and nonlimiting soil moisture are best
for fruit development. Warm and rainy winters are conducive to vegetative
growth. Excessive rains during flowering cause flower drop and may reduce
pollination and fruit set. Young longan leaves are sensitive to strong winds
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during vegetative flushing which may result in leaf dehydration, browning and
deformation.
2.6.Fertilizer Management
A month after planting spread (200 g) per tree of a young tree fertilizer, such
as 6-6-6 (% nitrogen-% phosphate-% potassium) with minor elements with 20
to 30% of the nitrogen from organic sources. Six to 8 dry fertilizer applications
per year may be made up to the third year. A foliar fertilizer mix composed of
minor nutrients (manganese, zinc, boron, and molybdenum) and magnesium
may be applied 4 to 6 times per tree per year any time from April to
September.
For mature trees, 50 to 150 lbs of nitrogen per acre per year split into 2 to 3
applications is recommended.
2.7.Propagation
Most longan trees have been grown from seed. The seeds lose viability
quickly. After drying in the shade for 4 day, they should be planted without
delay, but no more than 3/4 in (2 cm) deep.Germination takes place within a
week or 10 days. The seedlings are transplanted to shaded nursery rows the
following spring and set in the field 2-3 years later during winter dormancy.
Grafting is uncommon and when it is done, it is a sandwich graft on longan
rootstock, 3 or 4 grafts being made successively, one onto the beheaded top
of the preceding one, in the belief that it makes the graft wind-resistant and
that it induces better size and quality in the fruit.
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Longans are readily propagated from seed but the preferred method of
propagation in Thailand is air layering (marcottage) although grafting,
inarching and cuttings are all possible.
Pruning of tops and roots can extend the life of high density plantings up to
about 15 years before some tree removal becomes necessary. Judicious
pruning is required and assists in the formation of well formed tree crowns,
strengthens fruit bearing branches, ensures annual cropping and limits insect
pests and diseases.
In newly established orchards young trees should be grown as vigorously as
possible for the first four years to attain the greatest tree size and bearing
surface. Vigorous growth is achieved by regular applications of water and
nutrients, strategic pruning and protection from frost, wind, weeds and pests.
After four years, the application of nitrogen should cease until the first crop is
picked.
2.8.Pests and Diseases
Longan is relatively free of pests, compared with lychees, but a number of
insect pests do attack the crop. The most common pests are the lychee
webworm and several scale insects. The lychee webworm (Crocidosemanewspecies) attacks emerging shoots and panicles, flowers and young fruit and if
left uncontrolled drastically reduces fruit set and crop yields. Scales include
the banana shaped (Coccus acutissimus) and barnacle (Ceroplastes spp.)
scales, which attack mostly the underside of leaves and the philephedra scale
(Phillephedra tuberculosa) that attacks leaves and fruit. Adult citrus blue-green
weevil (Pachnaeus litus), little leaf notcher (Artipus floridanus) and diaprepes
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weevil (Diaprepes abbreviatus) have been observed to feed on leaves and
their larvae feed on roots. Fortunately, effective control measures are
available for all but the last two pests. Early harvesting of the fruit is the only
practical method of limiting the damage from these two pests.
There are no major diseases limiting longan production. Weeds can reduce
tree growth and need to be controlled with herbicides such as paraquat and
glyphosate. There are no major disease problems of longan at the present
time. Red alga (Cephaleuros virescens) attacks limbs and shoots and is most
prevalent during high humidity, warm, rainy weather. Symptoms include dark
gray to reddish-rust colored patches or spots on bark and/or leaves. In severe
infections, leaf drop and stem die back occur. Parasitic lichen (Strigula sp.)
may attack leaves. Symptoms include white star-shaped spots on leaf
surfaces. This lichen colonizes leaves reducing their ability to nurture the tree.
Weeds can reduce tree growth and need to be controlled with herbicides such
as paraquat and glyphosate
2.9.Harvest
Longans do not ripen off the tree and maturity is judged by the particular
shape, skin colour and flavour of each cultivar. Most fruit can be picked from a
tree in one harvest and from a single cultivar in an orchard within two weeks.
In order to spread the workload in a commercial orchard it is essential to plant
a range of cultivars having different maturity times in any one orchard.
Fruit are harvested by removing the whole cluster plus one or two leaves. Fruit
are then clipped from the panicles, sorted for size, insect damage and skin
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blemishes and placed in bulk trays. Fruit subjected to hydrocooling or forced
air-cooling maintains acceptable eating quality for up to three weeks. At 7.5C
and 90% relative humidity.
In Thailand, most fruit are marketed in branches on the fruit stalk in 22 to 24
kg baskets and consumed within three days of picking, without any
postharvest treatment.
The main problems experienced in commercial orchards have been irregular
flowering, biennial bearing and small fruit. Trees tend to overcrop some years
and this is followed by a light crop the next year.
2.10.Food Uses
Longans are much eaten fresh, out-of-hand, but some have maintained that
the fruit is improved by cooking. In China, the majority are canned in sirup or
dried.
For drying, the fruits are first heated to shrink the flesh and facilitate peeling of
the rind. Then the seeds are removed and the flesh dried over a slow fire. The
dried product is black, leathery and smoky in flavor and is mainly used to
prepare an infusion drunk for refreshment.
A liqueur is made by macerating the longan flesh in alcohol.
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Food Value Per 100 gof Edible Portion
Fresh Dried
Calories 61 286Moisture 82.4 g 17.6 gProtein 1.0 g 4.9 g
Fat 0.1 g 0.4 gCarbohydrates 15.8 g 74.0 gFiber 0.4 g 2.0 gAsh 0.7 g 3.1 gCalcium 10 mg 45 mgPhosphorus 42 mg 196 mgIron 1.2 mg 5.4 mgThiamine - 0.04 mgAscorbic Acid 6 mg
(possibly)28 mg
2.11.Other Uses
a) Seeds and rind: The seeds, because of their saponin content, are
used like soapberries (Sapindus saponaria L.) for shampooing the hair.
The seeds and the rind are burned for fuel and are part of the payment
of the Chinese women who attend to the drying operation.
b) Wood: While the tree is not often cut for timber, the wood is used for
posts, agricultural implements, furniture and construction. The
heartwood is red, hard, and takes a fine polish. It is not highly valued
for fuel.
c) Medicinal Uses: The flesh of the fruit is administered as a stomachic,
febrifuge and vermifuge, and is regarded as an antidote for poison. A
decoction of the dried flesh is taken as a tonic and treatment for
insomnia and neurasthenic neurosis. In both North and South Vietnam,
the "eye" of the longan seed is pressed against a snakebite in the belief
that it will absorb the venom.
