tropical crops

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Tropical Crops

Agricultural Science and Resource Management in the Tropics and Subtropics

ARTS

FRUIT AND INDUSTRY CROPS

PTS 140

Participants

Prof. Dr Marc JanssensProf. Dr. Jrgen Pohlan

Abrefa Danquah JonesAlex Pacheco Bastas

Alexander R. MendonzaAlfonso Cabrera

Keshav Prasad DahalMarina PiattoMartina Arenz

Said Wali Dadshani

Wintersemester 2002/03

Bonn, Germany

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Summary

Author/Subject Page

Table 3

1.Nepthelium Lappaceum L., Abrefa Danquah Jones 4

2.Dimocarpus Longan,Alex Pacheco Bastas 11

3.Paullinia cupana, Alexander R. Mendoza 22

4.Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq., Alfonso Cabrera 33

5.Litchi chinensis, Keschav Prasad Dahal 37

6.Blighia sapida K. Konig, Marina Piatto 50

7.Nephelium mutabile, Martina Arenz 61

8.Nephelium lappaceum L., Said Wali Dadshani 71

References 76

Sites references 77

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The most species of Sapindaceae

Tropical CropsNephelium

lappaceum L.(Rambutan)

DimocarpusLongan

(Longan)

Paulliniacupana

(Guaran)

MelicoccusBijugatus

Jacq.

LitchiChinensis(Litchi)

Blighia sapidaK. Konig(Akee)

Country Philippine/Malaysia

East-India/ThailandVietnam

Brazil/Venezuela

Caribbean South-China/Vietnam

West-African

Habitat 10 to 20 m to 25 m 2 to 5 m 15 to 30 m 8 to 10 m to 20 m

Growingconditions PH 5,5 to 7,0 -

- -PH 4,0 to 8,0 -

Temperature > 22C-

- -

Max. 23 to32 C,

Min. >6 C>20 C

Precipitation 2000 to 3000 1200 to 1800 1400 to 4500 1200 to 3500 1500 to 2000

>1200

FruitRound, 3 to 5cm, 4 to 8 cmlong, green,yellow or red.

Round, 2,5 to3 cm, yellow-rot. Smoothshell.

2,5 to 5 cmlong, green-yellow, flatter,orange-color.

Round, 2,5 to4 cm, shell,flatter,orange-color.

Round, 2,5 to4 cm, yellow-red shell

Round, 2,5 to 4cm, 5 to 6 cmlong, red, shell.Fruits are toxic.

R5y

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1. Nepthelium Lappaceum L.(Rambutan)

By Abrefa Danquah Jones from Ghana - [email protected]

1.1.The tree

The rambutan is a medium sized tree producing a red or yellow fruit round to

oval in shape with hairs or tubercles on its skin. The flesh or aril is translucent

and sweet. Most rambutan trees propagated from seed are not true-to-type

and usually sour. Male rambutan trees are also not uncommon. The rambutan

has a small crop in June - July and a heavy crop in November to January.

Selected clones produce thick, firm flesh, which are sweet.

Rambutan is indigenous to the Malay Archipelago and has been widely

cultivated throughout the region in Thailand, South Vietnam, Indonesia, the

Philippines, India and Sri Lanka. In Malaysia is rambutan cultivated in almost

all part of the country but is concentrated mainly the states of Perak, Pahang,

Kedah, Kelantan, Johor dan Terengganu.

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1.2.Cultivars

A large number of rambutan clones is available in the country but

recommendations of clones for planting is made complicated by the inevitable

effects of environment as some clones perform well in one environment or

area but not in other areas. Clones, which are recommended for general

planting, are R134, R156, R162, R167, R170, R191 and R193.

1.3.Popular clones

ClonePopular

nameOrigin Characteristics

R167Chai Tow

ChengPenang

Large oral fruit. Sweet juicy and firm flesh.Crimson skin and the seed separate easilyfrom the aril or flesh. Fine long hairs onfruit.

R134 - SingaporeMedium sized red fruit with firm sweet fleshand good flavour.

R156Muar

GadingJohore

Large, round and yellow fruit with thick, firmaril of sweet juicy flavour. Have small seed,slightly spaced thick hairs on the fruit.

R191Anak

sekolahRongrein

ThailandAverage sized elongated crimson fruit.Sweet, thick, firm flesh and easilyseparates from the small seed.

R193 Deli Baling KedahLarge, oval-shaped, attractive red fruit withthick firm aril, fairly sweet and peels well.Fruit has fine long hairs with green kips.

R162 Oh Heok Penang

Large elongated orange-red fruit with thick,

firm crunchy sweet flesh, which is easilyseparated from seed.

R170 Deli Cheng SelangorLarge elongated red fruit with sweet, thick,firm flesh peeling without testa.

1.4.Soil and weather requirements

The rambutan is well adapted to the tropical and humid climate. A warm

climate is ideal for its growth and high yield. It is suitable for most types of

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soil, except the waterlogged and peat areas. However, rambutan requires a

lot of moisture and is not suitable in the hilly terrain. It does not perform well

on sandy areas. Deep alluvial soil and those, which contain high organic

matter, is ideal for its growth and development. These soils should be well

drained. Soils, which have a high water table, are not favourable.

1.5.Propagation

Budding, approach grafting, and air layering easily propagate Ambulant.

Budding is the most common method of vegetative propagation. The

recommended spacing for planting is 10m x 10m and ideal planting holes are

0.6m x 0.6m x 0.6m. After the holes are dug some organic matter with

phosphate fertilizer and limestone are incorporated to mix into the planting

holes before introducing the seedlings.

1.6.Fertilizer

For the first 1-3 years a compound fertilizer consisting of nitrogen, phosphate

potash and magnesium in the proportion of 15:15:6:4 are given. From the 4th

year onwards the proportion is 12:12:17:2+TE

1.7.Weeding

The weeds compete for sunlight, water and nutrients with the seedling and

must be removed early. Circle weeding is done manually or chemically to

prevent overgrowth of cover crops. Parquet, dalapan and glyphosphate are

common herbicides used against weeds.

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1.8.Pruning

An open centre pruning system is recommended. Pruning is also done during

harvesting to encourage the growth of fruiting branches for the next crop.

Removal of dead, broken or diseased branches and water shoots is done

regularly.

1.9.Pests and diseases

Larvae of the leaf roller, adoxophytes privatana walk, roll and feed on young

leaves. It can be controlled chemically. Larvae of the fruit borer bore into the

fruit. All fallen and infected fruits should be destroyed. The are three weevil

pests - apogonia SPP., adoretus SPP and Hypomeces Squamosus which

feed on and cut leaves. They are only active at night. Spraying with

Trichlorphon or BHC can chemically control this. The rambutan is relatively

free of serious diseases. Powdery mildew (oidium nephelli) infects fruits

causing them to split and drop. For control spray immature fruits with sulphur

when symptoms appear. Corky stem canker (Dolobra nepheliae) is quite

common in rambutan. It attacks branches and twigs causing the formation of

corky tissue. There is no effective control but improving air circulation helpsreduce its incidence. Sooty mould ( Meliola nephelii) is normally a secondary

infection , after insect damage, often transmitted by wind. Both leaves and

fruit develop a black sooty mould on the surface. The aril is normally not

affected but the fruit is rendered unsightly. Spraying with copper oxychloride,

benomyle or other fungicide can control this.

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1.10.Harvesting

Rambutans fruit twice a year. Trees begin flowering from March to May and

August to October. Fruits mature from 15-18 weeks after flowering. The main

fruiting season is from July to November and secondary fruiting season is

from March to July. A variation of 4-6 weeks may occur in the periods for

fruiting depending on locality and climatic conditions. The fruit bunch is

harvested when a majority of the fruits has turned red or yellow.

1.11.Yield

Yield may begin at 1.2 tonnes per hectare for the first year of fruiting reaching

as high as 20 tonnes per hectare for trees over ten years old. Yield normally

varies from 12-16 tonnes per hectare. An average tree may produce between

5000 -6000 fruits although trees producing 10000 fruits have been observed.

1.12.Nutrirional information

ComponentsPer 100g

edible portionFood energy 59.0 calories

Moisture 84.7 gProtein 0.7 g

Fat 0.1 g

Carbohydrate 13.9 gFibre 0.3 gAsh 0.3 g

Calcium 22.0 mgPhosphorous 30.0 mg

Iron 2.5 mgNiacin 0.1 mg

Vitamin C 38.6 mg

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1.13.Uses

Cultivated primaily for its fresh fruit, but also canned in syrup, cooked for

stewed fruit and jams. The colorful fruits are frequently used in displays with

flower and fruit arrangements. The pericarp of rambutan contains tannin and

saponin and is dried and used medicinally in Java. In Malaysia, the roots are

used in a decoction for treating fever; the leaves for poulticing and the bark

for an astringent for tongue diseases. Young shoots are used to produce a

green color on silk that is first dyed yellow with turmeric. The fruit dye is one

of the ingredients to dye silk a black color. The seeds are edible when

roasted, they are bitter and said to be narcotic. A tallow similar to cacao

butter, with a high level of arachidic acid, can be rendered from the seeds.

The rambutan tallow is edible and can be used to make soap and candles.

