Download - VCE Psychology Revision 1-3
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Psychology Revision (1-3)
CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH METHODSPsychology- systematic study of the mind and behaviour
Research - 7 steps:
Step
1 Identify the research problem (topic of interest)
2 Constructing the research hypothesis
3 Designing the method
4 Collecting the data
5 Analysing the data
6 Interpreting the data
7 Reporting the research findings
Experiment: test a cause-effect relationship with controlled variable
Independent variable (IV):
Controlled by the experimenterDependent variable (DV):
measured Effects of a changed IV
UNWANTED - Extraneous variable (EV):
Variables NOT IV but could cause changes to the DV Identify the EV
Remove as many as possible
Controlled variableso
Potential effects have been removed from the experiment (experimental design)
UNCONTROLLABLE Confounding variable (CV):
Not IV but has had a systematic effect on the value of the DV If there is a confounding variable, no valid conclusionscan be drawn from the research. Mixed up with the IV
Hypothesis: SPECIFIC!Testable prediction of the relationship between two+ events or characteristics
Population
IV
Prediction
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4.
DV
Operational hypothesis:
Research hypothesis that states how the variables studied will be observed, manipulated and measured Population
Prediction
3. IV manipulation
4. DV measurement
Control group- for comparison reasons
Research Methods - Identifying extraneous and potential confounding variables
Type Definition Examples & text reference
Individual
participant
differences
-Differences in personal characteristics
-Each can affect how a participant may respond in an
experiment
GenderAgeReligionMotivationPast experience
ethnicity
Placebo effect
-occurs when there is a change in the responses of the
participants due to their belief that they have been given
something.
Placebo: Substance
Doctor gives a pill that does
nothing to a patient, but
they experience changes
anyway
Experimenter
effects
- occurs when there is a change in a participant's response due
to the researcher's (experimenter's) expectations, biases or
actions, rather than to the effect of the IV.
Experimenter expectancy - The experimenter provides
cues about the expected responseso
Self-fulfilling prophecy- when the researcher
obtains results that they expect due to the cues
they provide rather than due to the IV e.g. facial expressions Mannerisms Tone of voice
Experimenter bias- unintentional biases in collecting and
analysing data
Participant expectations
Students whose teachers
thought they were fast
learners performed better
than students whose
teachers thought they were
slow learners.
Order effects
-When the performance(DV) is influencedby the specific
orderin which the conditions, treatmentsor tasksare
presented. Performing one task affects the performance of the
next
Practice effect- the influence on performance (DV) that arises
from practising the task.
Perform betterthe second timeBoredom or fatigue effect- due to the repetitive nature of the
same task.
Perform worsethe second time
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Carry-over effect- particular treatment or task has on
performance in a subsequent treatment/task.
Non-
standardisedinstructions
and
procedures
- when the procedures are not uniform, or the same, for all
participants.
Procedures
Selection of participants
Instructions for differentgroups
Interaction with
participants Use of materials Use of rooms or other
settings Observation and
measurement of
variables Data-recording
techniques
SamplingPopulation: larger group from which a sample is drawn
Sample:a group that is a subset of a population
Convenience samplingo
Selecting readily available participants Random sampling
o Randomly selectedo
Ensures every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected Stratified sampling
o
Dividing the population into distinct subgroups - selecting sample from each stratum, as they occur in
the target population. e.g. Income, age, sex, religion, cultural background, residential area, IQ score
Random-stratified samplingo
Randomly sampling from each strata
Allocation Experimental and control groups
o participants are either allocated to either control or experimental groups
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Random allocationo
each participant has an equal chance of being selected from any of the groups used. e.g. coin flipping or drawing names out of a hat
Counterbalancing - used to minimise order effects such as practice and carry-over.
Systematically changing the order of treatment or tasks for participants in a balanced way to counter the
unwanted effects on performances of any one order.
Single and double blind procedures Single-blind- participants do not know which group they are allocated to Double-blind- neither participant nor experimenter know which participants have been allocated
Placebos
The control group is given a placebo, to eliminate a potentially confounding variable in the experimental
group
Standardised instructions and procedures
Minimise any differences among participants
Experimental DesignsIndependent Groups Design:
Each participant randomly allocated to control or experimentalo
Coin toss
Advantages Disadvantages
No order effects to control for Less control for participant differences
Participant attrition is less common (pulling out of the exp) Large number of participants required
Quick and easy to administer
Repeated-measures design
Same participants are used in both experimental and control conditionso
e.g. loud music on studying Group listens to loud music, then listens to soft music
Advantages Disadvantages
Eliminates potential confounding variables from
participant differences
Demand characteristics - guess the purpose of the
experiment
Small number of participants Participant attrition (turn up for the first condition, but
not for second
Order effects.
