Download - Whatever happened to planning?

Bookwatch Whatever happened to planning? There is an abundance of texts on planning law and on planning policy, but they are generally expository, rather than analytical and critical. Those who write critical books tend to be poles apart from the planning practi t ioner: they employ a different conceptual f ramework and often raise issues which 'o r thodox ' planners find uncomfor table if not baffling. Peter A m b r o s e , in asking the ques t ion Whatever Happened to Planning? (Methuen , 1986), steers a middle course. The discussion is pitched at spec i f i c c o m p r e h e n s i b l e po l i t i co - planning issues (which is by no means typical of rico-Marxist writers). The writing is clear and free from jargon. The clarity is evident from the first page, where he explains the reason for the book:

the main reason for writing is to assess how a set of basically generous and rational intentions, the product of a postwar period of collective idealism, is making out in an increasingly cynical and individualistic political climate. More specifically the inten- tion is to see hove the set of regulatory devices built into the 1947 planning system. which was devised in the context of the 1930s era of land development, is coping with the forces now at work in the development industry - an industry advanced in its use of management techniques and political lobbying and increasingly international in its structure, organization and access to funds.

The argument neatly unfolds. The first chapter outlines ' the particular ways in which money is made under capitalist forms of land deve lopment , [and] identifies the interests involved prior to 1939'. This is followed by an account of the social and political background to the emergence of postwar planning, and of its unhappy history. Instead of a major interven- tion in the land deve lopment process, p lanning has become preoccupied with the documenta t ion of trends ( ' t rend planning') , and with process rather than substance. The demise of planning was accelerated by the ad- vent of the Thatcher Gove rnmen t and

"a rash of measures" which have reduced public control over land deve lopment .

The central part of the book examines the forces which opera te to change the built environment : people , f inance, the state (local and central government ) , and the construction industry. Two key 'arenas" of land deve lopment in the 1980s are then examined - the urban fringe and the London Docklands. Finally, there is a succinct evaluat ion of achievements and shortcomings, and some discussion of ' the way forward" - taking into account the fact that 'we live in a largely capitalist economy and it is pointless to write as if truly socialist solutions were possible' .

Throughout the volume, Ambrose demonst ra tes the importance of power relationships to planning. He argues e loquent ly that the forces which really control land deve lopment are 'often ser ious ly u n d e r v a l u e d ' . Fo l lowing Cooke (Theories of Planning and Spa- tial Development, Hutchinson, 1983), he writes:

Planning emphasises technical expertise and rationality. The constant process of negotiation between planner and developer is normally carried out on the safe, technically complicated, terrain provided by current, use-dominated, planning legislation. This suits the developer very well. He cannot be asked at a public inquiry such simple, but crucial, questions as 'whose money are you using'?' or 'how much profit do you expect to make?" These would normally be held to be "not relevant planning matters'. Yet they arc the very matters of legitimate concern to the planners and residents of the area in which the developer is working. Without open discussion it is impossible to make a realistic assessment of the distribution of benefits and costs arising from a development or to insist on alternative schemes. The discussion, in other words, is safely confined to matters technical rather than political.

This is not, of course, an original idea (nor is it claimed to be); but what makes Ambrose ' s exposit ion so telling is his support ing analysis of the opera- tion of the planning system in such

places as the London Dockhmds. The problems have been greatly exacer- bated by the rise of the multinationals and the new global economy.

Ambrose has no simple solution. He makes a number of proposals, somet imes very broad (better environmental education for the young, and the inclusion of "the d is t r ibut ive effects of planning" in the professional training of planners), sometimes very specific (as with the proposal for the removal of subsidies to house purchas- ers). His most interesting proposal , however , is to stabilize the flow of land on lines suggested by Swedish practice. This looks like a variant of the Communi ty Land Scheme, and is hardly likely to commend itself politi- cally. All in all, ' the way forward" does not look promising. Ambrose himself is clearly pessimistic. Nevertheless , he has succeeded in one of his objectives: to demonst ra te to aspiring planners and others who are concerned that a touching faith in the power of planners is not only misplaced; it is positively dangerous. There may be much in this provocat ive book to argue about, but there is no denying the importance of the issues, nor the skill with which they are presented.