The reddish colored rambutan wood is fairly hard and heavy, and reputed to

be resistant to insects but not to fungi, however, trees are usually too small to

be valued as timber.

1.14.Production / Export

In 1992, 73,621 tonnes of rambutan was produced

but no export of rambutan took place.Year Fresh Fruits

ProcessedFruits

TotalRM '000

1987 113,454.3 70,202.9 183,657.21988 145,592.1 61,519.2 207,111.31989 169,532.6 64,797.6 234,330.21990 181,081.3 91,390.5 272,471.81991 202,336.0 101,203.7 303,539.71992 211,.94.7 910,211.9 1,121.306.61993 266,277.9 79,024.0 345,301.91994 258,200.2 78,920.4 337,120.6

1995 218,257.7 75,825.7 294,083.4

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Exports of Fresh and Processed Nuts, 1987 - 1995

Year Fresh NutsProcessed

NutsTotal

RM '000

1987 4,975.5 3,507.2 8,482.7

1988 4,293.6 9,393.5 13,687.11989 5,152.0 12,824.1 17,976.11990 6,996.5 19,102.6 26,099.11991 6,112.2 14,632.6 20,744.81992 6,025.6 16,568.7 22,594.31993 7,115.3 16,840.9 23,956.21994 6,810.6 22,716.9 29,527.51995 7,665.5 22,298.6 29,964.1

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2. Dimocarpus Longan(LONGAN)

by Alex Pacheco Bastas from Colombia [email protected]

Closely allied to the glamorous lychee, in the family Sapindaceae, the longan,

also known as dragon's eye or eyeball, and as mamoncillo chino in Cuba, has

been referred to as the "little brother of the lychee", or li-chihnu, "slave of the

lychee".

Botanically, it is placed in a separate genus, and is currently designated

Dimocarpus longan Lour. (syns. Euphoria longan Steud.; E. longana Lam.;

Nephelium longana Cambess.).

The word 'longan' comes from the Chinese and literally means 'dragon-eye' which

is an apt description of the fruit after the skin has been removed.

2.1.Origin and Distribution

The longan originated in China or in the area between Burma and India.

Thailand, China and Taiwan are the main centres of commercial production.

The lungan is more seldom grown under orchard conditions. There is not so

large a demand for the fruit and the trees. It is commonly grown in former

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Indochina (Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam and in Taiwan). The tree grows but

does not fruit in Malaya and the Philippines. In Thailand, production is centred

in the tropical monsoon areas of Chiangmai, Lamphun and Phrae at

elevations between 300 and 600 m above sea level. The main production

centres in China are in the Fujian and Guandong provinces. In Fujian

province, longan is second in importance after citrus and is grown in cooler

subtropical areas.

The longan was introduced into Florida from southern China by the United

States Department of Agriculture in 1903 and has flourished in a few locations

but never became popular. In Hawaii, the longan was found to grow faster and

more vigorously than the lychee but the fruit is regarded there as less flavorful

than the lychee. The longan is closely related to the lychee and is similar in

growth and fruiting habit. The tree is tougher and less demanding, with

respect to climate and soil conditions, than the lychee and it fruits in cooler

and drier areas.

2.2.Description

The longan tree is handsome, erect, to 9-12 m in height and to 10 m in width,

with rough-barked trunk to 76.2 cm thick and long, spreading, slightlydrooping, heavily foliaged branches. The evergreen, alternate, paripinnate

leaves have 4 to 10 opposite leaflets, elliptic, ovate-oblong or lanceolate,

blunt-tipped; 10-20 cm long and 4-5 cm wide: New growth is wine-colored and

showy.

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Tree shape depends on the cultivar and varies from erect to spreading. The

inflorescences are large (30 to 50 cm long), multi-branched and leafless. They

are borne on new growth produced during mid-summer or autumn. The

flowers are small, inconspicuous and yellow brown. The fruit are similar to

those of lychee in structure, but are smaller, smoother and yellow-tan in

colour. The fleshy aril is white to off-white or pinkish in colour and surrounds a

red brown, brown to black seed, which separates easily from the flesh. The

fruit are milder in flavour and less acidic than lychees.

The lychee fruit can be eaten fresh, frozen, dried or canned. Thawed fruit can

be used in the same way as freshly picked fruit without any loss of colour or

flavour. The fruit can be peeled, pitted and canned and the juice of most

cultivars is sufficiently sweet for the fruit to be processed without adding sugar.

Longans require a period of low minimum temperature to induce panicle and

flower initiation. However, they are sensitive to frost and are killed or severely

injured by prolonged temperatures below freezing.

Productivity of longan is closely linked to climatic conditions during flowering

and fruit maturation. Longan can survive droughts but adequate water is

required for good production. Excessive rainfall during flowering causes flower

drop and prevents pollination and fruit set.

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2.3.Varieties

There is considerable genetic variability in longan cultivars with marked

differences in bark characteristics, yielding ability, disease and wind

resistance, fruit size, flesh recovery and eating quality, tree size, shape, and

canopy density, leaf size, leaf colour and arrangement.

'Wu Yuan'("black ball") has small, sour fruit used for canning. The tree

is vigorous and seedlings are valued as rootstocks. 'Kao Yuan' is

believed to be a slightly better type of this variety and is widely canned.

'Tsao ho' ('Early Rice') is the earliest variety and a form called 'Ch'i

chin tsao ho' precedes it by 2 weeks. In quality, both are inferior to 'Wu

Yuan'.

'She p' i' ('Snake skin') has the largest fruit, as big as a small lychee

and slightly elongated. The skin is rough, the seed large, some of thejuice is between the rind and the flesh, and the quality is low. Its only

advantage is that it is very late in season.

'Hua Kioh' ('Flower Skin'), slightly elongated, has thin, nearly tasteless

flesh, some of the juice is between the rind and the flesh, and the

overall quality is poor. It is seldom propagated vegetatively.

There are 2 improved cultivars grown extensively in Taiwan:

'Fukien Lungan' ('Fukugan') was introduced from Fukien Province in

mainland China.

The other, very similar and possibly a mutant of 'Fukien', is:

'Lungan Late', which matures a month later than 'Fukien'.

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2.4.Soil

The longan thrives best on a rich sandy loam and nearly as well on

moderately acid, somewhat organic, sand.

The best growth and cropping of longan is achieved on deep, well-drained

fertile soils with a pH of 5.5 to 6.0 and low salinity. In Thailand, the highest

production is usually obtained on heavy alluvial soils with access to the water

table. Longan trees thrive on various soil types provided they are well drained.

They do well on alluvial soils, sandy loams, sand and calcareous, rocky soils.

Young longan trees are not flood tolerant and may die quickly after several

days of excessively high soil moisture or flooding. Mature trees appear more

tolerant of excessive soil moisture.

2.5.Climate

Longan is a subtropical tree well adapted to tropical climates with distinctive

wet/dry periods and subtropical areas with a cool, nonfreezing fall/winter

period. Longans are indigenous to lowland and middle elevations. Longans

produce more reliably in areas characterized by low non-freezing

temperatures (15oC or less) and a dry period during the fall and winter

(October-February). Warm temperatures (21-29oC) during spring, followed by

high summer temperatures ( 27-35oC) and nonlimiting soil moisture are best

for fruit development. Warm and rainy winters are conducive to vegetative

growth. Excessive rains during flowering cause flower drop and may reduce

pollination and fruit set. Young longan leaves are sensitive to strong winds

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during vegetative flushing which may result in leaf dehydration, browning and

deformation.

2.6.Fertilizer Management

A month after planting spread (200 g) per tree of a young tree fertilizer, such

as 6-6-6 (% nitrogen-% phosphate-% potassium) with minor elements with 20

to 30% of the nitrogen from organic sources. Six to 8 dry fertilizer applications

per year may be made up to the third year. A foliar fertilizer mix composed of

minor nutrients (manganese, zinc, boron, and molybdenum) and magnesium

may be applied 4 to 6 times per tree per year any time from April to

September.

For mature trees, 50 to 150 lbs of nitrogen per acre per year split into 2 to 3

applications is recommended.

2.7.Propagation

Most longan trees have been grown from seed. The seeds lose viability

quickly. After drying in the shade for 4 day, they should be planted without

delay, but no more than 3/4 in (2 cm) deep.Germination takes place within a

week or 10 days. The seedlings are transplanted to shaded nursery rows the

following spring and set in the field 2-3 years later during winter dormancy.

Grafting is uncommon and when it is done, it is a sandwich graft on longan

rootstock, 3 or 4 grafts being made successively, one onto the beheaded top

of the preceding one, in the belief that it makes the graft wind-resistant and

that it induces better size and quality in the fruit.

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Longans are readily propagated from seed but the preferred method of

propagation in Thailand is air layering (marcottage) although grafting,

inarching and cuttings are all possible.

Pruning of tops and roots can extend the life of high density plantings up to

about 15 years before some tree removal becomes necessary. Judicious

pruning is required and assists in the formation of well formed tree crowns,

strengthens fruit bearing branches, ensures annual cropping and limits insect

pests and diseases.