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d) Leaves and flowers are sold in Chinese herb markets but are not a
part of ancient traditional medicine. The leaves contain quercetin and
quercitrin. Burkill says that the dried flowers are exported to Malaysia
for medicinal purposes. The seeds are administered to counteract
heavy sweating and the pulverized kernel, which contains saponin,
tannin and fat, serves as a styptic
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3. Paullinia cupana
by Alexander Mendoza from Venezuela - [email protected]
Paullinia cupana
Common Names:
The Amerindians wordSpanishPortuguese
France
Uaran means"eye-like"Cupana, GuaranGuaranGuaran-sipoGuaran-uvaUrana
Guarana
3.1.Origin and geographical distribution
In the Amazon forest of Venezuela and Brazil, the variety cupuna, on the basis
of which the species was described from material collected by Humboldt in
San Fernando de Atabapo, Venezuela, is known only in the area between the
south of the Atures and Maipures torrents of the Orinoco River and in the
region of the upper Negro River. The var. sorbilis, or true Guaran, seems to
have been domesticated in the southern strip of the Amazon River between
the gorges of the Purs and Madeira Rivers in the Amazon state of Brazil.
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The range of genus Paullinia is predominantly neotropical, extending from
Mexico and the southern United States to Argentina. A single species, P.
pinnata, is found in both America and Africa.
3.2.Geneticdiversity
Botanical name: Paullinia cupanaH.B.K.
Family:Sapindaceae
Genus:Paullinia
Species:cupana
Ethnic names:Guaran
Part Used:Fruit seed
There are two varieties of Paullinia cupana:
P. cupana var. cupana, which is little known and little studied,
therefore, there is no information on the genetic variability.
P. cupana var. sorbilis, shows a high degree of variability.
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3.3.Botanical description
Figures 1.1A) inflorescences on the raceme1B) fruit in the capsule
A3) trilocular ovary
Guaran is a scandent shrub or woody liana. Its leaves are alternate with five
folioles and, when tendrils exist, they are axillary.
The inflorescences are on axillar racemes or originate on the tendrils. The
flowers are male and female, zygomorphous and have five petals and sepals,
eight stamens and a trilocular ovary with a glandular semi-disc at the base.
The fruit of 2-2.5 mm in diameter occurs in a septicidal capsule, it is orangey-
red and partially open when ripe, revealing one to three black or greenish
seeds, which are covered at the base with a white aril (figure 2).
Figure 2. Structure of the fruit
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The var. cupana differs from the var. sorbilis in that it has no tendrils, its
folioles are more strongly lobed and its flowers and fruit are bigger.
Guaranis a monoecious, allogamous species. Bees of the genera Melipona
and Apis fertilize it. Its seeds are recalcitrant and lose their viability in 72 hours
under normal conditions. Germination can take more than 100 days.
According to technical recommendations by EMBRAPA, Guaran must be
grown in areas with a climate similar to its region of origin, with a mean annual
temperature between 28 and 29C. The minimum temperature tolerated is
12C. Annual precipitation must exceed 1 400 mm, with rain well distributed
during the year.
3.4.Soil requirements
Traditional cultivation of Guaran is carried out on soils with a low fertility
(exchange capacity of 20 to 40 ppm), a low acidity (pH between 3.5 and 4.5)
and with high concentrations of aluminium. Soils must be deep, medium or
heavy in texture, well drained and with high organic matter content.
3.5.Cultivation practices
a) Propagation
Seedlings of Guaran can be formed through the vegetative propagation from
cuttings induced to root by the application of hormones and by sexual
propagation (figure 3). The advantage over sexually (by seeds) propagation
resides in the more rapid growth and the reproduction of the best genetic traits
of the parents.
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Figure 3. Vegetative propagation
b) Nursery for young plants.
The nursery can be built as a wood structure and covered with a plastic net (or
leaves of palms) in order to supply 60% of shade. A nursery of 16 m2 allows a
production of 10.000 seedlings per year (figure 4).
Figure 4.Nursery
3.6.Planting and Fertilization
Traditional cultivation of Guaran is carried out with full exposure to sun. The
new technique of cultivating recommends shading at the begging (figure 5).
Spacing of the plants is approximately 4 x 5 m, which gives 500 plants per
hectare and traditional planting is by sowing: the oldest plantations are very
heterogeneous both from the genetic and the phenotypic points of view.
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Prominent among the more modern techniques is propagation from cuttings,
for which misting chambers, grafts and tissue culture propagation need to be
used. In a wild state, fertilizers are not used and as cultivated crop the use of
fertilizer is begging to use as a necessity of increase production.
Figure 5.During the first months of growth
in the field the Guaran tree needs around50% of shading. As soon as the be covered
with palm tree leaves or other available
materials.
3.7.Pruning
After the second year, pruning is carried out to remove old and diseased
branches and those which flowered the previous year. Since 1980, a new type
of management has been adopted, using the same layout but with fertilizers
and pruning to direct the branches along supports.
3.8.Harvest
The fruit must be harvested before complete maturity. Harvesting is done by
hand, after that the seeds should be stored in a heap in a shelter for two or
three days to allow a slight fermentation. Following this, the shells are
removed either by hand or machine and then left to dry in open air or dried
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artificially. Commercial guaran is produced only from the seeds: all other
parts of the fruit are discarded.
3.9.Status
The potential market for 1983 was estimated to be around 16 000 tonnes and
has increased since that year. The shortfall of Guaran is around 10 to 15
times the current production volume, which still allows a considerable
expansion of cultivation. Wild, cultivated in Brazil is estimated in more than
6000 ha, for the national market. Actually, there are in Brazil.
Brazil's production is increasing considerably. Outside Brazil, other countries
are producing Guaran. However, there is little information available.
3.10.Processing
When the fruit has been harvested, the seeds are separated and stored until
fermentation of the aril, which is then removed. They are then roasted and
their seed coat is removed (figure 6). The remaining seeds are immersed in
water to form a paste, from this are made sticks which, after being dried over a
slow fire and smoked for one month. Further processing consists of roasting,
after the seeds are sieved to be able to roast the seeds more uniformly.
Roasting is done preferably in clay ovens for about four to five hours, until the
seed reaches about 9% humidity. We have now roasted Guaran grain, also
known as Guaranem rama.
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Figure 6.Guaran seeds after the shells and thewhite aril are removed; they are left todry in open air or dried artificially untilabout 9% humidity is reached. From100 kg of washed seeds 60 kg of roastseedcan be obtained.
3.11.Available forms
Guaran is usually available in four forms:
Guaran em rama, roasted Guaran
Simply the roasted seed, as sold by the amazon farmers to cooperative
unions, middlemen and industry.
Guaran on a stick
After roasting, the seed is ground into a powder, mixed with water into
dough, which is subsequently moulded onto a stick. These sticks are
then dried over a moderate fire until they become hard.
Guaran powder
After grinding, the powder is sold. This is usually the form it is available
in retail outlets, like health shops.
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Syrup
Used for making soft drinks, is also gaining ground. This form is usually
limited to larger industries.
3.12.Chemical composition and uses of Guaran
Medicinal Properties
The first chemical examination on the Guaran seeds was performed
by the German botanist Theodore von Martius who isolated a bitter,
white crystalline substance with a remarkable physiological action in the
1700's. This substance was named Guaranine, and was later renamed
as Caffeine. Guaran seeds contain up to five percent caffeine (25,000
to 75,000 ppm), as well as trace amounts of Theophylline (500-750
ppm) and Theobromine (300-500 ppm). It also contains large quantities
of tannins, starch, a saponin and resinous substances.