Complexities It is interesting to pass to a US book which discusses some of the ways in which a different planning system is working. US planning is becoming increasingly sophisticated and complex in areas of deve lopment pressure or land-use conflicts. The complexit ies were initially viewed in terms of costly delays, and the perceived need was for ~regulatory simplification' ( 's treamlin- ing" in UK terminology). This, however, failed to address the substantive problems that arise with conflicting land-use demands , par t icular ly in areas of special resources or amenity. Exper ience with ad hoc initiatives has led to a growing interest in special management devices. Some of these are described and analysed in a very useful book of papers , Managing Land Use Conflicts: Case Studies in Special Area Management edited by David J. Brower and Daniel S. Carol (Duke Universi ty Press, 1987). "Spe-

372 CITIES November 1987

cial Area Management" (inevitably dubbed SAM) is defined as the attempt to manage development in complex ecological and administrative settings. It is a generic process to:

1. resolve management conflicts: 2. provide greater predictability and

assurance for both conservation and development interests;

3. focus and streamline a set of management strategies;

4. provide varying outcomes de- pending on the nature of the special area, the available management tools, and the partici- pants in the process.

The third point is especially important, "for while the particular management tools, actors, and legal authorities may vary between areas, the attempt to focus management into a single setting is what distinguishes special area management from more traditional management forms'. The detailed case studies demonstrate that establishing a 'single setting', whether it be an ad hoc agency or a forum for the resolution of conflicts, is thwart with difficulties. Moreover, as Clark and McCreary stress in their study of estuarine reserves, throughout the lengthy processes involved in the formal steps of planning, 'the presence of local political support and active participation of the local scientific community plays an important part in the success or failure of a proposed site'.

The point constantly arises in one guise or another. In the Adirondack Park, the ad hoc agency has had a hard time of working with the local governments; in the Upper Delaware Valley, the clumsy actions of the 'foreign' National Park Service cre- ated a political impasse; in the New Jersey Pinelands, a new ad hoc commission had to operate in a field already crowded with others agencies and programmes: the New Jersey Coastal Management Program, the Casino Control Commission (for Atlantic City), the State Development Guide Plan, the New Jersey Water Supply Master Plan, the Delaware Valley Regional Planning Commis- sion, the South Jersey Resource Con- servation and Development Council and so on, not to mention the 59 local

governments in the area who are typically more interested in development than in preservation.

The case studies provide a wealth of detail on these and other SAM initiatives. A short final chapter sets out some conclusions. SAM tends to work well in areas where existing institutions have failed, and where there is agreement that new inst i tut ional arrangements are required. Given this, "an important attraction of special area management is that it offers the means to see the big picture that often may be lacking under the previous management structure." But a SAM process is always in jeopardy of one or other of the participating agencies obtaining an advantageous position: "assurance must therefore be provided that all parties" views will have an equal or mutually acceptable weight'.

There is more in similar vein, illustrated by the material in the case studies. Rather than attempt to summarize the summary, attention here is finally focused on a particularly interesting 'management tool fostered by the special area management process'. This is none other than the now familiar (in the USA) transfer of development rights (TDR). This is a technique which in essence shares out the costs and benefits of a management scheme. For example, in the Pinelands, 'development credits' are allocated by a formula to owners in preservation areas (the 'sending" areas), and sold on the open market for use in regional growth areas (the 'receiving' areas). Sellers of development credits have a deed restriction placed on their property which precludes future development. Purchas- ers of credits become entitled to in- creases in density above the normal allowed by the revised zoning code in the receiving areas.

In Montgomery County, Maryland, a TDR scheme operates in basically the same way (to protect agricultural land), except that in the 'sending' areas farmers have the option to develop at a 'base' density (of one dwelling per 25 acres). Thus they retain some of their development value, and have something of value against which to borrow for needed

Book watch

improvements. It is claimed that "this approach, unlike traditional zoning techniques, offers farmland owners an economic incentive to resist development pressure, a fact that helps preserve farming activity as well as the land itself." These are only illustra- t ions of the many devices and approaches which are detailed in this commendable book.