In newly established orchards young trees should be grown as vigorously as

possible for the first four years to attain the greatest tree size and bearing

surface. Vigorous growth is achieved by regular applications of water and

nutrients, strategic pruning and protection from frost, wind, weeds and pests.

After four years, the application of nitrogen should cease until the first crop is

picked.

2.8.Pests and Diseases

Longan is relatively free of pests, compared with lychees, but a number of

insect pests do attack the crop. The most common pests are the lychee

webworm and several scale insects. The lychee webworm (Crocidosemanewspecies) attacks emerging shoots and panicles, flowers and young fruit and if

left uncontrolled drastically reduces fruit set and crop yields. Scales include

the banana shaped (Coccus acutissimus) and barnacle (Ceroplastes spp.)

scales, which attack mostly the underside of leaves and the philephedra scale

(Phillephedra tuberculosa) that attacks leaves and fruit. Adult citrus blue-green

weevil (Pachnaeus litus), little leaf notcher (Artipus floridanus) and diaprepes

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weevil (Diaprepes abbreviatus) have been observed to feed on leaves and

their larvae feed on roots. Fortunately, effective control measures are

available for all but the last two pests. Early harvesting of the fruit is the only

practical method of limiting the damage from these two pests.

There are no major diseases limiting longan production. Weeds can reduce

tree growth and need to be controlled with herbicides such as paraquat and

glyphosate. There are no major disease problems of longan at the present

time. Red alga (Cephaleuros virescens) attacks limbs and shoots and is most

prevalent during high humidity, warm, rainy weather. Symptoms include dark

gray to reddish-rust colored patches or spots on bark and/or leaves. In severe

infections, leaf drop and stem die back occur. Parasitic lichen (Strigula sp.)

may attack leaves. Symptoms include white star-shaped spots on leaf

surfaces. This lichen colonizes leaves reducing their ability to nurture the tree.

Weeds can reduce tree growth and need to be controlled with herbicides such

as paraquat and glyphosate

2.9.Harvest

Longans do not ripen off the tree and maturity is judged by the particular

shape, skin colour and flavour of each cultivar. Most fruit can be picked from a

tree in one harvest and from a single cultivar in an orchard within two weeks.

In order to spread the workload in a commercial orchard it is essential to plant

a range of cultivars having different maturity times in any one orchard.

Fruit are harvested by removing the whole cluster plus one or two leaves. Fruit

are then clipped from the panicles, sorted for size, insect damage and skin

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blemishes and placed in bulk trays. Fruit subjected to hydrocooling or forced

air-cooling maintains acceptable eating quality for up to three weeks. At 7.5C

and 90% relative humidity.

In Thailand, most fruit are marketed in branches on the fruit stalk in 22 to 24

kg baskets and consumed within three days of picking, without any

postharvest treatment.

The main problems experienced in commercial orchards have been irregular

flowering, biennial bearing and small fruit. Trees tend to overcrop some years

and this is followed by a light crop the next year.

2.10.Food Uses

Longans are much eaten fresh, out-of-hand, but some have maintained that

the fruit is improved by cooking. In China, the majority are canned in sirup or

dried.

For drying, the fruits are first heated to shrink the flesh and facilitate peeling of

the rind. Then the seeds are removed and the flesh dried over a slow fire. The

dried product is black, leathery and smoky in flavor and is mainly used to

prepare an infusion drunk for refreshment.

A liqueur is made by macerating the longan flesh in alcohol.

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Food Value Per 100 gof Edible Portion

Fresh Dried

Calories 61 286Moisture 82.4 g 17.6 gProtein 1.0 g 4.9 g

Fat 0.1 g 0.4 gCarbohydrates 15.8 g 74.0 gFiber 0.4 g 2.0 gAsh 0.7 g 3.1 gCalcium 10 mg 45 mgPhosphorus 42 mg 196 mgIron 1.2 mg 5.4 mgThiamine - 0.04 mgAscorbic Acid 6 mg

(possibly)28 mg

2.11.Other Uses

a) Seeds and rind: The seeds, because of their saponin content, are

used like soapberries (Sapindus saponaria L.) for shampooing the hair.

The seeds and the rind are burned for fuel and are part of the payment

of the Chinese women who attend to the drying operation.

b) Wood: While the tree is not often cut for timber, the wood is used for

posts, agricultural implements, furniture and construction. The

heartwood is red, hard, and takes a fine polish. It is not highly valued

for fuel.

c) Medicinal Uses: The flesh of the fruit is administered as a stomachic,

febrifuge and vermifuge, and is regarded as an antidote for poison. A

decoction of the dried flesh is taken as a tonic and treatment for

insomnia and neurasthenic neurosis. In both North and South Vietnam,

the "eye" of the longan seed is pressed against a snakebite in the belief

that it will absorb the venom.

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d) Leaves and flowers are sold in Chinese herb markets but are not a

part of ancient traditional medicine. The leaves contain quercetin and

quercitrin. Burkill says that the dried flowers are exported to Malaysia

for medicinal purposes. The seeds are administered to counteract

heavy sweating and the pulverized kernel, which contains saponin,

tannin and fat, serves as a styptic

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3. Paullinia cupana

by Alexander Mendoza from Venezuela - [email protected]

Paullinia cupana

Common Names:

The Amerindians wordSpanishPortuguese

France

Uaran means"eye-like"Cupana, GuaranGuaranGuaran-sipoGuaran-uvaUrana

Guarana

3.1.Origin and geographical distribution

In the Amazon forest of Venezuela and Brazil, the variety cupuna, on the basis

of which the species was described from material collected by Humboldt in

San Fernando de Atabapo, Venezuela, is known only in the area between the

south of the Atures and Maipures torrents of the Orinoco River and in the

region of the upper Negro River. The var. sorbilis, or true Guaran, seems to

have been domesticated in the southern strip of the Amazon River between

the gorges of the Purs and Madeira Rivers in the Amazon state of Brazil.

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The range of genus Paullinia is predominantly neotropical, extending from

Mexico and the southern United States to Argentina. A single species, P.

pinnata, is found in both America and Africa.

3.2.Geneticdiversity

Botanical name: Paullinia cupanaH.B.K.

Family:Sapindaceae

Genus:Paullinia

Species:cupana

Ethnic names:Guaran

Part Used:Fruit seed

There are two varieties of Paullinia cupana:

P. cupana var. cupana, which is little known and little studied,

therefore, there is no information on the genetic variability.

P. cupana var. sorbilis, shows a high degree of variability.

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3.3.Botanical description

Figures 1.1A) inflorescences on the raceme1B) fruit in the capsule

A3) trilocular ovary

Guaran is a scandent shrub or woody liana. Its leaves are alternate with five

folioles and, when tendrils exist, they are axillary.

The inflorescences are on axillar racemes or originate on the tendrils. The

flowers are male and female, zygomorphous and have five petals and sepals,

eight stamens and a trilocular ovary with a glandular semi-disc at the base.

The fruit of 2-2.5 mm in diameter occurs in a septicidal capsule, it is orangey-

red and partially open when ripe, revealing one to three black or greenish

seeds, which are covered at the base with a white aril (figure 2).

Figure 2. Structure of the fruit

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The var. cupana differs from the var. sorbilis in that it has no tendrils, its

folioles are more strongly lobed and its flowers and fruit are bigger.

Guaranis a monoecious, allogamous species. Bees of the genera Melipona

and Apis fertilize it. Its seeds are recalcitrant and lose their viability in 72 hours

under normal conditions. Germination can take more than 100 days.

According to technical recommendations by EMBRAPA, Guaran must be

grown in areas with a climate similar to its region of origin, with a mean annual

temperature between 28 and 29C. The minimum temperature tolerated is

12C. Annual precipitation must exceed 1 400 mm, with rain well distributed

during the year.

3.4.Soil requirements

Traditional cultivation of Guaran is carried out on soils with a low fertility

(exchange capacity of 20 to 40 ppm), a low acidity (pH between 3.5 and 4.5)

and with high concentrations of aluminium. Soils must be deep, medium or

heavy in texture, well drained and with high organic matter content.

3.5.Cultivation practices

a) Propagation

Seedlings of Guaran can be formed through the vegetative propagation from

cuttings induced to root by the application of hormones and by sexual

propagation (figure 3). The advantage over sexually (by seeds) propagation

resides in the more rapid growth and the reproduction of the best genetic traits

of the parents.

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Figure 3. Vegetative propagation

b) Nursery for young plants.

The nursery can be built as a wood structure and covered with a plastic net (or

leaves of palms) in order to supply 60% of shade. A nursery of 16 m2 allows a

production of 10.000 seedlings per year (figure 4).

Figure 4.Nursery

3.6.Planting and Fertilization

Traditional cultivation of Guaran is carried out with full exposure to sun. The

new technique of cultivating recommends shading at the begging (figure 5).

Spacing of the plants is approximately 4 x 5 m, which gives 500 plants per

hectare and traditional planting is by sowing: the oldest plantations are very

heterogeneous both from the genetic and the phenotypic points of view.

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Prominent among the more modern techniques is propagation from cuttings,

for which misting chambers, grafts and tissue culture propagation need to be

used. In a wild state, fertilizers are not used and as cultivated crop the use of

fertilizer is begging to use as a necessity of increase production.