3.13.Guaran use
Medicinal Use
For a long time, it was used empirically in medicine; it is attributed
antipyretic, antineuralgic and antidiarrhoeal properties and is reputed to
be a powerful stimulant, an analgesic comparable to aspirin and an
anti-influenza agent. Its very high caffeine content is the cause of its
well-known stimulant properties. Numerous pharmaceutical uses have
been reported: regulator of digestion, antiblennoragic, perspiration
stimulant, cardiovascular tonic, and aphrodisiac. Recent studies
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suggest potential for the treatment of oily skin and cellulitis and, thence,
for the cosmetic industry.
Drinking use
Actually, Guaran is used mainly in Brazil to produce a soft drink (figure
7). The traditional way of preparing the drink consists of grating part of
the stick in water to produce an infusion. The Guaran carbonated
drinks industry began in 1907 and the product became Brazil's national
drink during the 1940s. In 1973, the Law on Juices laid down
regulations for the use of Guaran, deeming the maximum and
minimum concentrations for carbonated drinks, syrups and other
products. In 1981, EMBRAPA's Agricultural Research Centre of the
Semi-Humid Tropics (CPATU) developed soluble Guaran. Nowadays,
Guaran is marketed as sticks and soluble or insoluble powder and is
used industrially for the production of carbonated drinks, syrups and
herbalists' products.
Figura 7. Different soft drink from Guaran
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3.14.Prospects for improvement
Undoubtedly the biggest limitation today is low productivity, since an average
yield per individual ranges between 250 g (traditional cultivation) and 520 g
(improved management) of dry kernel and therefore still leaves much to be
desired. In part, this problem is strictly agronomic and will be resolved once
plantings are carried out under more favourable conditions.
The selection of more productive early material that is resistant to disease and
stress - a process begun in Manaus as early as 1980 - will be bound to lead to
an increase in productivity, since individuals have been identified in
experimental and commercial plantings with yields of between 4 and 6 kg of
dry seed per hectare per year. The production of hybrids, either through
traditional methods or using genetic engineering techniques, will also be of
great importance, especially in conjunction with the production of clonal
material which allows more uniform treatment and management to be
achieved. The genetic basis for these improvement programmes already
exists, not only within the available genetic stock of guarana but also of
cupana, and possibly in other species of Paullinia such as P. yoco and P.
cuneata.
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4. Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq.,
by Alfonso Cabrera from Guatemala [email protected]
Plant: Tree
Mature Height: 40' to 60' / 12.20m to 18.20m
Environment: prefers full sun; soil should be moist to wet
Bloom Colors: White
4.1.Common names
Sp: mamoncillo, grocella de miel, macao (Colombia, Venezuela), maco
(Venezuela), mamn (Central America, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina),
mamn de Cartagena (Costa Rica), mauco (Venezuela), muco (Colombia),
quenepa (Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Colombia), kenepe, limoncillo;
Po: arvore de canopy; En: genip, ginep, ginepe, guenepa, guinep (Barbados,
Jamaica, Bahamas, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago) genip lime, geniptree,
honeyberry (Guyana), Jamaica bullace plum, kanappy (Puerto Rico),
knippelboom, Spanish lime (Florida), ackee (Barbados); Fr: quenette (FWI),
quenepe (Haiti); the tree is called kenpier, kenettier, knpier or quenettier;
Ge: dotterknippe. The Latin names comes from the Greek mel (honey) and
kokkos(seed); Others: knepa, knippa, (Surinam), sensiboom.
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4.2.Origin and geographical distribution
Origin: Central America, Nicaragua to Colombia, Caribbean
Status :Cultivated, sold locally in the street, on the beach, etc.
Description :Tree to 25 m, propagated by seeds or grafting. Fruits borne
in clusters, globose, 2-3.5 cm in diameter, green, with a thin, leathery,
brittle skin, a gelatinous layer of juicy and tart pulp, translucent, orange to
salmon pink, and a relatively large seed. The percentage of edible
matter by fruit weight can reach 56% in the best clones.
4.3.Uses
Aril eaten fresh as a snack, or the fruits remains fresh for a big time and
markets well made into jellies or beverages; seed with fruits that have non
adherent pulp, the latter may be scrapped from the seed to be used in jam,
marmalade or jellies. The peeled fruit are boiled to make a cold drink. The
seeds are roasted eaten. Indian of the Orinoco use the cooked seeds as a
substitute for cassava.During their season, which starts in July and runs
throughout the summer you will see them sold on every street corner. If you
live in Miami you have definitely seen them. Very similar in appearance to an
olive, they grow in clusters from a tree in the Evergreen family. Usually eaten
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raw or used in drinks, the Spanish Limes have a sweet taste when perfectly
ripe that is pleasantly mixed with acidic overtones. When they are a bit
under ripe - the acid flavor will be dominant. The brittle leathery skin is easily
peeled away or bitten off revealing a slightly pink to cream colored flesh.
Usually eaten as a snack, these make great additions to fruit displays, platters
and baskets. They are very refreshing on a hot day.
Recommended temperature zone:sunset: 10 USDA: 23-26
Frost Protection: Tender in Phoenix, foliage damaged at 32 F (0 C),
serious damage at 25 F (-6 C)
Sun Exposure:Full sun
Growth Habits:Medium sized to large tree, up to 100 feet tall (30 m)
Watering Needs:Occasional deep watering in summer for established
plants
Propagation:Seeds, approach grafting
This tropical American tree is widely cultivated in the West Indies for its fruit. It
is a medium-sized to large tree and is often planted along roadsides.
4.4.Blooming habits
The small, greenish-white, fragrant flowers are borne in panicles from the
branch tips at the beginning of the rainy season. The tree generally is
polygamous, that is, they produce both bisexual flowers and those of one sex
only. The anthers of many bisexual flowers are non-functional so that fruits do
not develop unless cross-pollination occurs. Care should be taken, therefore,
to set out plants with flowers of each sex.
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4.5.Fruiting Habits
In Puerto Rico, the fruit ripens from July to September, appearing like bunches
of large, green grapes. These are cut and peddled widely along roadsides and
streets. The ovoid fruit measures a little over 1 inch in length, but an
occasional tree bears fruit twice this size. Inside the tight, thin skin, which is
easily cracked by the teeth, lies.a thin layer of sweet-tart yellow pulp
surrounding a large ovoid seed. This pulp is a good source of iron. The seeds
are said to be edible after roasting.
4.6.Propagation:
Propagation is by seeds, but selected varieties can be propagated by
approach grafting.
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5. Litchi chinensis(Litchi,Leechee, Lichee, Lichi)
by Keshav Prasad Dahal from Nepal [email protected]
5.1.Origin e distribution
The lychee is native to low elevations of the provinces of kwangtung & Fukien
in Southern China. Litchi cultivation has been reported since 1500 BC by the
people of Malayan descent & has been growing for thousands of year in
southern Guangdong. Cultivation spread over the years through neighbouring
areas of south- eastern Asia & offshore islands. It reached Hawaii in 1873, and
Florida in 1883, and was conveyed from Florida to California in 1897.
Presently, litchi is grown in Central and South America, parts of Africa,
throughout Asia. China, India, South Africa, Australia, Mauritius, Madagascar,
Thailand are now the major litchi producing countries in the world.
