EXAM REVISION 2012

VCE PsychologyUnit One

Chapter 1: Nature of Psychology

The roots of psychology lie

in philosophy.

Can be traced back to

Ancient Greek philosophers

such as Socrates, Plato &

Aristotle.

Wilhelm Wundt established

the first laboratory for

investigating psychological

phenomena in 1879.

Chapter 1: Nature of Psychology

Freud developed

Psychoanalysis as

treatment for mental

disorders.

Modern Psychology is

based on empiricism-

gathering data using

methodical research.

Chapter 1: Nature of Psychology

The major perspectives are:

Biological

Behavioural

Cognitive

Socio-Cultural

(Big Ben Chimes Slowly) or

(Big Ben Cats Stroke)

Psychologist vs Psychiatrist

Psychologists are not able

to perform medical

procedures or prescribe

medication as they are not

qualified doctors like

psychiatrists.

Some Types of Psychologists

Sport Psychologist

Forensic Psychologist

Organisational Psychologist

Educational &

Developmental Psychologist

Counselling Psychologist

• Clinical Psychologist

Chapter 2: Research Methods

Population refers to the group of

people of interest to the

researcher. It is the group about

which the researcher wishes to

draw conclusions.

Sample-the members of the

population who have been

chosen to take part ion the

research (A subset of the

population)

Some Guys Prefer IndiViduals That Rock

Sample-eg Two large groups of identical members of the sample kept in

the same environmental conditions . State a specific number (of reasonable

magnitude) in each group, instead of simply describing a ‘large’ group or

replication of the experiment.

Group_ Divide the sample into two groups of equal size-One is the

experimental Group and One is the Control Group.I

Pretest- infection of both groups with the virus against which the drug

has been designed.

Independent Variable-One of the groups then needed to receive no

further treatment (the control group), the other group (the trial group)

receives the drug under investigation

Time after a few days, each of the groups needs to Examined -the

number of mice that have developed the viral disease in each group

counted.

Results- If the number of mice in the trial group is significantly less than

the number in the control group, the drug has been effective.

S Sample

G Allocate to 2 Groups (Experimental group and Control Group)

P Pretreatment

IV State the Independe4nt Variable

T Time

R Results

Sampling

Convenience Sample-readily

available without any attempt

to make the sample

representative of the

population

Random Sample-every

member of population has an

equal chance of being

selected

Stratified Sampling

Random-Stratified Sample- involves identifying all of the people within each stratum of research interest, then randomly selecting samples of proportionate size from each stratum

Descriptive Research

Case Study-an intensive in

depth investigation of some

behaviour or event of interest

in an individual, small group or

situation.

Observational Study-involves

collection of data by carefully

watching and recording

behaviour as it occurs.

Presentation of Results

If you use a graph to show your results,

you would normally graph the

independent variable (the one you

changed) on the x-axis, and the dependent

variable (what you measured) on the y-

axis.

When the dependent variable changes

with time, you can graph time on the x-

axis and the dependent variable on they-

axis.

Continuous Data

Data that can take on an infinite number of values between whole numbers.

Examples: height, temperature and time

This data is presented on a line graph

Growth of Plant

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

1 2 3 4 5

Time (days)

Hei

gh

t (c

m) Control

X

Y

Z

Discontinuous Data (Discrete Data)

Data in which the variable can only take one of a finite set of values

Columns should not touch if data is discrete

Height of Plant

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

control X Y Z

Fertilizer

Hei

gh

t (c

m)

Qualitative Data

Deals with descriptions.

Data can be observed but not

measured.

Colors, textures, smells, tastes,

appearance, beauty, etc.

Qualitative → Quality

Quantitative Data

Deals with numbers.

Data which can be

measured.

Length, height, weight,

speed, time, temperature,

ages, etc.

Quantitative → Quantity

Ethics

Voluntary Participation

Informed Consent

Deception

Confidentiality

Debreifing

Withdrawal Rights

Very

Intelligent

Dudes

Can

Do

Well

Chapter 3: The Visual Perception System

Consists of a complete

network of physiological

structures involved in vision.

Includes eyes, sensory

receptors (retina), neural

pathways and the visual

cortex.

Chapter 3: The Visual Perception System

1. Visual sensation:

Detection or awareness of the presence

of light energy produced by stimulation

of the photo receptors on the retina.

It is a physiological process.

It is the same for everyone without

damage.

.

Perception

2. Visual perception:

Selection, organisation and

interpretation of visual sensations

by the brain into meaningful info.

This is influenced by physiological

and psychological factors,

therefore is a unique experience

for everyone

Response to Light

The human eye is sensitive to a very

narrow band of electromagnetic

spectrum, this is called the visible light

spectrum.

This spectrum starts at short

wavelengths of 380nanometres (1

billionth of a metre), which are

violet/blue and ends at larger

wavelengths of 760nm, which are

orange/red in colour.