Figure 5.During the first months of growth

in the field the Guaran tree needs around50% of shading. As soon as the be covered

with palm tree leaves or other available

materials.

3.7.Pruning

After the second year, pruning is carried out to remove old and diseased

branches and those which flowered the previous year. Since 1980, a new type

of management has been adopted, using the same layout but with fertilizers

and pruning to direct the branches along supports.

3.8.Harvest

The fruit must be harvested before complete maturity. Harvesting is done by

hand, after that the seeds should be stored in a heap in a shelter for two or

three days to allow a slight fermentation. Following this, the shells are

removed either by hand or machine and then left to dry in open air or dried

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artificially. Commercial guaran is produced only from the seeds: all other

parts of the fruit are discarded.

3.9.Status

The potential market for 1983 was estimated to be around 16 000 tonnes and

has increased since that year. The shortfall of Guaran is around 10 to 15

times the current production volume, which still allows a considerable

expansion of cultivation. Wild, cultivated in Brazil is estimated in more than

6000 ha, for the national market. Actually, there are in Brazil.

Brazil's production is increasing considerably. Outside Brazil, other countries

are producing Guaran. However, there is little information available.

3.10.Processing

When the fruit has been harvested, the seeds are separated and stored until

fermentation of the aril, which is then removed. They are then roasted and

their seed coat is removed (figure 6). The remaining seeds are immersed in

water to form a paste, from this are made sticks which, after being dried over a

slow fire and smoked for one month. Further processing consists of roasting,

after the seeds are sieved to be able to roast the seeds more uniformly.

Roasting is done preferably in clay ovens for about four to five hours, until the

seed reaches about 9% humidity. We have now roasted Guaran grain, also

known as Guaranem rama.

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Figure 6.Guaran seeds after the shells and thewhite aril are removed; they are left todry in open air or dried artificially untilabout 9% humidity is reached. From100 kg of washed seeds 60 kg of roastseedcan be obtained.

3.11.Available forms

Guaran is usually available in four forms:

Guaran em rama, roasted Guaran

Simply the roasted seed, as sold by the amazon farmers to cooperative

unions, middlemen and industry.

Guaran on a stick

After roasting, the seed is ground into a powder, mixed with water into

dough, which is subsequently moulded onto a stick. These sticks are

then dried over a moderate fire until they become hard.

Guaran powder

After grinding, the powder is sold. This is usually the form it is available

in retail outlets, like health shops.

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Syrup

Used for making soft drinks, is also gaining ground. This form is usually

limited to larger industries.

3.12.Chemical composition and uses of Guaran

Medicinal Properties

The first chemical examination on the Guaran seeds was performed

by the German botanist Theodore von Martius who isolated a bitter,

white crystalline substance with a remarkable physiological action in the

1700's. This substance was named Guaranine, and was later renamed

as Caffeine. Guaran seeds contain up to five percent caffeine (25,000

to 75,000 ppm), as well as trace amounts of Theophylline (500-750

ppm) and Theobromine (300-500 ppm). It also contains large quantities

of tannins, starch, a saponin and resinous substances.

3.13.Guaran use

Medicinal Use

For a long time, it was used empirically in medicine; it is attributed

antipyretic, antineuralgic and antidiarrhoeal properties and is reputed to

be a powerful stimulant, an analgesic comparable to aspirin and an

anti-influenza agent. Its very high caffeine content is the cause of its

well-known stimulant properties. Numerous pharmaceutical uses have

been reported: regulator of digestion, antiblennoragic, perspiration

stimulant, cardiovascular tonic, and aphrodisiac. Recent studies

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suggest potential for the treatment of oily skin and cellulitis and, thence,

for the cosmetic industry.

Drinking use

Actually, Guaran is used mainly in Brazil to produce a soft drink (figure

7). The traditional way of preparing the drink consists of grating part of

the stick in water to produce an infusion. The Guaran carbonated

drinks industry began in 1907 and the product became Brazil's national

drink during the 1940s. In 1973, the Law on Juices laid down

regulations for the use of Guaran, deeming the maximum and

minimum concentrations for carbonated drinks, syrups and other

products. In 1981, EMBRAPA's Agricultural Research Centre of the

Semi-Humid Tropics (CPATU) developed soluble Guaran. Nowadays,

Guaran is marketed as sticks and soluble or insoluble powder and is

used industrially for the production of carbonated drinks, syrups and

herbalists' products.

Figura 7. Different soft drink from Guaran

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3.14.Prospects for improvement

Undoubtedly the biggest limitation today is low productivity, since an average

yield per individual ranges between 250 g (traditional cultivation) and 520 g

(improved management) of dry kernel and therefore still leaves much to be

desired. In part, this problem is strictly agronomic and will be resolved once

plantings are carried out under more favourable conditions.

The selection of more productive early material that is resistant to disease and

stress - a process begun in Manaus as early as 1980 - will be bound to lead to

an increase in productivity, since individuals have been identified in

experimental and commercial plantings with yields of between 4 and 6 kg of

dry seed per hectare per year. The production of hybrids, either through

traditional methods or using genetic engineering techniques, will also be of

great importance, especially in conjunction with the production of clonal

material which allows more uniform treatment and management to be

achieved. The genetic basis for these improvement programmes already

exists, not only within the available genetic stock of guarana but also of

cupana, and possibly in other species of Paullinia such as P. yoco and P.

cuneata.

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4. Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq.,

by Alfonso Cabrera from Guatemala [email protected]

Plant: Tree

Mature Height: 40' to 60' / 12.20m to 18.20m

Environment: prefers full sun; soil should be moist to wet

Bloom Colors: White

4.1.Common names

Sp: mamoncillo, grocella de miel, macao (Colombia, Venezuela), maco

(Venezuela), mamn (Central America, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina),

mamn de Cartagena (Costa Rica), mauco (Venezuela), muco (Colombia),

quenepa (Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico, Colombia), kenepe, limoncillo;

Po: arvore de canopy; En: genip, ginep, ginepe, guenepa, guinep (Barbados,

Jamaica, Bahamas, Puerto Rico, Trinidad and Tobago) genip lime, geniptree,

honeyberry (Guyana), Jamaica bullace plum, kanappy (Puerto Rico),

knippelboom, Spanish lime (Florida), ackee (Barbados); Fr: quenette (FWI),

quenepe (Haiti); the tree is called kenpier, kenettier, knpier or quenettier;

Ge: dotterknippe. The Latin names comes from the Greek mel (honey) and

kokkos(seed); Others: knepa, knippa, (Surinam), sensiboom.

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4.2.Origin and geographical distribution

Origin: Central America, Nicaragua to Colombia, Caribbean

Status :Cultivated, sold locally in the street, on the beach, etc.

Description :Tree to 25 m, propagated by seeds or grafting. Fruits borne

in clusters, globose, 2-3.5 cm in diameter, green, with a thin, leathery,

brittle skin, a gelatinous layer of juicy and tart pulp, translucent, orange to

salmon pink, and a relatively large seed. The percentage of edible

matter by fruit weight can reach 56% in the best clones.

4.3.Uses

Aril eaten fresh as a snack, or the fruits remains fresh for a big time and

markets well made into jellies or beverages; seed with fruits that have non

adherent pulp, the latter may be scrapped from the seed to be used in jam,

marmalade or jellies. The peeled fruit are boiled to make a cold drink. The

seeds are roasted eaten. Indian of the Orinoco use the cooked seeds as a

substitute for cassava.During their season, which starts in July and runs

throughout the summer you will see them sold on every street corner. If you

live in Miami you have definitely seen them. Very similar in appearance to an

olive, they grow in clusters from a tree in the Evergreen family. Usually eaten

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raw or used in drinks, the Spanish Limes have a sweet taste when perfectly

ripe that is pleasantly mixed with acidic overtones. When they are a bit

under ripe - the acid flavor will be dominant. The brittle leathery skin is easily

peeled away or bitten off revealing a slightly pink to cream colored flesh.

Usually eaten as a snack, these make great additions to fruit displays, platters

and baskets. They are very refreshing on a hot day.

Recommended temperature zone:sunset: 10 USDA: 23-26

Frost Protection: Tender in Phoenix, foliage damaged at 32 F (0 C),

serious damage at 25 F (-6 C)

Sun Exposure:Full sun

Growth Habits:Medium sized to large tree, up to 100 feet tall (30 m)

Watering Needs:Occasional deep watering in summer for established

plants

Propagation:Seeds, approach grafting

This tropical American tree is widely cultivated in the West Indies for its fruit. It

is a medium-sized to large tree and is often planted along roadsides.

4.4.Blooming habits

The small, greenish-white, fragrant flowers are borne in panicles from the

branch tips at the beginning of the rainy season. The tree generally is

polygamous, that is, they produce both bisexual flowers and those of one sex

only. The anthers of many bisexual flowers are non-functional so that fruits do

not develop unless cross-pollination occurs. Care should be taken, therefore,

to set out plants with flowers of each sex.

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4.5.Fruiting Habits

In Puerto Rico, the fruit ripens from July to September, appearing like bunches

of large, green grapes. These are cut and peddled widely along roadsides and

streets. The ovoid fruit measures a little over 1 inch in length, but an

occasional tree bears fruit twice this size. Inside the tight, thin skin, which is

easily cracked by the teeth, lies.a thin layer of sweet-tart yellow pulp

surrounding a large ovoid seed. This pulp is a good source of iron. The seeds

are said to be edible after roasting.