5.2.Adaptation:
Lychees require seasonal temperature variations for best flowering and
fruiting, Warm, humid summers are best for flowering and fruit development,
and a certain amount of winter chilling is necessary for flower bud
development. Most varieties need between 100 and 200 hours of standard
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chilling (32 - 45 F). Cool winters with low rainfall are ideal for lychees. The
trees become hardier as they age. Mature trees have survived temperatures
as low as 25 F when fully hardened off. Young trees may be killed by a light
frost. Lychees can be successfully grown in frost-free coastal areas of
California. There are trees in San Diego, California that are over 90 years old
with no sign of decline in sight. It first fruited in Santa Barbara in 1914. They
can be grown for a short period in a large container.
5.3.Morphological description
a) Growth habit
The lychee tree is handsome, dense, round-topped and slow growing with
smooth, grey, brittle trunk and limbs. Under ideal conditions they may
reach 40 feet high, but they are usually much smaller The tree in full fruit is
a stunning sight.
b) Foliage
The leathery, pinnate leaves are divided into four to eight leaflets. They are
reddish when young, becoming shiny and bright green. Lychee trees have
full foliage and branch to the ground.
c) Flowers
The tiny petal less, yellowish-green flowers are borne in terminal clusters
to 30 inches. Lychees are eye-catching in spring when the huge sprays of
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flowers adorn the tree. Flowering precedes fruit maturity by approximately
140 days.
d) Fruits
The fruit is covered by a leathery rind or pedicarp, which is pink to
strawberry-red in colour and rough in texture. A greenish-yellow variety is
not grown in California at present. Fruit shape is oval, heart-shaped or
nearly round, 1 to 1-1/2 inches in
e) Length
The edible portion or aril is white, translucent, firm and juicy. The flavour is
sweet, fragrant and delicious. Inside the aril is a seed that varies
considerably in size. The most desirable varieties contain atrophied seeds,
which are called "chicken tongue". Larger seeds vary between 1/2 to 1
inches in length and are plumper than the chicken tongues. There is also a
distinction between the lychee that leaks juice when the skin is broken and
the "dry and clean" varieties, which are more desirable. In some areas
lychees tend to be alternate bearers. Fluctuating soil moisture levels
usually causes fruit splitting.
5.4.Culture
a) Location
Lychees need full sun, but young trees must be protected from heat, frost
and high winds.
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b) Soil
The tree needs a well-drained soil that is rich in organic matter. A soil pH
between 5.5 and 7.5 is acceptable, but plants grow much better in soils
with a pH at the low end of this range. Apply a thick layer of organic mulch
to the soil after planting.
5.5.Irrigation
The lychee will not tolerate standing water, but requires very moist soil, so
water the tree regularly when it is growing actively. The trees are very
sensitive to damage from salts in the soil or in water. Leach the soil regularly
in the Southwest.Litchi trees need regular watering and therefore it is essential
that enough water must be available from the flowering stage until after the
February/March flush following the harvest. Because the edible portion of the
litchi fruit has a water content of 86 %, the availability of water remains
important during the development period. A water shortage will delay
development of the fruit and adversely affect the size, mass and quality of the
litchis. Irrigation must continue after harvesting to ensure that a normal growth
flush occurs during February/March, just before the beginning of the dormant
period. During dormancy (April to July) irrigation should be reduced, but thetree should not suffer drought. Young trees that are not producing yet are
irrigated throughout the year. Producers normally stop irrigating the trees
during the coldest months of the year (June and July) so that they can have a
proper dormant period. In areas where it is never very cold, irrigation should
stop to force the trees into dormancy.
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5.6.Fertilization
Young trees tend to grow slowly, and many gardeners tend to give them too
much fertilizer in an attempt to push them along. Young trees should receive
only light applications of a complete fertilizer. Mature trees are heavier feeders
and should be fertilized regularly from spring to late summer. Use fertilizers
formulated for acid-loving plants. Chelated iron and soil sulphur may be
necessary in areas with alkaline soils.
Table - Quantity of fertiliser per tree per year according to age (g)
Age years LAN 28 % N Superphosphate Potassiumchloride
1
2 - 3
4 - 5
6 - 7
8 - 9
10 - 11
12 - 13
14 - 15
15 and older
200
500
1 000
1 500
2 000
2 500
3 000
3 500
4 000
250
250
250
500
500
750
750
1 000
1 000
50
100
200
300
400
500
750
1 000
1 000
Remember: This is only a guideline; correct fertilisation can only be appliedaccording to the soil analysis for young trees and soil and leaf analyses for fruit-bearing trees.
5.7.Pruning
Prune young trees to establish a strong, permanent structure for easy harvest.
After that, removing crossing or damaged branches is all this is necessary,
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although he trees can be pruned more heavily to control size. V-shaped
crotches should be avoided because of the wood's brittle nature.
5.8.Frost protection
Lychees need warmth and a frost-free environment, but can often withstand
light freezes with some kind of overhead protection. When they are young, this
can be provided by building a frame around the plants and covering it with
bedding, plastic sheeting, etc. when frost threatens. Electric light bulbs can
also be used for added warmth.
5.9.Propagation
Air layering is the most common method of propagating lychees because
grafting is difficult and seedlings are not reliable producers of quality fruit. To
grow a plant from seed it is important to remember that seeds remain viable
for no more than a day or two under dry conditions. Young seedlings grow
vigorously until they reach 7 or 8 inches in height. They will stay at this height
for up to two years without further noticeable growth. Wedge and bud grafts
are possible, but seldom used. When planting a Lychee, hole preparation is
carried out in 9m apart. Planting is done in rainy season. If planting marcots
directly, most leaves should be removed. A round of hog wire covered with
plastic gives excellent wind protection and also holds moisture in. In case of a
freeze, one has only to throw a blanket over the top. The plastic should not
touch the plant. This protection should be planned on and taken care of the
day the plant goes into the ground.
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5.10.Physical disorders
a) Pericarp browning
Water loss (desiccation) of lychees results in brown spots on the bright-red
shell (pericarp). Under severe conditions or prolonged exposure, the spots
enlarge and coalesce until the surface is completely brown the flavour of
the arils within browned fruit may or may not be adversely affected.
Packaging in polymeric films reduces water loss and browning severity.
b) Chilling injury
Symptoms include pericarp browning (similar to that caused by water loss)
and increased susceptibility to decay. Storage at 1C for 12 days before
transfer to 20C for one day resulted in pericarp browning.
c) Pericarp split (cracking)
Incidence and severity of cracking depend on cultivars and desiccation
during storage. Cracks provide an entry way for decay-causing pathogens.
d) Aril breakdown
Prolonged storage and over maturity may cause aril breakdown (softening,
loss of turgidity, translucency) and loss of flavour beginning at the blossom
end and spreading to the stem end.
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5.11.Pathological disorders
Decay-inducing pathogens include Alternaria sp., Aspergillus sp.,
Botryodiplodia sp., Colletotrichum sp. and various yeasts. Decay control can
be achieved by reducing physical injuries to fruits and by prompt cooling and
maintenance of the optimum temperature and relative humidity during lychee
marketing. Other decay control treatments under consideration include use of
a 10-15% CO2-enriched atmosphere and biological control.