Boredom/practice effect
Order effects can be removed by counterbalancing
Half complete the control condition first --> experimental Other half, vice versa Random selection should be used to determine which participants perform the tasks in which order
Matched-participants design
Match participants - similar characteristics - reduce individual differenceso
Can influence the DV
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Divided attention: ability to distribute attention and undertake two or more activities simultaneously
Cocktail phenomenon
Content limitation:
Restricted/limited Control what enters consciousness
Controlled (unfamiliar) Information processing - conscious/alert awareness - mental effort focused on achieving a particular goal Serial activity is difficult or unfamiliar
o e.g. learning to drive
Automatic (familiar)
little conscious awareness/mental effort, minimal attention - does not interfere with the performance of
other activities Parallel - we can handle two or more activities at the same time
Stroop effect
Altered State of Consciousness (ASC):a distinctly different level of mental awareness to that normalwaking consciousness, in that major changes occur in the qualities, or characteristics of an individual's thoughts,
feelings and perceptions
Naturally occurring- sleep, daydreaming and dreaming
Daydreaming(external to internal)o
Shift attention from external to internal, feelings, imagined scenarios Occurs naturally When stationary, routine/boring activities
Freud - fantasies
Purposefully induced- meditation, hypnosis, alcohol, medication or illegal drugs.
AlcoholPsychoactive drug/depressant
Concentration Amount of alcohol consumed Amount of food in stomach Weight Gender
Emotional state Physical wellbeing etc.
Shortened attention span Impaired thinking Impaired memory Slower reaction times Impaired perception of time Less self-control Reduced self-awareness Difficulties with voluntary muscular control and fine movements
Characteristics of ASC
4 characteristics which can distinguish whether a person is in ASC:
Distortion of perception and cognition:
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Senses more receptive or dulled Thinking more illogical/lacking in sequence
Time orientation:
Distorted
Changes in Emotional Awareness
Turmoil; uncharacteristic responses
maintain self-control
Change in Self Control:
Physical or otherwise
MEASURING LEVELS OF ALERTNESS Electroencephalograph (EEG)
Corresponding Mental State
Alpha Very relaxed or meditating
High frequency and slightly larger amplitude
Beta Awake and alert
They have low amplitude and high frequency
Theta Lightly asleep-
Medium frequency and combination of amplitude waves
Delta Deeply asleep
Lowest frequency and highest amplitude
Heart rateECG - electrocardiogram - measures electrical activity of the heart muscle.o
Increases or decreases dependent on state of consciousness
Body temperatureCore body temperature varies over a 24-hour period day.
Depends on physical activity during NWCo
Must be strenuous Can change with ASCs
o e.g. physical health problem
o
Diseaseo
Illegal drug such as ecstasyo
DROPS 1 DEGREE DURING SLEEP
Galvanic skin response (GSR)
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Emotional experiences/alertness
Physiological response - change in resistance of the skin's surface to the passage of an electrical current.
Electrodes are attached to the hairless areas of the hando
e.g. if sweat is secreted (when aroused or stressed) Resistance against electrical conductivity decreases
ASCs - change in emotional response
Therefore can be detected by GSR
Measures of physiological responses can provide useful information,
BUT CANNOT BE THE ONLY INDICATOR of a state of consciousness.
Physiological responses in conjunction with other observations and data-collection techniques to obtain more
accurate data.
Because in psychology - mental processes - difficult to measure things
Many things cannot be measured - can only be inferred, or physiological result --> displayed effect
Therefore a psychological construct is a concept that is 'constructed' to describe a particular psychological
activity, or pattern of activity, that is believed to occur or exist but cannot be directly observed or measured(Grivas p115).
Information provided by the individualo
e.g. self-reports Behaviour that is demonstrated
o e.g. experimental research
Physiological changes that can be measuredo
e.g. brain recording and scanning techniques
Chapter 3 Sleep
Sleep: a regularly and naturally occurring ASC and is characterised by a loss of conscious
awareness
Sleep labs or sleep study units
Polysomnography- monitoring and recording of physiological responses a sleeping individual.
Important physiological information on changes that occur as we fall asleep and during sleep
Electrical activity of the brain, eye movements and muscle tension
Self-reports used with other measures
PHYSIOLOGICAL
Method Function Description What it
measures in
relation to
sleep
EEG (brain
waves)
Detect/amplify/record
electrical activity generatedby the brain whilst
sleeping/dreaming
Identifies the different electrical patterns
generated by the brain
Brain activity
(patterns) Stages
of sleep
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EOG (eye
movement)
Eye movements/electrical
activity in muscles that
control movement of eyes
Electrodes attached around the eye Change of eye
movements
over time
(REM sleep)
EMG
(muscle
tension)
Electrical activity of muscles Attach electrodes to the skin above monitored
muscles
Identifies
changes in
activity
(movement)and muscle
tone (tension)
May
relax
(deep
sleep) Spasm
(light
sleep)
Videomonitori
ng
Physiological responsesduring sleep
e.g. posture/position Tossing and turning Awakening from nightmare Sleepwalking
Examined together with others
Self-
reports
Problems/answers/rating
scales etc.