4.6.Propagation:

Propagation is by seeds, but selected varieties can be propagated by

approach grafting.

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5. Litchi chinensis(Litchi,Leechee, Lichee, Lichi)

by Keshav Prasad Dahal from Nepal [email protected]

5.1.Origin e distribution

The lychee is native to low elevations of the provinces of kwangtung & Fukien

in Southern China. Litchi cultivation has been reported since 1500 BC by the

people of Malayan descent & has been growing for thousands of year in

southern Guangdong. Cultivation spread over the years through neighbouring

areas of south- eastern Asia & offshore islands. It reached Hawaii in 1873, and

Florida in 1883, and was conveyed from Florida to California in 1897.

Presently, litchi is grown in Central and South America, parts of Africa,

throughout Asia. China, India, South Africa, Australia, Mauritius, Madagascar,

Thailand are now the major litchi producing countries in the world.

5.2.Adaptation:

Lychees require seasonal temperature variations for best flowering and

fruiting, Warm, humid summers are best for flowering and fruit development,

and a certain amount of winter chilling is necessary for flower bud

development. Most varieties need between 100 and 200 hours of standard

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chilling (32 - 45 F). Cool winters with low rainfall are ideal for lychees. The

trees become hardier as they age. Mature trees have survived temperatures

as low as 25 F when fully hardened off. Young trees may be killed by a light

frost. Lychees can be successfully grown in frost-free coastal areas of

California. There are trees in San Diego, California that are over 90 years old

with no sign of decline in sight. It first fruited in Santa Barbara in 1914. They

can be grown for a short period in a large container.

5.3.Morphological description

a) Growth habit

The lychee tree is handsome, dense, round-topped and slow growing with

smooth, grey, brittle trunk and limbs. Under ideal conditions they may

reach 40 feet high, but they are usually much smaller The tree in full fruit is

a stunning sight.

b) Foliage

The leathery, pinnate leaves are divided into four to eight leaflets. They are

reddish when young, becoming shiny and bright green. Lychee trees have

full foliage and branch to the ground.

c) Flowers

The tiny petal less, yellowish-green flowers are borne in terminal clusters

to 30 inches. Lychees are eye-catching in spring when the huge sprays of

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flowers adorn the tree. Flowering precedes fruit maturity by approximately

140 days.

d) Fruits

The fruit is covered by a leathery rind or pedicarp, which is pink to

strawberry-red in colour and rough in texture. A greenish-yellow variety is

not grown in California at present. Fruit shape is oval, heart-shaped or

nearly round, 1 to 1-1/2 inches in

e) Length

The edible portion or aril is white, translucent, firm and juicy. The flavour is

sweet, fragrant and delicious. Inside the aril is a seed that varies

considerably in size. The most desirable varieties contain atrophied seeds,

which are called "chicken tongue". Larger seeds vary between 1/2 to 1

inches in length and are plumper than the chicken tongues. There is also a

distinction between the lychee that leaks juice when the skin is broken and

the "dry and clean" varieties, which are more desirable. In some areas

lychees tend to be alternate bearers. Fluctuating soil moisture levels

usually causes fruit splitting.

5.4.Culture

a) Location

Lychees need full sun, but young trees must be protected from heat, frost

and high winds.

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b) Soil

The tree needs a well-drained soil that is rich in organic matter. A soil pH

between 5.5 and 7.5 is acceptable, but plants grow much better in soils

with a pH at the low end of this range. Apply a thick layer of organic mulch

to the soil after planting.

5.5.Irrigation

The lychee will not tolerate standing water, but requires very moist soil, so

water the tree regularly when it is growing actively. The trees are very

sensitive to damage from salts in the soil or in water. Leach the soil regularly

in the Southwest.Litchi trees need regular watering and therefore it is essential

that enough water must be available from the flowering stage until after the

February/March flush following the harvest. Because the edible portion of the

litchi fruit has a water content of 86 %, the availability of water remains

important during the development period. A water shortage will delay

development of the fruit and adversely affect the size, mass and quality of the

litchis. Irrigation must continue after harvesting to ensure that a normal growth

flush occurs during February/March, just before the beginning of the dormant

period. During dormancy (April to July) irrigation should be reduced, but thetree should not suffer drought. Young trees that are not producing yet are

irrigated throughout the year. Producers normally stop irrigating the trees

during the coldest months of the year (June and July) so that they can have a

proper dormant period. In areas where it is never very cold, irrigation should

stop to force the trees into dormancy.

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5.6.Fertilization

Young trees tend to grow slowly, and many gardeners tend to give them too

much fertilizer in an attempt to push them along. Young trees should receive

only light applications of a complete fertilizer. Mature trees are heavier feeders

and should be fertilized regularly from spring to late summer. Use fertilizers

formulated for acid-loving plants. Chelated iron and soil sulphur may be

necessary in areas with alkaline soils.

Table - Quantity of fertiliser per tree per year according to age (g)

Age years LAN 28 % N Superphosphate Potassiumchloride

1

2 - 3

4 - 5

6 - 7

8 - 9

10 - 11

12 - 13

14 - 15

15 and older

200

500

1 000

1 500

2 000

2 500

3 000

3 500

4 000

250

250

250

500

500

750

750

1 000

1 000

50

100

200

300

400

500

750

1 000

1 000

Remember: This is only a guideline; correct fertilisation can only be appliedaccording to the soil analysis for young trees and soil and leaf analyses for fruit-bearing trees.

5.7.Pruning

Prune young trees to establish a strong, permanent structure for easy harvest.

After that, removing crossing or damaged branches is all this is necessary,

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although he trees can be pruned more heavily to control size. V-shaped

crotches should be avoided because of the wood's brittle nature.

5.8.Frost protection

Lychees need warmth and a frost-free environment, but can often withstand

light freezes with some kind of overhead protection. When they are young, this

can be provided by building a frame around the plants and covering it with

bedding, plastic sheeting, etc. when frost threatens. Electric light bulbs can

also be used for added warmth.

5.9.Propagation

Air layering is the most common method of propagating lychees because

grafting is difficult and seedlings are not reliable producers of quality fruit. To

grow a plant from seed it is important to remember that seeds remain viable

for no more than a day or two under dry conditions. Young seedlings grow

vigorously until they reach 7 or 8 inches in height. They will stay at this height

for up to two years without further noticeable growth. Wedge and bud grafts

are possible, but seldom used. When planting a Lychee, hole preparation is

carried out in 9m apart. Planting is done in rainy season. If planting marcots

directly, most leaves should be removed. A round of hog wire covered with

plastic gives excellent wind protection and also holds moisture in. In case of a

freeze, one has only to throw a blanket over the top. The plastic should not

touch the plant. This protection should be planned on and taken care of the

day the plant goes into the ground.

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5.10.Physical disorders

a) Pericarp browning

Water loss (desiccation) of lychees results in brown spots on the bright-red

shell (pericarp). Under severe conditions or prolonged exposure, the spots

enlarge and coalesce until the surface is completely brown the flavour of

the arils within browned fruit may or may not be adversely affected.

Packaging in polymeric films reduces water loss and browning severity.

b) Chilling injury

Symptoms include pericarp browning (similar to that caused by water loss)

and increased susceptibility to decay. Storage at 1C for 12 days before

transfer to 20C for one day resulted in pericarp browning.

c) Pericarp split (cracking)

Incidence and severity of cracking depend on cultivars and desiccation

during storage. Cracks provide an entry way for decay-causing pathogens.

d) Aril breakdown

Prolonged storage and over maturity may cause aril breakdown (softening,

loss of turgidity, translucency) and loss of flavour beginning at the blossom

end and spreading to the stem end.

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5.11.Pathological disorders

Decay-inducing pathogens include Alternaria sp., Aspergillus sp.,

Botryodiplodia sp., Colletotrichum sp. and various yeasts. Decay control can

be achieved by reducing physical injuries to fruits and by prompt cooling and

maintenance of the optimum temperature and relative humidity during lychee

marketing. Other decay control treatments under consideration include use of

a 10-15% CO2-enriched atmosphere and biological control.

5.12.Disinfestations treatments

Mites, scale and aphids occasionally infest lychees.Birds are often attracted

to lychees, eating both the immature and the ripe fruit. It may be necessary to

cover the plants with protective netting. Irradiation at 0.3 kgy can be used for

insect disinfestations purpose with no adverse effects on lychee quality.

Exposure to heat at 45C for 30 minutes can be used to control some insects

on lychee fruits. Higher temperatures and/or longer exposures to heat

damage the fruit. Cold treatment (14 days at 1C) may induce chilling injury

(pericarp browning) in some cultivars. Various cultural or sanitary practices,

such as encasing fruits with paper bags, pruning and burning of serious

infected branches and leaves, and removing the dropped-fruits areoccasionally utilized as minor control efforts and offer possibilities for reducing

population of certain pests. Biological control and pheromone utilizations are

also worthy of developing for managing the fruit tree pests.