5.12.Disinfestations treatments
Mites, scale and aphids occasionally infest lychees.Birds are often attracted
to lychees, eating both the immature and the ripe fruit. It may be necessary to
cover the plants with protective netting. Irradiation at 0.3 kgy can be used for
insect disinfestations purpose with no adverse effects on lychee quality.
Exposure to heat at 45C for 30 minutes can be used to control some insects
on lychee fruits. Higher temperatures and/or longer exposures to heat
damage the fruit. Cold treatment (14 days at 1C) may induce chilling injury
(pericarp browning) in some cultivars. Various cultural or sanitary practices,
such as encasing fruits with paper bags, pruning and burning of serious
infected branches and leaves, and removing the dropped-fruits areoccasionally utilized as minor control efforts and offer possibilities for reducing
population of certain pests. Biological control and pheromone utilizations are
also worthy of developing for managing the fruit tree pests.
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5.13.Postharvest technology
Maturity indices
Red Colour of the fruit (due to anthocyanins in the skin) is a good indicator of
maturity along with fruit size (minimum of 25 mm in diameter). Similarly the
maturity of the fruit for harvesting is judged from the tubercles on it. When the
fruit is mature, the tubercles become somewhat flattened and the epicarp
become smooth.
5.14.Harvesting methods
Litchi fruits should be harvested fully ripe because they do not continue to
ripen after harvest. The fruits for local market should be harvested at the full
ripe stage as indicated by the attractive skin colour while for distant market the
fruit is harvested slightly early, when they have just started turning reddish or
pinkish. Litchi fruits, like other fruits, are not harvested individually, but they
are harvested in bunches along with a portion of the branch and a few leaves
as it prolongs the storage life of fruits. If the individual fruit is harvested, the
skin at the stem end is ruptured and the fruit rots quickly. Dipping of fruits in
Etherel at 250 ppm markedly improves the fruit colour and fruit ripening is
accelerated by 24 to 36 hours.
a) Grading
Before packing, the damaged, sunburnt and cracked fruits should be
sorted out and graded properly according to their size. There should be
only fruits of one grade in a box. Fruits of one variety should be packed in
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separate boxes and it is better if the box or container is tagged for variety
name and grade.
b) Packaging
After harvesting, fruit should be packed as quickly as possible, as their
quality deteriorates markedly, if they are exposed to sun even for a few
hours. For domestic markets litchi is usually packed in small bamboo
baskets or wooden crates. These are lined with litchi leaves or other soft
packing material as paper shavings, wood-wool, etc. Proper packing of
fruits is important in maintaining freshness and quality and preventing fruit
decay during transit for marketing to distant places. A good box for packing
fruits should be light in weight, shallow and rigid enough to protect the
fruits. It should have few holes for ventilation and rope handles on either
side for lifting the box. Fruits are packed in clusters along with few leaves.
5.15.Storage
Litchi fruit cannot be kept for more than a few days after harvest, at room
temperature. If marketing is delayed fruits should be kept in cold storage
where they can be stored in good condition for 3-4 weeks. Fruits could be
stored at 2C in perforated polythene bags for 5 weeks without much spoilage.
For short-term storage less than two weeks, a temperature of 7C is
satisfactory. A relative humidity should be kept at 90-95% throughout storage
and transport.
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Controlled atmosphere storage (3-5% O2 and 3-5% CO2) reduces skin
browning and slows down the losses of ascorbic acid, acidity, and soluble
solids. Exposure to oxygen levels below 1% and/or carbon dioxide levels
above 15% may induce off-flavours and dull grey appearance of the pulp.
5.16.Cultivars
a) Amboina
Medium, bright red, borne in clusters of 6 to 20. Ripens April to May. Slow-
growing tree. Bears regularly in warm climates.
b) Bengal
Introduced by USDA in 1929 from Calcutta. Fruits are similar to Brewster
but more elongated with smaller seeds. Firm flesh. Dry and clean type.
Large, very vigorous tree. Easy to grow.
c) Brewster
Large, conical or wedge-shaped red fruit with soft flesh. Slightly acid with
fully formed large seeds. Commercial crop in Florida. Mid-season fruiting.
Large, vigorous, upright tree.
d) Groff
Small, dull red, spiny, borne in clusters of 20 to 40. Small seed. Ripens
August to September. Latest ripening variety. Upright tree.
e) Hak ip
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Medium-red fruit sometimes with green tinges with soft skin. Flesh is crisp
sweet and occasionally pinkish.
f) Kwa luk
Large, red fruit with green tip and typical green line. Exceptional flavour
and fragrance. In the past was a fruit given to person of honour. Dry and
clean type.
g) Mauritius (Kwai Mi)
Ripens early. Medium size, slightly oval, reddish-brown fruit. Firm, good-
quality fruit. Tends to have chicken-tongue seeds.
h) No Mai Tsze
Large, red, dry and clean type. Leading variety in China. Small seeds. One
of the best for drying.
i) Tai tsao
Fruit ripens early. Somewhat egg-shaped, bright red, rough skin. Crisp,
sweet, firm flesh. Leaks juice when skin is broken.
5.17.Nutritional value
The litchi is grown for its agreeable sweet-acid tasting, white fleshy, juicy,
translucent aril, or pulpy covering of its seed, which may be eaten fresh,
canned in syrup, or dried to produce "litchi nuts. Nutritional values per 100 g:
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Calories: 66; Carbohydrates: 16.5 g; Fat: 0.4 g; Protein: 0.1 g; Rich in vitamin
C and potassium
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6. Blighia sapida K. Konig(Akee, Ackee)
by Marina Piatto from Brazil [email protected]
6.1.Introduction
A member of he Sapindaceae (soapberry family) Akee is a tropical evergreen
tree that growns about 30 feet tall, with leathery leaves and fragrant white
flowers. Its fruit is pear shaped, bright red to yellow-orange, and when ripe
splits opens to reveal three large, shiny black seeds, surrounded by soft,
creamy or spongy, white to yellow flesh.
Reportedly, when the fruit is ripe (just after opening) the fleshy aril at the base
of the seed is wholesome food when eaten raw, fried, or boiled. However,
when green or overripe, the aril is said to be poisonous. According to Neal, the
seed coat is poisonous.
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6.2.Common names
The common names are Ackee, akee apple, or vegetable brain (seso vegetal
in Spanish). Other Spanish names are arbol de seso, palo de seso (Cuba);
huevo vegetal and fruto de huevo (Guatemala and Panama); arbor del huevo
and pera roja (Mexico); merey del Diablo (Venezuela); bien me sabe or pan y
quesito (Colombia); ak (Costa Rica). In Portuguese, it is castanha or
castanheiro de Africa. In French, it is arbre fricassor arbrea fricasser(Haiti);
yeux de crabeor ris de veau(Martinique). In Surinam it is known as akie. On
the Ivory Coast of West Africa, it is called kakaor finzan; in the Sudan, finza.
Elsewhere in Africa it is generally known as akye, akyen or ishin.