Anatomy of the Eye

Ciliary muscle: to control the shape of the

lens

Iris: to control the amount of light entering

the lens

Pupil: to allow light through

Lens: to converge light to form a sharp

image on the retina

Cornea: to bend light towards the lens

Retina: to act as a screen for the image

Optic nerve: to carry signals from the retina

to the brain

Process of Sensation & Perception

Reception:

The process of detecting the presence of, or

changes in, light energy in the retina.

Transduction:

The process by which photoreceptors change

electromagnetic energy into electrochemical

energy.

Transmission:

The process of sending and receiving information

in the form of electrochemical energy along a

nerve pathway to the brain.

Selection – The detection and coding of

features of a stimulus, such as size, colour

and movement.

Organisation – The grouping of elements

to be viewed in a meaningful way.

Interpretation – The process by which the

whole is given meaning. This is done by

comparing new info. with info. already

stored in memory.

Perceptual Principles

Gestalt Principles:

German word meaning shape and

form.

‘The whole is greater than the

sum of its parts.’

In psychology this is considered

the way we perceive stimuli by

grouping parts into a whole,

complete form. This is an

automatic process.

Closure

The tendency to mentally

fill or ignore gaps in visual

stimuli and perceive the

object to be a meaningful

whole.

Figure Ground

The tendency to perceive points of the

visual stimulus as being more relevant

(the figure) and standing out against a

less relevant background (ground.)

The contour line (or edges) of a shape

helps us to define the object to make

it the centre of our focus, it becomes

the figure while all other visual info.

becomes the ground

Depth Cues

Source of information from

the environment or within our

bodies which helps us to

perceive an object’s distance.

Our retina receives info. as 2D

images, but using depth cues

it’s converted into 3D reality.

Categories of Depth Cues

Monocular – requiring one eye only:

Secondary (info. from external

sources) = Pictorial depth cues

Primary (info. from internal sources

= Accommodation

Binocular – requiring use of both

eyes:

Primary (info. from internal sources)

= Convergence + Retinal Disparity

Visual Illusions

The consistent

misinterpretation/distortion

of real sensory stimuli.

Most illusions occur because

they create a perception that

is inconsistent with the

retinal image.

Muller-Lyer Illusion

2 parallel lines of equal

length are placed side to

side.

The line with the outward

facing arrows is perceived

to be longer.

Explanation

Misapplication of size constancy

The line with inward facing arrows looks like the

closer outside corner of a building & the feathertail

line looks like the further corner of a room.

If 2 lines cast the same retinal image, but one is

further away then the further one must be longer.

Therefore because the feathertail line is perceived

as further away our brain interprets it as longer &

we perceive it as such.

We are said to perceptually expand the more

distant line.

Perceptual Set-Why we Interpret the Way We Do

Perceptual set expectancy:

A predisposition or readiness to

perceive stimuli in accordance

with certain expectations.

This may cause us to select

certain aspects of the stimulus or

ignore other aspects.

Factors Affecting Perceptual Set

 

Motivation:

Processes that direct & sustain our behaviour

towards achieving a particular goal.

May be influenced by psychological (desires) or

physiological (hunger) factors.

Cultural Factors:

The culture in which we are raised influences

our ideas, knowledge, beliefs & attitudes.

Emotional State:

Different emotions can cause us to perceive

certain stimuli in certain ways. 

Chapter 4: Lifespan Development

Age related changes that

occur from birth,

throughout a person’s life,

into and during old age.

Maturation

The orderly and sequential

developmental changes

which occur in the nervous

system and other bodily

structures controlled by our

genes.

Nature vs Nurture

The nature versus nurture debate

concerns the relative importance

of an individual's innate qualities

("nature," i.e. nativism, or

innatism) versus personal

experiences ("nurture," i.e.

empiricism or behaviorism) in

determining or causing individual

differences in physical and

behavioral traits.

Research Methods for Developmental Studies

Cross sectional-selects &

compares groups of

participants of different ages

over a short period of time

Longitudinal- a long term

investigation that follows the

same group of people over

an extended period of time.

Research Methods for Developmental Studies

Cohort-Sequential-

combines the cross-

sectional & Longitudinal.

Eg 3 cohorts of adolescents

aged 14, 16 & 18 every 2

years over a 4 year period.

Chapter 5: Theories of Psychological Development

Perceptual – Gibson

Emotional – Bowlby,

Ainsworth, Harlow

Cognitive - Piaget

Moral -Kohlberg

Psychosocial – Erikson

Psychological

Development

PerceptualGibson

EmotionalBowlby,

Ainsworth & Harlow

CognitivePiaget

MoralKohlberg

Psychosocial

Erikson

Gibson & Visual Cliff

The apparatus used by

Gibson was “the visual

cliff”

Infants who had crawling

experience were fearful of

the apparent drop and

refused to cross over to

their mothers.

Gibson’s theory

Emphasised key processes involved in

perceptual development. These

include:

Role of the infant as an active explorer

The affordance (perceived qualities) of

objects or events that are experienced

The way perceptual exploration

becomes more and more specific and

differentiated (selective) with age

Perceptual development cont.