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5.13.Postharvest technology

Maturity indices

Red Colour of the fruit (due to anthocyanins in the skin) is a good indicator of

maturity along with fruit size (minimum of 25 mm in diameter). Similarly the

maturity of the fruit for harvesting is judged from the tubercles on it. When the

fruit is mature, the tubercles become somewhat flattened and the epicarp

become smooth.

5.14.Harvesting methods

Litchi fruits should be harvested fully ripe because they do not continue to

ripen after harvest. The fruits for local market should be harvested at the full

ripe stage as indicated by the attractive skin colour while for distant market the

fruit is harvested slightly early, when they have just started turning reddish or

pinkish. Litchi fruits, like other fruits, are not harvested individually, but they

are harvested in bunches along with a portion of the branch and a few leaves

as it prolongs the storage life of fruits. If the individual fruit is harvested, the

skin at the stem end is ruptured and the fruit rots quickly. Dipping of fruits in

Etherel at 250 ppm markedly improves the fruit colour and fruit ripening is

accelerated by 24 to 36 hours.

a) Grading

Before packing, the damaged, sunburnt and cracked fruits should be

sorted out and graded properly according to their size. There should be

only fruits of one grade in a box. Fruits of one variety should be packed in

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separate boxes and it is better if the box or container is tagged for variety

name and grade.

b) Packaging

After harvesting, fruit should be packed as quickly as possible, as their

quality deteriorates markedly, if they are exposed to sun even for a few

hours. For domestic markets litchi is usually packed in small bamboo

baskets or wooden crates. These are lined with litchi leaves or other soft

packing material as paper shavings, wood-wool, etc. Proper packing of

fruits is important in maintaining freshness and quality and preventing fruit

decay during transit for marketing to distant places. A good box for packing

fruits should be light in weight, shallow and rigid enough to protect the

fruits. It should have few holes for ventilation and rope handles on either

side for lifting the box. Fruits are packed in clusters along with few leaves.

5.15.Storage

Litchi fruit cannot be kept for more than a few days after harvest, at room

temperature. If marketing is delayed fruits should be kept in cold storage

where they can be stored in good condition for 3-4 weeks. Fruits could be

stored at 2C in perforated polythene bags for 5 weeks without much spoilage.

For short-term storage less than two weeks, a temperature of 7C is

satisfactory. A relative humidity should be kept at 90-95% throughout storage

and transport.

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Controlled atmosphere storage (3-5% O2 and 3-5% CO2) reduces skin

browning and slows down the losses of ascorbic acid, acidity, and soluble

solids. Exposure to oxygen levels below 1% and/or carbon dioxide levels

above 15% may induce off-flavours and dull grey appearance of the pulp.

5.16.Cultivars

a) Amboina

Medium, bright red, borne in clusters of 6 to 20. Ripens April to May. Slow-

growing tree. Bears regularly in warm climates.

b) Bengal

Introduced by USDA in 1929 from Calcutta. Fruits are similar to Brewster

but more elongated with smaller seeds. Firm flesh. Dry and clean type.

Large, very vigorous tree. Easy to grow.

c) Brewster

Large, conical or wedge-shaped red fruit with soft flesh. Slightly acid with

fully formed large seeds. Commercial crop in Florida. Mid-season fruiting.

Large, vigorous, upright tree.

d) Groff

Small, dull red, spiny, borne in clusters of 20 to 40. Small seed. Ripens

August to September. Latest ripening variety. Upright tree.

e) Hak ip

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Medium-red fruit sometimes with green tinges with soft skin. Flesh is crisp

sweet and occasionally pinkish.

f) Kwa luk

Large, red fruit with green tip and typical green line. Exceptional flavour

and fragrance. In the past was a fruit given to person of honour. Dry and

clean type.

g) Mauritius (Kwai Mi)

Ripens early. Medium size, slightly oval, reddish-brown fruit. Firm, good-

quality fruit. Tends to have chicken-tongue seeds.

h) No Mai Tsze

Large, red, dry and clean type. Leading variety in China. Small seeds. One

of the best for drying.

i) Tai tsao

Fruit ripens early. Somewhat egg-shaped, bright red, rough skin. Crisp,

sweet, firm flesh. Leaks juice when skin is broken.

5.17.Nutritional value

The litchi is grown for its agreeable sweet-acid tasting, white fleshy, juicy,

translucent aril, or pulpy covering of its seed, which may be eaten fresh,

canned in syrup, or dried to produce "litchi nuts. Nutritional values per 100 g:

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Calories: 66; Carbohydrates: 16.5 g; Fat: 0.4 g; Protein: 0.1 g; Rich in vitamin

C and potassium

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6. Blighia sapida K. Konig(Akee, Ackee)

by Marina Piatto from Brazil [email protected]

6.1.Introduction

A member of he Sapindaceae (soapberry family) Akee is a tropical evergreen

tree that growns about 30 feet tall, with leathery leaves and fragrant white

flowers. Its fruit is pear shaped, bright red to yellow-orange, and when ripe

splits opens to reveal three large, shiny black seeds, surrounded by soft,

creamy or spongy, white to yellow flesh.

Reportedly, when the fruit is ripe (just after opening) the fleshy aril at the base

of the seed is wholesome food when eaten raw, fried, or boiled. However,

when green or overripe, the aril is said to be poisonous. According to Neal, the

seed coat is poisonous.

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6.2.Common names

The common names are Ackee, akee apple, or vegetable brain (seso vegetal

in Spanish). Other Spanish names are arbol de seso, palo de seso (Cuba);

huevo vegetal and fruto de huevo (Guatemala and Panama); arbor del huevo

and pera roja (Mexico); merey del Diablo (Venezuela); bien me sabe or pan y

quesito (Colombia); ak (Costa Rica). In Portuguese, it is castanha or

castanheiro de Africa. In French, it is arbre fricassor arbrea fricasser(Haiti);

yeux de crabeor ris de veau(Martinique). In Surinam it is known as akie. On

the Ivory Coast of West Africa, it is called kakaor finzan; in the Sudan, finza.

Elsewhere in Africa it is generally known as akye, akyen or ishin.

6.3.Origin and distribution

The akee is indigenous to the forests of the Ivory Coast and Gold Coast of

West tropical Africa where it is little eaten but various parts have domestic

uses. In Ghana, the fruiting tree is admired as an ornamental and is planted in

villages and along streets for shade. The akee was brought to Jamaica in

1793 by the renowned Captain Bligh to furnish food for the slaves. It was

readily adopted and became commonly grown in dooryards and alongroadsides and, to some extent, naturalized. The arils still constitute a favourite

food of the island and the fruit is featured in a calypso despite the health

hazards associated with it. Canned arils are exported to the United Kingdom

where they are welcomed by Jamaican immigrants. Importation has been

banned by the United States Food and Drug Administration.

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The akee was planted also in Trinidad and Haiti and some other islands of the

West Indies and the Bahamas and apparently was carried by Jamaican slaves

to Panama and the Atlantic Coast of Guatemala and Costa Rica. In 1900 it

was outlawed in Trinidad after it had caused some fatalities. There are

scattered trees in Surinam, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Brazil, quite a

number maintained as curiosities in southern Florida; and some planted

around Calcutta, India. The tree has been tried in the warm, moist climate of

Guyana and Malaya but has never survived. At Lamao in the Philippines it first

bore fruit in 1919.

6.4.Botany

The soapberry family has over 150 genera and 2200 species in worldwide,many of which are toxic. The only edible product that is likely to be familiar is

lychee; other species are lumber trees or oilseed crops. Representatives:Acer

(maples, 110 spp.), Dipteronia (2 spp. In China), Sapindus (13 spp.), Serjania

(215 spp.).

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6.5.Description

a)Tree

A medium to large sized tree, up to 40+ feet (10-12 m) in height, usually

with a short trunk to 6 ft (1.8 m) in circumference, and a dense crown of

spreading branches. It is evergreen, rarely deciduous.

b)LeavesThe leaves are alternate and compound with 3 to 5 pairs of oblong,

obovate-oblong, or elliptic leaflets, 6 to 12 in (1530 cm) long, rounded at

the base, short-pointed at the apex; bright-green and glossy on the upper

surface, dull and paler and finely hairy on the veins on the under side.

c)Flower

Flowers usually are small, wind-pollinated, greenish-white and fragrant.

They are produced laterally in racemes or panicles whose attract

honeybees. Sexually very interesting; flowers can be bisexual and male

flowers, borne together in simple racemes 3 to 7 in long, 5 petalled, white

and hairy.

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d)Fruit

The trivalved fruits turn yellow and red as they ripen. The mature fruit splits

open along 3 sutures exposing the 3 large, shiny, black seeds attached to

a white aril. The oily aril is the edible portion and is consumed fresh or is

cooked and used as a vegetable. Great care must be exercised in using

this fruit, since both immature and overmature fruits may be toxic. The

skin, unripe fruit, and seeds are poisonous.

Two peptides that proved to be toxic to animals have been isolated from

unripe seeds of the akee. One of these, hypoglycin A, also occurs in the

edible portion, the concentration being particularly high when the aril is not

fully ripe. Only naturally opened fruits should be eaten, and care should be

taken to remove the pink or purplish membrane near the seed.