6.3.Origin and distribution
The akee is indigenous to the forests of the Ivory Coast and Gold Coast of
West tropical Africa where it is little eaten but various parts have domestic
uses. In Ghana, the fruiting tree is admired as an ornamental and is planted in
villages and along streets for shade. The akee was brought to Jamaica in
1793 by the renowned Captain Bligh to furnish food for the slaves. It was
readily adopted and became commonly grown in dooryards and alongroadsides and, to some extent, naturalized. The arils still constitute a favourite
food of the island and the fruit is featured in a calypso despite the health
hazards associated with it. Canned arils are exported to the United Kingdom
where they are welcomed by Jamaican immigrants. Importation has been
banned by the United States Food and Drug Administration.
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The akee was planted also in Trinidad and Haiti and some other islands of the
West Indies and the Bahamas and apparently was carried by Jamaican slaves
to Panama and the Atlantic Coast of Guatemala and Costa Rica. In 1900 it
was outlawed in Trinidad after it had caused some fatalities. There are
scattered trees in Surinam, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Brazil, quite a
number maintained as curiosities in southern Florida; and some planted
around Calcutta, India. The tree has been tried in the warm, moist climate of
Guyana and Malaya but has never survived. At Lamao in the Philippines it first
bore fruit in 1919.
6.4.Botany
The soapberry family has over 150 genera and 2200 species in worldwide,many of which are toxic. The only edible product that is likely to be familiar is
lychee; other species are lumber trees or oilseed crops. Representatives:Acer
(maples, 110 spp.), Dipteronia (2 spp. In China), Sapindus (13 spp.), Serjania
(215 spp.).
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6.5.Description
a)Tree
A medium to large sized tree, up to 40+ feet (10-12 m) in height, usually
with a short trunk to 6 ft (1.8 m) in circumference, and a dense crown of
spreading branches. It is evergreen, rarely deciduous.
b)LeavesThe leaves are alternate and compound with 3 to 5 pairs of oblong,
obovate-oblong, or elliptic leaflets, 6 to 12 in (1530 cm) long, rounded at
the base, short-pointed at the apex; bright-green and glossy on the upper
surface, dull and paler and finely hairy on the veins on the under side.
c)Flower
Flowers usually are small, wind-pollinated, greenish-white and fragrant.
They are produced laterally in racemes or panicles whose attract
honeybees. Sexually very interesting; flowers can be bisexual and male
flowers, borne together in simple racemes 3 to 7 in long, 5 petalled, white
and hairy.
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d)Fruit
The trivalved fruits turn yellow and red as they ripen. The mature fruit splits
open along 3 sutures exposing the 3 large, shiny, black seeds attached to
a white aril. The oily aril is the edible portion and is consumed fresh or is
cooked and used as a vegetable. Great care must be exercised in using
this fruit, since both immature and overmature fruits may be toxic. The
skin, unripe fruit, and seeds are poisonous.
Two peptides that proved to be toxic to animals have been isolated from
unripe seeds of the akee. One of these, hypoglycin A, also occurs in the
edible portion, the concentration being particularly high when the aril is not
fully ripe. Only naturally opened fruits should be eaten, and care should be
taken to remove the pink or purplish membrane near the seed.
When it is fully mature, it splits open revealing 3 cream-colored, fleshy,
glossy arils, crisp, somewhat nutty-flavoured, attached to the large, black,
nearly round, smooth, hard, shining somewhat nutty-flavoured, attached to
the large, black, nearly round, smooth, hard, shining, seeds.
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6.6.Climate and season
The akee tree is tropical to subtropical and able to survive temperatures to the
upper 20s. It seems to grow a bit better in areas that cool during the winter,
rather than intense humid, tropical climates. It flourishes from sea level to an
elevation of 900 m in Jamaica. It does not bear fruit in Guatemala City; fruits
heavily in southern Florida where young trees have been killed by winter cold
but mature trees have escaped serious injury during brief periods of 26F
(-3.33C).
There is some flowering and fruiting all year in Jamaica. In Florida, flowers
appear in spring and the fruits in mid summer and there may be a light
blooming period in the fall. In the Bahamas, there are 2 distinct crops a year,
one from February through April and the second from July to October.
6.7.Soil
The akee grows satisfactorily on a wide range of soil types but makes best
growth on loams, well supplied with moisture. On sad soils in southern Florida
and Bahamas, akee grows faster with fertilization.
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6.8.Propagation and culture
Akee trees are grow from seeds or by shiel-budding, the seedlings begin to
bear in about 5 years and show very little variation. In European greenhouses,
cuttings of ripe shoots are rooted in sand and raised in a mixture of peat and
loam. In warm climates, the tree grows fast and requires little cultural
attention.
6.9.Harvest
On reaching maturity the fruit turns bright red and splits open along the seams
with continued exposure to the sun. When open it reveals three large black
shiny seeds and bright yellow flesh. Traditionally it is at this time that the
ackees are harvested.
The Akee fruit is not edible. It is only the fleshy arils around the seeds that are
edible. The fruit must only be picked after the fruit has opened naturally, and
must be fresh and not overripe.
6.10.Market
Canned ackees are exported worldwide and are available in West Indian
markets.
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6.11.Uses
a)Food Uses
The akee must be allowed to open fully or at least partly before it is
detached from the tree. When the seeds are discarded and the arils, while
still fresh and firm are best parboiled in salted water or milk and then
lightly fried in butter. Then they are really delicious. In Jamaica, they are
often cooked with codfish, onions and tomates. Cooked ackee has the
consistency and look of scrambled eggs. After parboiling, they are curried
and eaten with rice. They are served, not only in the home, but also in
hotel dining rooms and other restaurants. In Africa, they may be eaten raw
or in soup, or after frying in oil.
Food Value Per 100 g ofRaw Arils*
Moisture 57.60 gProtein 8.75 g
Fat 18.78 gFiber 3.45 gCarbohydrates 9.55 g
Ash 1.87 gCalcium 83 mg
Phosphorus 98 mgIron 5.52 mg
Carotene -Thiamine 0.10 mg
Riboflavin 0.18 mgNiacin 3.74 mgAscorbic Acid 65 mg
* Analyses made in Mexico
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6.12.Fruit
In West Africa, the green fruits, which produce lather in water, are used for
laundering. Crushed fruits are employed as fish poison. The seeds, because
of their oil content, and the jacket because of its potash content, are burned
and the ashes used in making soap. The purified oil from ackee has high
nutritive value.
6.13.Flowers
In Cuba an extract of the flowers is appreciated as cologne.
6.14.Bark
On the Gold Coast, a mixture of the pulverized bark and ground hot peppers
is rubbed on the body as a stimulant.
6.15.Wood
The sapwood is while or light greenish-brown. The heartwood is reddish-
brown, hard, coarse-grained, durable and immune to termites. It is used
locally for construction and pilings and has been recommended for railway
sleepers. It is also fashioned into oars, paddles and casks.
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6.16.Medicinal Uses
In Brazil, repeated small does of an aqueous extract of the seed have been
administered to expel parasites. The treatment is followed by a saline or oily
purgative. Cubans blend the ripe arils with sugar and cinnamon and give the
mixture as a febrifuge and as a treatment for dysentery. On the Ivory Coast,
the bark is mixed with pungent spices in an ointment applied to relieve pain.