Judicial review

Challenging Decisions is the title of the twelfth in the series of the Journal of Planning and Environment Law Occasional Papers (Sweet and Max- well, 1986). It consists of papers given at a conference organized by the Bar Council, the Law Society and the Royal Institution of Chartered Sur- veyors. The conference set out to examine in depth 'all the alternative means of "'challenge" available, not only to land owners, developers, central and local government and other statutory authorities, but also to third parties'. Some very interesting questions were raised, including that of whether there should be a limited right of appeal against the granting of a planning permission. Peter Boydell argues that the planning scene has changed since the early postwar years when the role of the local authority was 'not only to act reasonably but also to act, in effect, as umpire between the applicant for planning permission and the wider public whose interest, as perceived by the local planning authority, called for protection'. This is no longer the case:

Now, forty years on, the situation has changed in certain important respects. For example; (i) there has bccn a significant growth in the number of bodies which habitually articulate and pursue their opposition to (or occasionally support of) proposed development; and (ii) in many cases the applicant tor permission is one of two or more rival traders who respectively propose and oppose the contemplated development. Thus, increasingly there is a contest, umpired by the local authority, between those who propose the development and those who oppose it. Under the present law, however, only one party to the contest, namely the unsuccessful applicant, has a statutory right of appeal. The other party, if unsuccessful, has no such right.

Boydell submits that it is this which

CITIES November 1987 373

Book watch

has led to the increase in applications for judicial review. But is judicial review an appropr ia te remedy for the correct ion of a faulty decision to grant planning permission? The High Court has three grounds on which it can exercise its discret ion to quash a decision: illegality, procedural impropr ie- ty and irrationality. It is the last which genera tes the greatest numbe r of applications for judicial review. The discussion here is too long and involved to summarize , but the major issue revolves a round the so-called 'Wednesbu ry Principle ' , ( the name comes f rom the 1948 case of Associ- ated Provincial Picture Houses v. Wed-

nesbu O, Corporat ion) . The principle was stated in a passage of the judg- ment of Lord Greene :

The court is entitled to investigate the action of the local authority with a view to seeing whether they have taken into account matters which they ought not to take into account or, conversely, have refused to take into account or neglected to take into account matters which they ought to take into account. Once that question is answered in favor of the local authority, it may still be possible to say that, although the local authority have kept within the four corners of the matters which they ought to consider, they have nevertheless come to a conclusion so unreasonable that no reasonable authority could ever have come to it. In such a case, again, I think that the court can interfere. The power of the court to interfere in each case is not as an appellate authority to override a decision of the local authority, but as a judicial authority which is concerned, and concerned only, to see whether the local authority have contravened the law by acting in excess of the powers which Parliament had confided in them.

Boydell thinks that the courts are "moving towards the posi t ion in which they are p repared to quash a decision which, in all the circumstances, is unfair." Never theless , there is a lack of un i formi ty among judges ( ranging from those who would quash a decision which is 'outrageous" or where the decis ion-making body has "taken leave of its senses ' to those who refer simply to ' the duty to act fairly'). He suggests that provis ion should be made for a l imited right of appeal , on the facts and the meri ts , against a decision by a local planning authori ty to grant planning permission. "The type of case that might usefully be taken to appeal in this way would be

an application which the Secretary of State would have called in for deter- minat ion by himself: (i) if he had been aware of the application: and (ii) if he had been in a posit ion to appreciate the significance of the appl icat ion. ' He continues:

The category would include, tier example, the kind of case which occurred recently in the West Midlands where a local planning authority received from the local football club an application for planning permission to build a supermarket as a means of improving its desperate financial plight. The local planning authority was minded to grant such permission not on planning grounds but principally on the grounds that the permission would help to restore the football club"s fortunes both at the bank and at the turnstiles. Other examples will no doubt occur immediately to all who have experience of planning decisions and of the decision-making process.