When it is fully mature, it splits open revealing 3 cream-colored, fleshy,

glossy arils, crisp, somewhat nutty-flavoured, attached to the large, black,

nearly round, smooth, hard, shining somewhat nutty-flavoured, attached to

the large, black, nearly round, smooth, hard, shining, seeds.

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6.6.Climate and season

The akee tree is tropical to subtropical and able to survive temperatures to the

upper 20s. It seems to grow a bit better in areas that cool during the winter,

rather than intense humid, tropical climates. It flourishes from sea level to an

elevation of 900 m in Jamaica. It does not bear fruit in Guatemala City; fruits

heavily in southern Florida where young trees have been killed by winter cold

but mature trees have escaped serious injury during brief periods of 26F

(-3.33C).

There is some flowering and fruiting all year in Jamaica. In Florida, flowers

appear in spring and the fruits in mid summer and there may be a light

blooming period in the fall. In the Bahamas, there are 2 distinct crops a year,

one from February through April and the second from July to October.

6.7.Soil

The akee grows satisfactorily on a wide range of soil types but makes best

growth on loams, well supplied with moisture. On sad soils in southern Florida

and Bahamas, akee grows faster with fertilization.

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6.8.Propagation and culture

Akee trees are grow from seeds or by shiel-budding, the seedlings begin to

bear in about 5 years and show very little variation. In European greenhouses,

cuttings of ripe shoots are rooted in sand and raised in a mixture of peat and

loam. In warm climates, the tree grows fast and requires little cultural

attention.

6.9.Harvest

On reaching maturity the fruit turns bright red and splits open along the seams

with continued exposure to the sun. When open it reveals three large black

shiny seeds and bright yellow flesh. Traditionally it is at this time that the

ackees are harvested.

The Akee fruit is not edible. It is only the fleshy arils around the seeds that are

edible. The fruit must only be picked after the fruit has opened naturally, and

must be fresh and not overripe.

6.10.Market

Canned ackees are exported worldwide and are available in West Indian

markets.

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6.11.Uses

a)Food Uses

The akee must be allowed to open fully or at least partly before it is

detached from the tree. When the seeds are discarded and the arils, while

still fresh and firm are best parboiled in salted water or milk and then

lightly fried in butter. Then they are really delicious. In Jamaica, they are

often cooked with codfish, onions and tomates. Cooked ackee has the

consistency and look of scrambled eggs. After parboiling, they are curried

and eaten with rice. They are served, not only in the home, but also in

hotel dining rooms and other restaurants. In Africa, they may be eaten raw

or in soup, or after frying in oil.

Food Value Per 100 g ofRaw Arils*

Moisture 57.60 gProtein 8.75 g

Fat 18.78 gFiber 3.45 gCarbohydrates 9.55 g

Ash 1.87 gCalcium 83 mg

Phosphorus 98 mgIron 5.52 mg

Carotene -Thiamine 0.10 mg

Riboflavin 0.18 mgNiacin 3.74 mgAscorbic Acid 65 mg

* Analyses made in Mexico

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6.12.Fruit

In West Africa, the green fruits, which produce lather in water, are used for

laundering. Crushed fruits are employed as fish poison. The seeds, because

of their oil content, and the jacket because of its potash content, are burned

and the ashes used in making soap. The purified oil from ackee has high

nutritive value.

6.13.Flowers

In Cuba an extract of the flowers is appreciated as cologne.

6.14.Bark

On the Gold Coast, a mixture of the pulverized bark and ground hot peppers

is rubbed on the body as a stimulant.

6.15.Wood

The sapwood is while or light greenish-brown. The heartwood is reddish-

brown, hard, coarse-grained, durable and immune to termites. It is used

locally for construction and pilings and has been recommended for railway

sleepers. It is also fashioned into oars, paddles and casks.

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6.16.Medicinal Uses

In Brazil, repeated small does of an aqueous extract of the seed have been

administered to expel parasites. The treatment is followed by a saline or oily

purgative. Cubans blend the ripe arils with sugar and cinnamon and give the

mixture as a febrifuge and as a treatment for dysentery. On the Ivory Coast,

the bark is mixed with pungent spices in an ointment applied to relieve pain.

The crushed new foliage is applied on the forehead to relieve severe

headache. The leaves, crushed with salt, are poultice on ulcers. The leaf juice

is employed as eye drops in ophthalmia and conjunctivitis. In Colombia, the

leaves and bark are considered stomachic. Various preparations are made for

treatment of epilepsy and yellow fever.

6.17.Toxicity

Never open an ackee pod, because it is poisonous if eaten before it is fully

mature. Consumers of the unripe fruit sometimes suffer from 'Jamaican

Vomiting Sickness Syndrome' (JVS) allegedly caused by the unusual amino

acid components, hypoglycin A and B. Nowadays, there is increased

awareness of the necessity for consuming only ripe, opened ackees. This

toxic property is largely dispelled by light as the jacket opens. When fully ripe,

the arils still possess 1/12 of the amount in the unripe. The seeds are always

poisonous. They contain hypoglycin and its y-glutamyl derivative, y-L-glutamyl

a-amino-B-(2-methylene cyclopropyl) propionic acid, formerly called

hypoglycin B. The latter is as toxic as the former.

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Akee poisoning in humans is evidenced by acute vomiting, sometimes

repeated, without diarrhoea (vomiting sickness), followed by drowsiness,

convulsions, coma and, too often, death. Because of hypoglycaemic effects,

administration of sugar solutions has been found helpful. Most cases occur in

winter in Jamaica when 30% to 50% of the arils have small, underdeveloped

seeds, often not apparent externally. Ingestion of such arils, raw or cooked, is

hazardous. The akee (Blighia sapida) from Africa is a favourite in Jamaica but

the fleshy arils are poisonous until fully exposed to light. The seeds are always

poisonous. Ackee (Blighia sapida)poisoning in the Northern Province, Haiti,

2001. Between November 2000 and March 2001, 80 cases of an acute

phenomenon were registered in two communes (districts) of Haitis Northern

provnce. The illness was characterized by continuous vomiting, abdominal

pains, loss of consciousness, convulsions and death in the most serious

cases. The nature of the symptoms and past history of similar conditions in

the same region in 1988 and 1991 suggest that this phenomenon was caused

by consumption of ackee (Blighia sapida), a common fruit in the region that

produces serious health effects when consumed unripe. Recommendations

included strengthening the epidemiological surveillance system, with

community participation, as well as education, communication, and

information activities for the population in order to avoid furth.

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7. Nephelium mutabile (Pulasan)

by Martina Arenz

English: pulasanIndonesia: rambutan-kafriMalaya: rambutan parohMalacca: pening-pening-ramboetanJava: kapoelasanPhilippines: bulala

7.1.Introduction to Family Sapindaceae

The common family name soapberry refers to the tree (Sapindus saponaria

L.), a native of tropical America, which produces a fruit containing a soap-like

substance (37% Saponin). This dicotyledonous family is composed of around

150 genera and 2000 species of trees, shrubs and a few herbs and vines,

usually monoecious, distributed widely in the warm tropics. Among the

numerous genera, four related genera and five species are of interest to the

fruit horticulturist.

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7.2. Origin and Distribution

With its origins in West Malaya, Borneo and Sumatra, the Pulasan tree has

been widely cultivated throughout the region in Malaya, Thailand, South

Vietnam, Indonesia, the Philippines, India and Sri Lanka, it is rarely

domesticated in the Philippines. In Malaysia is Pulasan cultivated in almost all

part of the country but is concentrated mainly the states of Perak, Pahang,

Kedah, Kelantan, Johor dan Terengganu. Wild trees are infrequent in lowland

forests around Perak, Malaya but abundant in the Philippines at low

elevations from Luzon to Mindanao.

In 1926 the tree was planted at the Trujillo Plant Propagation Station in Puerto

Rico, in 1927 young trees from Java were sent to the Lancetilla Experimental

Garden, Tela, Honduras. The latter were said in 1945 to be doing well at Tela

and fruiting moderately.

The pulasan is little known elsewhere in the New World except in Costa Rica

where it is occasionally grown and the fruits sometimes appear on the market.

The pulasan is a rare specimen that is found growing naturally in the Mixed

Dipterocarp Forest to an altitude of about 1100 metre, mainly on alluvial soils.

The tree is very similar in appearance to the rambutan and usually grows to a

maximum height of 12 metres under orchard conditions. Given favourable

growing conditions it fruits in about five years on a 5 to 6 metre high tree.

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7.3. Description

The Pulasan tree is a medium size tree, 10-15 metres in height (32-50 feet),

with a canopy width approximately two-thirds the height. It has a short trunk to

3040 centimetres thick (12-16 inches). The branchlets are brown-hairy when

young.