The crushed new foliage is applied on the forehead to relieve severe
headache. The leaves, crushed with salt, are poultice on ulcers. The leaf juice
is employed as eye drops in ophthalmia and conjunctivitis. In Colombia, the
leaves and bark are considered stomachic. Various preparations are made for
treatment of epilepsy and yellow fever.
6.17.Toxicity
Never open an ackee pod, because it is poisonous if eaten before it is fully
mature. Consumers of the unripe fruit sometimes suffer from 'Jamaican
Vomiting Sickness Syndrome' (JVS) allegedly caused by the unusual amino
acid components, hypoglycin A and B. Nowadays, there is increased
awareness of the necessity for consuming only ripe, opened ackees. This
toxic property is largely dispelled by light as the jacket opens. When fully ripe,
the arils still possess 1/12 of the amount in the unripe. The seeds are always
poisonous. They contain hypoglycin and its y-glutamyl derivative, y-L-glutamyl
a-amino-B-(2-methylene cyclopropyl) propionic acid, formerly called
hypoglycin B. The latter is as toxic as the former.
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Akee poisoning in humans is evidenced by acute vomiting, sometimes
repeated, without diarrhoea (vomiting sickness), followed by drowsiness,
convulsions, coma and, too often, death. Because of hypoglycaemic effects,
administration of sugar solutions has been found helpful. Most cases occur in
winter in Jamaica when 30% to 50% of the arils have small, underdeveloped
seeds, often not apparent externally. Ingestion of such arils, raw or cooked, is
hazardous. The akee (Blighia sapida) from Africa is a favourite in Jamaica but
the fleshy arils are poisonous until fully exposed to light. The seeds are always
poisonous. Ackee (Blighia sapida)poisoning in the Northern Province, Haiti,
2001. Between November 2000 and March 2001, 80 cases of an acute
phenomenon were registered in two communes (districts) of Haitis Northern
provnce. The illness was characterized by continuous vomiting, abdominal
pains, loss of consciousness, convulsions and death in the most serious
cases. The nature of the symptoms and past history of similar conditions in
the same region in 1988 and 1991 suggest that this phenomenon was caused
by consumption of ackee (Blighia sapida), a common fruit in the region that
produces serious health effects when consumed unripe. Recommendations
included strengthening the epidemiological surveillance system, with
community participation, as well as education, communication, and
information activities for the population in order to avoid furth.
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7. Nephelium mutabile (Pulasan)
by Martina Arenz
English: pulasanIndonesia: rambutan-kafriMalaya: rambutan parohMalacca: pening-pening-ramboetanJava: kapoelasanPhilippines: bulala
7.1.Introduction to Family Sapindaceae
The common family name soapberry refers to the tree (Sapindus saponaria
L.), a native of tropical America, which produces a fruit containing a soap-like
substance (37% Saponin). This dicotyledonous family is composed of around
150 genera and 2000 species of trees, shrubs and a few herbs and vines,
usually monoecious, distributed widely in the warm tropics. Among the
numerous genera, four related genera and five species are of interest to the
fruit horticulturist.
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7.2. Origin and Distribution
With its origins in West Malaya, Borneo and Sumatra, the Pulasan tree has
been widely cultivated throughout the region in Malaya, Thailand, South
Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines, India and Sri Lanka, it is rarely
domesticated in the Philippines. In Malaysia is Pulasan cultivated in almost all
part of the country but is concentrated mainly the states of Perak, Pahang,
Kedah, Kelantan, Johor dan Terengganu. Wild trees are infrequent in lowland
forests around Perak, Malaya but abundant in the Philippines at low
elevations from Luzon to Mindanao.
In 1926 the tree was planted at the Trujillo Plant Propagation Station in Puerto
Rico, in 1927 young trees from Java were sent to the Lancetilla Experimental
Garden, Tela, Honduras. The latter were said in 1945 to be doing well at Tela
and fruiting moderately.
The pulasan is little known elsewhere in the New World except in Costa Rica
where it is occasionally grown and the fruits sometimes appear on the market.
The pulasan is a rare specimen that is found growing naturally in the Mixed
Dipterocarp Forest to an altitude of about 1100 metre, mainly on alluvial soils.
The tree is very similar in appearance to the rambutan and usually grows to a
maximum height of 12 metres under orchard conditions. Given favourable
growing conditions it fruits in about five years on a 5 to 6 metre high tree.
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7.3. Description
The Pulasan tree is a medium size tree, 10-15 metres in height (32-50 feet),
with a canopy width approximately two-thirds the height. It has a short trunk to
3040 centimetres thick (12-16 inches). The branchlets are brown-hairy when
young.
The alternate, petiolated leaves, pinnate or odd-pinnate, have two to five pairs
of leaflets arranged alternately or sub-opposite on the rachis. The leaves are
formed oblong or elliptic lanceolate, and are 6.25-17.5 cm long (2 -7
inches), and up to 5 cm (2 inches) wide. On the upper side the leaves are
slightly wavy, dark-green and barely glossy, and pale, on the underside
somewhat bluish, with a few short, silky hairs. The inflorescences are axillary
and terminal, erect and widely branched, rusty pubescent and bear numerous
very small, greenish white flowers. The flowers are petalless with 4 to 5 hairy
sepals, they are borne singly or in clusters on the branches of the erect,
axillary or terminal, panicels clothed with fine yellowish or brownish hairs.The
fruit colour varies from green to yellow to pink to dark red purple according to
cultivar. Fruit shape is globose to ovoid, 57.5 cm in length (2-3 inches).
Edible flesh varies from 30 to 60 % of total fruit weight. The skin is about 0.3
cm (1/8 inch) thick and is covered with soft spines. The thick, leathery rind is
closely set with conical, blunt-tipped tubercles or thick, fleshy, straight spines,
to 1 cm (3/8 inch long). There may be 1 or 2 small, undeveloped fruits nestled
close to the stem. Within is the glistening, white or yellowish-white flesh, the
aril, to 1cm (3/8 inch) thick, more or less clinging to the thin, grayish-brown
seedcoat (testa) with seperates from the seed. The aril is translucent cream
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white, sweet and juicy with a slight sub-acid tang and it seperates better from
the seed than that of the rambutan. The seed of pulasan is ovoid , oblong or
ellipsoid, light-brown, somewhat flattened on one side, 2 3.5 cm ( to 1 1/3
inches long).Compared with the rambutan, the fruit of the pulasan is little
larger and softer, with fewer fruit per panicle, but appearance and eating
qualitiy is very similar to rambutan. The flavor is generally much jucier and
more acidic than that of the rambutan, but at the same time the pulasan
remains quite sweet and refreshing. They are also more flavoursome than
lychees and somewhat reminiscent of sweet purple grapes.
7.4. Varieties
There are several varieties of pulasan with at least four found in Borneo.
These include green, yellow, dark red and purple types. There is also a variety
from West Malaysia that bears large sized fruit.