Sleep diary Time
o Trying to fall asleepo
Sleep onset occurredo
Number/time/length of
awakeningso
Waking upo
Getting up after wakening
NREM - non-rapid-eye movement sleep
REM- rapid-eye movement sleep
Aka 5th stage of sleep
Continuous cycleso
NREM 70-80 minso
4 stages Different brain wave pattern
Complete sleep cycle 80-120 minso
4-5 times during 8 hours of sleep
STAGE PROGRESSION
Awake --> stage 1 --> stage 2 --> stage 3 --> stage 4 | --> stage 3 --> stage 2 --> stage 1 (REM)
Repeat
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Sleep stages
Stage Duration Wave Physiological Description etc.
Awake Beta
Alert High frequency/low
amplitude
Relaxed/hypnogogi
c
1-2 minutes Alpha
High frequency/highamplitude
Slow rolling eye
movements
Flashes of
light/colourDreamlike imagesFloating/weightless
ness
Stage 1 5-10 minutes Alpha/theta
THETA:
irregular/mixture of
high and low
amplitude
Lower level of
bodily arousalHeart
rate/respiration
/body
temperature/m
uscle tensionDECREASE
Hypnic jerk
Stage 2
Truly asleep
10-20 minutes Theta with SLEEP SPINDLES
and K-COMPLEXES
Sleep spindleso
Burst of high
frequency
brain activityo
ONLY OCCURS
IN STAGE 2 K-complexes
o
Response toarousing
stimuli
Body
movements
lessenBreathing more
regularBlood
pressure/tempe
rature fallHeart rate
slower
Truly asleep
Stage 3 10 minutes Theta/delta (20 - 50%, Heart Sleepwalking/sleep
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Moderately deep
sleep
SWS slow wave sleep)
DELTA: low
frequency/high
amplitude
rate/blood
pressure/body
temperature
dropBreathing
steady
talking
Stage 4
Very deep sleep
20 minutes,
graduallyshortens
Delta (more than 50%) Difficult to
arouse (sleepinertia)Muscles
completely
relaxed
Night terrors
No stage 3 or 4 latercycles
REM
20-30%
Paradoxic
al sleep
At first,
a few
minute
s - up
to anhour
Beta-like waves:
Relatively
high
frequency
/lowamplitude
Body is paralysedOccasional twitching in
fingersLowest muscle tone
Heart ratefaster/irregularBlood pressure risesBreathing
quicker/irregular
DREAMLight/deep
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Time spent in each stage of NREM or REM sleep is variable Birth to old -> time spent sleeping generally decreases REM decreases infancy to adolescence
o Then relatively stable until senility
YOUNG ADULT VS. ELEDERLY SLEEP PATTERN
Newborn
16 hours 50% REM sleep
Adolescence
9 hours 20% REM sleep
Late adulthood
6-7 hours
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33% REM sleep60+
Lighter/increased awakenings Mostly stage 2 shallow sleep
90 yrs
Stage 3&4 rarely experienced
Sleep-wake cycle shiftduring adolescence More than 9 hours Biologically driven Each day the body goes through a cycle (circadian rhythmor cycle)
o Hormones produced to control bodily functions
Melatonin - sleepinesso
Linked to light cues
DURING ADOLESCENCEo
Hormone induced shift of body clock forward 1-2 hours
SLEEP WAKE CYCLE SHIFT
Later sleeping
Sleep debt
Sleep owed, needs to be made up Nightly sleep debt of 90 minutes Mon-Fri = 7.5 hours debt Weekends - sleep in Results in going to bed later
o
Shifts sleep period further forward Monday is hell.
Psychological (Cognitive) Emotional Behavioural
(actions)
Physiological
Partial Lapse in attentionInability to concentrateSlower reaction times
Thinkillogically/irrationallyDifficulty making
decisions/solving
problems that require
Loss of
interest/enjoyment
in previously
enjoyed activitiesLow level ofmotivationIrritability
FatigueLack of energyImpaired motor skills
Headaches
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creative thinking
Total HallucinationsDelusionsAnxiety disorders
Depressionparanoia
Anxiety
disordersHypertensionSleep
disorders
Collapse of immune systemUnable to regulate body
temperatureSleepinessFatigue
Hand tremorsDrooping eyelidsDifficulty focusing eyesLack of energy/strengthSlurred speechIncreased sensitivity to painHeart and respiratory
system are slowerBody temperature dropsImpaired production of
hormones
Heart disease Diabetes Obesity Cancer Acceleration of aging
PURPOSE OF SLEEP:
Two main theories:
Restoration- including REM reboundmake up for lost REM Survival: inactive during the day most risky/dangerous
SLEEP RECOVERY PATTERNS- Catch up to repay sleep debt
o Lots the first day, less each successive day until normal
-
REM reboundmake up for lost REM
- Microsleepspartial/total sleep deprivation.
o short period of drowsiness or sleeping occurs when person is apparently awake
EEG pattern like early stages of NREM sleep
No memory of what happens during microsleep