The alternate, petiolated leaves, pinnate or odd-pinnate, have two to five pairs

of leaflets arranged alternately or sub-opposite on the rachis. The leaves are

formed oblong or elliptic lanceolate, and are 6.25-17.5 cm long (2 -7

inches), and up to 5 cm (2 inches) wide. On the upper side the leaves are

slightly wavy, dark-green and barely glossy, and pale, on the underside

somewhat bluish, with a few short, silky hairs. The inflorescences are axillary

and terminal, erect and widely branched, rusty pubescent and bear numerous

very small, greenish white flowers. The flowers are petalless with 4 to 5 hairy

sepals, they are borne singly or in clusters on the branches of the erect,

axillary or terminal, panicels clothed with fine yellowish or brownish hairs.The

fruit colour varies from green to yellow to pink to dark red purple according to

cultivar. Fruit shape is globose to ovoid, 57.5 cm in length (2-3 inches).

Edible flesh varies from 30 to 60 % of total fruit weight. The skin is about 0.3

cm (1/8 inch) thick and is covered with soft spines. The thick, leathery rind is

closely set with conical, blunt-tipped tubercles or thick, fleshy, straight spines,

to 1 cm (3/8 inch long). There may be 1 or 2 small, undeveloped fruits nestled

close to the stem. Within is the glistening, white or yellowish-white flesh, the

aril, to 1cm (3/8 inch) thick, more or less clinging to the thin, grayish-brown

seedcoat (testa) with seperates from the seed. The aril is translucent cream

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white, sweet and juicy with a slight sub-acid tang and it seperates better from

the seed than that of the rambutan. The seed of pulasan is ovoid , oblong or

ellipsoid, light-brown, somewhat flattened on one side, 2 3.5 cm ( to 1 1/3

inches long).Compared with the rambutan, the fruit of the pulasan is little

larger and softer, with fewer fruit per panicle, but appearance and eating

qualitiy is very similar to rambutan. The flavor is generally much jucier and

more acidic than that of the rambutan, but at the same time the pulasan

remains quite sweet and refreshing. They are also more flavoursome than

lychees and somewhat reminiscent of sweet purple grapes.

7.4. Varieties

There are several varieties of pulasan with at least four found in Borneo.

These include green, yellow, dark red and purple types. There is also a variety

from West Malaysia that bears large sized fruit.

Two forms of Pulasan in Java, in one group, distinguished as Seebabat or

Kapoolasan seebabat. The fruit is mostly dark-red, the tubercles are

crowded together, the flesh is very sweet and juicy and seperates easily from

the seed. In other group, the fruit is light red and smaller, the tubercles are not

so closely set, and the flesh adheres firmly to the seed. Also a find variety is

growing in Jolo. The plants introduced into Honduras were 2 superior varieties

called Asmerah Tjoplok and Kapoelasan mera tjoplok. There are some

other trees in Malaya and in Thailand thatbear seedless fruits and these are

being vegetatively propagated.

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7.5. Weather requirements

Pulasan prefers a high humidity and rainfall, they are best suited to a tropical

climate where winter temperatures rarely fall below 10C (50F) or peak above

40C (104F). This warm climate is ideal for ist growth and high yield. Rainfall

parameters should be between 150-300 mm (60-120 inches) of rain annually.

This plant is ultra-tropic and thrives only in very humid regions between 110

350 m (360-1,150 feet) of altitude.In Malaya it is said that the trees bear best

after a long, dry season.

The culture and microclimate are similar to that required for rambutan.

Establishment of plants under Gliricidia trees, or other suitable shelter is

recommended.

7.6. Soil

The pulasan tree is suitable for most types of soils, except the waterlogged

and peat areas and it is not suitable in the hilly terrain. Though the pulasan

requires a lot of moisture, the soils should be well drained, because soils,

which have a high water table, are not favourable. It does not perform well on

sandy soils. Deep alluvial soils and rich soils containing high organic matter

are ideal for growth and development.

In general the pulasan is tolerant of a wide range of soil types.

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7.7. Propagation

Planting of seeds is not favoured because the seedlings may be male or

female, so vegetative propagation is preferred as budding, grafting, and air-

layering. Grafting and budding are the preferred and common methods of

propagation. Grafted trees will begin to fruit in 3 to 5 years. Budding is

succesful if it is done in the rainy season on rootstocks already set out in the

field so that they will not be subjected to transplanting which causes many

fatalities, particularly during dry weather.

Recommended spacing for planting is 10 m x 10 m and ideal planting holes

are 0.6 m x 0.6 m x 0.6 m. After dugging the hole and before introducing the

seedlings some organic matter with phosphate fertilizer and limestone are

incorporated to mix into the planting holes.

7.8. Culture

The tree requires less space than rambutan trees and can be 26 to 33 feet (8

10 m) apart each way.

7.9. Fertilizer

For the first 1 to 3 years a compound fertilizer consisting of nitrogen,

phosphate, potash and magnesium is given in the proportion of 15:15:6:4.

From the 4thyear onwards the proportion is 12:12:17:2+TE.

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7.10. Weeding

The weeds competing for sunlight, water and nutrients with the seedling must

be removed early. Circle weeding is done manually and chemically to prevent

overgrowth of cover crops. (Parquat, dalapan and glyphosphate are common

herbicedes used against weeds.)

7.11. Pruning

An open centre pruning system is recommended. Pruning is also done during

harvest to encourage the growth of fruiting branches for the next crop.

Removal of dead, broken or diseased branches and water shoots is done

regularly.

7.12. Harvesting

Pulasan fruits twice a year. Trees flower from March to May and August to

October. Fruits mature from 15-18 weeks after flowering, fruit maturity takes

from 100 to 130 days in warm tropical areas. The main fruiting season is from

July to November and secondary fruiting season is from March to July. A

variation from 4 to 6 weeks may occur in the periods for fruiting depending on

locality and climatic conditions. The fruit bunch is harvested when a majority of

the fruits has turned red or yellow.

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7.13. Yield

Yield may begin at 1.2 tonnes per hectare for the first year of fruiting reaching

as high as 20 tonnes per hectare for trees over ten years old.

Yield normally varies from 12- 16 tonnes per ha. An average tree may produce

between 5000 6000 fruits although trees producing 10 000 fruits have been

observed.

Records show an average of 44 pounds of fruit may be harvested in year 5

and 440 pounds in 15 years.

7.14. Pests and Diseases

Larvae of the leaf roller, Adoxophytes privanta walk, roll and feed young

leaves, it can be controlled chemically. Larvae of the fruit borer bore into the

fruit, all fallen and infected fruits should be destroyed. There are three weevil

pests (beetles which spoil grain, seeds, etc.): Apogonia spp., Adoretus spp.

and Hypomeces squamosuswhich feed on and cut leaves. Being only active

at night they can be controlled by spraying withTrichlorphon or BHC. Powdery

mildew (Oidium nephelli) infect fruits causing them to split and drop. Spray

sulphur on immature fruits when symptoms appear. Corky stem cancer

(Dolobra nepheliea) is common in Pulasan. It attacks branches and twigs

causing the formation of corky tissue. There is no effective control but

improving air circulation helps reduce its incidence. Sooty mould (Meliola

nephelii) is normally a secondary infection, after insect damage, often

transmitted by wind. Both leaves and fruit develop a black sooty mould on the

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surface. The aril is normally not affected but the fruit rendered unsightly. This

can be controlled by spraying with copper oxychloride, benomyle or other

fungicide.

7.15. Food uses

Pulasan are usually eaten as a fresh fruit. However, pulasan can be frozen or

dried, used for flavouring in ice cream, puddings, can be made into preserves,

jam jellies and sauces. The chefs in the gourmet restaurants use Pulasan in

their enre dishes and in sauces. Pulasan is more recently used in tropical

juice blends. The flesh of ripe fruits is eaten raw or made into jam. Boiled or

roasted seeds are used to prepare a cocoa-like beverage.

7.16. Other uses

a) Oil

The dried seed kernels yield 74.9% of a solid, white fat, melting at 104 to

107.6F (40 42C), to a faintfully perfumed oil. This could be used in

soap-making.

b) Wood

The light-red wood is harder and heavier than that of Rambutan and of

excellent quality but rarely available.

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c) Medicinal uses

The leaves and roots are employed in poultices. The root decoction is

administered as a febrifuge and vermifuge. The roots are boiled with

Gleichenia linearis, and the decoction is used for bathing fever patiens.

7.17.Food values per 100 g of edible portion (analysis made in the

Philippines)

Moisture: 84.54 90.87 %

Protein: 0.82 g

Carbohydrates: 12.86 g

Fiber: 0.14 g

Fat: 0.55 g

Ash: 0.43 0.45 g

Calcuim: 0.01 0.05 mg

Iron: 0.002mg

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8.Nephelium lappaceum L. (Rambutan)

by Said Wali Dadshani from Afghanistan [email protected]

8.1.Common names

Rambutan in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines

Litchi chevelu (French)

Ngoh, Phruan (Thailand)

Rambutan tree

8.2.Origin

Rambutan is a member Soapberry family (Sapindaceae) like Litchi and

Longan.

It is one of the best known fruits of Southeast Asia, is widely cultivated

throughout the tropics including Africa, the Caribbean islands, Central

America, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, The Philippines, and Sri Lanka. Thailand

is the largest producer. But still this fruit is not very well known comparing to

Litchi.

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Rambutan fruits

8.3.Climate and soils

For a good development and harvest a temperature of minimum 19-22C is

required. Lower temperatures affect flowering. It is sensitive to temperatures

lower than 10C.

The annual rainfall should be about 150

tropical crops

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