Two forms of Pulasan in Java, in one group, distinguished as Seebabat or
Kapoolasan seebabat. The fruit is mostly dark-red, the tubercles are
crowded together, the flesh is very sweet and juicy and seperates easily from
the seed. In other group, the fruit is light red and smaller, the tubercles are not
so closely set, and the flesh adheres firmly to the seed. Also a find variety is
growing in Jolo. The plants introduced into Honduras were 2 superior varieties
called Asmerah Tjoplok and Kapoelasan mera tjoplok. There are some
other trees in Malaya and in Thailand thatbear seedless fruits and these are
being vegetatively propagated.
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7.5. Weather requirements
Pulasan prefers a high humidity and rainfall, they are best suited to a tropical
climate where winter temperatures rarely fall below 10C (50F) or peak above
40C (104F). This warm climate is ideal for ist growth and high yield. Rainfall
parameters should be between 150-300 mm (60-120 inches) of rain annually.
This plant is ultra-tropic and thrives only in very humid regions between 110
350 m (360-1,150 feet) of altitude.In Malaya it is said that the trees bear best
after a long, dry season.
The culture and microclimate are similar to that required for rambutan.
Establishment of plants under Gliricidia trees, or other suitable shelter is
recommended.
7.6. Soil
The pulasan tree is suitable for most types of soils, except the waterlogged
and peat areas and it is not suitable in the hilly terrain. Though the pulasan
requires a lot of moisture, the soils should be well drained, because soils,
which have a high water table, are not favourable. It does not perform well on
sandy soils. Deep alluvial soils and rich soils containing high organic matter
are ideal for growth and development.
In general the pulasan is tolerant of a wide range of soil types.
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7.7. Propagation
Planting of seeds is not favoured because the seedlings may be male or
female, so vegetative propagation is preferred as budding, grafting, and air-
layering. Grafting and budding are the preferred and common methods of
propagation. Grafted trees will begin to fruit in 3 to 5 years. Budding is
succesful if it is done in the rainy season on rootstocks already set out in the
field so that they will not be subjected to transplanting which causes many
fatalities, particularly during dry weather.
Recommended spacing for planting is 10 m x 10 m and ideal planting holes
are 0.6 m x 0.6 m x 0.6 m. After dugging the hole and before introducing the
seedlings some organic matter with phosphate fertilizer and limestone are
incorporated to mix into the planting holes.
7.8. Culture
The tree requires less space than rambutan trees and can be 26 to 33 feet (8
10 m) apart each way.
7.9. Fertilizer
For the first 1 to 3 years a compound fertilizer consisting of nitrogen,
phosphate, potash and magnesium is given in the proportion of 15:15:6:4.
From the 4thyear onwards the proportion is 12:12:17:2+TE.
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7.10. Weeding
The weeds competing for sunlight, water and nutrients with the seedling must
be removed early. Circle weeding is done manually and chemically to prevent
overgrowth of cover crops. (Parquat, dalapan and glyphosphate are common
herbicedes used against weeds.)
7.11. Pruning
An open centre pruning system is recommended. Pruning is also done during
harvest to encourage the growth of fruiting branches for the next crop.
Removal of dead, broken or diseased branches and water shoots is done
regularly.
7.12. Harvesting
Pulasan fruits twice a year. Trees flower from March to May and August to
October. Fruits mature from 15-18 weeks after flowering, fruit maturity takes
from 100 to 130 days in warm tropical areas. The main fruiting season is from
July to November and secondary fruiting season is from March to July. A
variation from 4 to 6 weeks may occur in the periods for fruiting depending on
locality and climatic conditions. The fruit bunch is harvested when a majority of
the fruits has turned red or yellow.
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7.13. Yield
Yield may begin at 1.2 tonnes per hectare for the first year of fruiting reaching
as high as 20 tonnes per hectare for trees over ten years old.
Yield normally varies from 12- 16 tonnes per ha. An average tree may produce
between 5000 6000 fruits although trees producing 10 000 fruits have been
observed.
Records show an average of 44 pounds of fruit may be harvested in year 5
and 440 pounds in 15 years.
7.14. Pests and Diseases
Larvae of the leaf roller, Adoxophytes privanta walk, roll and feed young
leaves, it can be controlled chemically. Larvae of the fruit borer bore into the
fruit, all fallen and infected fruits should be destroyed. There are three weevil
pests (beetles which spoil grain, seeds, etc.): Apogonia spp., Adoretus spp.
and Hypomeces squamosuswhich feed on and cut leaves. Being only active
at night they can be controlled by spraying withTrichlorphon or BHC. Powdery
mildew (Oidium nephelli) infect fruits causing them to split and drop. Spray
sulphur on immature fruits when symptoms appear. Corky stem cancer
(Dolobra nepheliea) is common in Pulasan. It attacks branches and twigs
causing the formation of corky tissue. There is no effective control but
improving air circulation helps reduce its incidence. Sooty mould (Meliola
nephelii) is normally a secondary infection, after insect damage, often
transmitted by wind. Both leaves and fruit develop a black sooty mould on the
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surface. The aril is normally not affected but the fruit rendered unsightly. This
can be controlled by spraying with copper oxychloride, benomyle or other
fungicide.
7.15. Food uses
Pulasan are usually eaten as a fresh fruit. However, pulasan can be frozen or
dried, used for flavouring in ice cream, puddings, can be made into preserves,
jam jellies and sauces. The chefs in the gourmet restaurants use Pulasan in
their enre dishes and in sauces. Pulasan is more recently used in tropical
juice blends. The flesh of ripe fruits is eaten raw or made into jam. Boiled or
roasted seeds are used to prepare a cocoa-like beverage.
7.16. Other uses
a) Oil
The dried seed kernels yield 74.9% of a solid, white fat, melting at 104 to
107.6F (40 42C), to a faintfully perfumed oil. This could be used in
soap-making.
b) Wood
The light-red wood is harder and heavier than that of Rambutan and of
excellent quality but rarely available.
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c) Medicinal uses
The leaves and roots are employed in poultices. The root decoction is
administered as a febrifuge and vermifuge. The roots are boiled with
Gleichenia linearis, and the decoction is used for bathing fever patiens.
7.17.Food values per 100 g of edible portion (analysis made in the
Philippines)
Moisture: 84.54 90.87 %
Protein: 0.82 g
Carbohydrates: 12.86 g
Fiber: 0.14 g
Fat: 0.55 g
Ash: 0.43 0.45 g
Calcuim: 0.01 0.05 mg
Iron: 0.002mg
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8.Nephelium lappaceum L. (Rambutan)
by Said Wali Dadshani from Afghanistan [email protected]
8.1.Common names
Rambutan in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines
Litchi chevelu (French)
Ngoh, Phruan (Thailand)
Rambutan tree
8.2.Origin
Rambutan is a member Soapberry family (Sapindaceae) like Litchi and
Longan.
It is one of the best known fruits of Southeast Asia, is widely cultivated
throughout the tropics including Africa, the Caribbean islands, Central
America, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, The Philippines, and Sri Lanka. Thailand
is the largest producer. But still this fruit is not very well known comparing to
Litchi.
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Rambutan fruits
8.3.Climate and soils
For a good development and harvest a temperature of minimum 19-22C is
required. Lower temperatures affect flowering. It is sensitive to temperatures
lower than 10C.
The annual rainfall should be about 150