Exploration and the search for

affordances are important

features of perceptual

development

Affordances are the perceived

and actual properties of

something in the environment

that suggest how it should be

used.

Definition of Attachment

An enduring emotional tie

to a special person,

characterized by a

tendency to seek and

maintain closeness,

especially during times of

stress.

Bowlby’s 4 Key Characteristics of Attachment

Proximity Maintenance-

desire to be near the caregiver.

Safe Haven-

the ability to be able to return to the

caregiver when scared.

Secure Base-

from which infant can explore

surrounding environment.

Separation distress-

anxiety when caregiver leaves

Ainsworth

• Mary Ainsworth researched

• Designed the “strange situation”

• A lab experiment with 8

different episodes of separation

and reunion

• Attached infant will:

• Use mother as a secure base

• Be soothed by the mother

during the reunion

Harlow discovered that baby monkeys deprived of their mothers (left) would transfer their affections to a cloth surrogate. When they needed to eat, they would scamper over to a milk-bearing wire mother, but then quickly return to cuddle with the softer surrogate.

Key principles of Piaget’s theory

• Information is organised into schemas (groups of inter-related ideas)

• Based on principles of – assimilation (process of taking in

new information and fitting it into and making it part of an existing mental idea about objects or the world)

– accommodation (refers to changing an existing mental idea in order to fit new information)

Sucking on her rattle (assimilation), she will eventually develop an understanding that rattles only make noise (accommodation)

1.Object permanence

• Object permanence is the understanding that objects still exist even if they cannot be see or touched.

Eg. When a toy is hidden an infant believes that it does not exist anymore

Children are only capable of seeing the world from their point of view and therefore have trouble in seeing things from another person’s point of view

Eg. When told to hide they cover their eyes, because they cant see themselves they think others cant see them either

2.Egocentrism

Understanding that something can change from one stat to another

Eg. The child cannot explain the melting process despite being able to identify the ice-blocks (solid) and the melted ice blocks (liquid)

2.Transformation

2.Animism

Animism is the belief that everything that exists has some kind of consciousness or awareness. Eg: the toy that can feel tired or sad.

2.Reversibility • Is the ability to follow a

line of reasoning back to its original starting point

Eg. a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a Labrador, that a Labrador is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.

Refers to the idea that an object does not change its weight, mass, volume or area when the object changes its shape or appearance

3.Conservation

3.Classification

Classification is the ability to organise information into categories based on common features. Eg: a banana can belong to a group of yellow

objects as well as belong to the group of fruit.

4.Abstract thinking

Abstract thinking refers to thinking without needing to see or visualise things in order to understand concepts. Eg: understanding concepts such as justice,

honesty, respect

4.Logical thinking

Logical thinking refers to the ability to think in a systematic way and develop a plan to solve problems. Eg: doing algebra

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

♂Level 1: Preconventional (0-9 years)♂ Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation

♂ Stage 2: Naively egotistical Orientation

♂Level 2: Conventional (10-15 years)♂ Stage 3: Good Boy/ Nice Girl Orientation

♂ Stage 4: Law & Social Order Maintaining Orientation

♂Level 3: Postconventional (16+years)♂ Stage 5: Legalistic-Social Contract Orientation

♂ Stage 6: Universal Ethical Orientation

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

American male bias

What people say is not always

consistent with what they do

Method of data collection-

young children who may not

understand the stories or

express their thinking.

Cultural differences not

addressed

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Psychosocial development theory is

based on eight stages of development

Erikson’s theory is based on the idea that

development through life is a series of

stages which are each defined by a crisis

or challenge

The early stages provide the foundations

for later stages so Erikson says that if a

child does not resolve a crisis in a

particular stage, they will have problems

in later stages

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Danish Psychoanalyst

Baltes’ Selection, Optimisation and Compensation Theory

Successful Ageing: Promoting

gains and managing losses.

Optimisation: making the most

of the abilities, resources and

opportunities available to

achieve the optimal or best

outcome.

Compensation: new coping

strategies

Chapter 6: Mental Illness across Lifespan

ADHD is a disorder characterised by inattention, and hyperactive and impulsive behaviour that is more frequent and server than in other children of the same age. Usually symptoms of ADHD become apparent in children before they reach 7 years of age.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is a psychotic illness characterised by distorted perceptions (hallucinations), bizarre thoughts, disorganised speech, disturbed emotions and a deterioration in coping with everyday life.

Dementia is the progressive deterioration of the functioning of neurons in the brain, resulting in memory impairment, a decline in intellectual ability, poor judgement and, sometimes, personality changes. There are many different types of dementia – the most common is Alzheimer's disease.

Dementia can affect different people in different ways, some become bewildered and frightened by the changes and others seem unconcerned and unaware of their deteriorating abilities.

Dementia

Activity: Jelly Bean Command Terms

Name

State

Describe

Distinguish

Explain

Summarise (in one

sentence)