The argument is s t r eng thened by F.G. Laws (Vice-Chai rman of the Commis- sion for Local Adminis t ra t ion in Eng- land - one of the English ombuds- men) . He notes that though he has many planning cases referred to him in which the essence of the complaint is that a planning decision is wrong, he is not e m p o w e r e d to 'chal lenge the meri ts of a council decision taken without maladminis t ra t ion unless it is so wayward that no reasonably fair- minded body could have so decided on

the facts. ' However , in a concluding review of

the symposium, George Bartlett considers that nei ther the extension of the 'Wednesbury Principle" nor new legislation to ex tend the scope of judicial review is likely.

The European Court

A m o n g the o ther issues discussed at the symposium wits the role of the European Court . Sir Gordon Slynn's paper 'The European Court - an extra tier in the system'?" explains the existing situation. The answer to the quest ion posed by the title is that ' a l though the European Court may not as of now be a very active third tier in env i ronmenta l mat ters , and not a tier at all in respect of phmning decisions, the signs are that in the future communi ty law may, ei ther in the national courts or in the European Court , be of grea ter relevance to the planning world ' .

Bv far the longest paper in the symposium is A.J . Ward ' s "Advice to Clients '• He starts bv implying that . when consider ing it challenge, the best advice may be "don't ' . t t owever , he then spends over 40 pages setting out the scope and nature of the various types of challenge. This consti tutes a useful reference guide. One point of interest (among many) is the broaden- ing in terpreta t ion of who ma> have the right to make a challenge. The point is dealt with in more detail in S tephen Sadley's "Challenging decisions - the chal len, ,er" There are many persons who, though affected bx planning, have no locus to comphtin or put forward their point of view:

the limitation of locus smndi by a restrictive interpretation of 'person aggrieved" gave way during the 1970s to a concept much closer to the concept of "sufficient interest" • . . Mr Justice Woolf recently allowed the Child Poverty Action Group, none of whose members has a direct pecuniary or personal interest in the outcome, to ehal- l enoe aft act o f executive g o v e r l u n c n t which had disadvantaged thousands of those whose interests the C.P.A.G. soughl to defend . . , The possibilities for environmental and similar groups in phuming matters, whether by way of statutorY+ appeal or judicial review, arc well worth bearing in mind.

A very different view was put by R.B. Caws in a highly critical commcnta rv on public part icipation and its "con- sequences ' . He complains about the increase in cases of a second challenge, ie judicial review:

Very serious results for the development industry, property investment and indeed the planning system itself will result if the ability of "second challenge" is to be freely given without financial responsibility to members of the public who have no con- tractual, financial or legal interest in the subject and can show that a person or body of persons exercising a power or duty in public law did so illegally, irrationally or by improper procedure.

I find this a ra ther startling s ta tement , but Caws has more to say. He de- plores the fact that

political pressures have become increasing- [y evident at all levels of the phmning process since 1947, to the detriment of the system . . . Misplaced political ambition has been responsible for the use of the planning system for improper "bargaining" with landowners and developers seeking planning consent . . . The degree of public participation originating from the implc-


mcntation of much of the Skeffmgton rcporl has cnabled political parties to cntcr into the arcna of planning in ways which v,'erc never contemplated by the architects of the fabric of the system of planning control and challenge . . . The difficultics and disruption which have been causcd bv the tcndcncy of misusing participation in the f, hmning process arc nov., a disincentive to investment in property.

There is more in similar vein. The style of this paper is clearly rather different from the others, but it vigor- ously challenges some current views. This symposium is rich in ideas and is good, thought-provoking reading from beginning to end.

Books which purport to explain how policies work in a foreign country tend to fall between two stools. They either provide too sketchy a context to enable the reader to comprehend the raison d'etre and relevance of the policies, or they overwhelm with detail. Public Planning in the Nether- lands avoids both traps. Edited by Ashok K. Dutt and Frank J. Costa (Oxford University Press, 1985), it presents a comprehensible and reasonably comprehensive account of "perspectives and change since the second world war'. Part of the success is due to an adroit selection of authors: these include Peter Hall, Steve Hamnett, Andreas Faludi, Otto Het- zel, and others who, though probably less well known in US and UK circles, certainly know their subject and can write well about it. The Netherhmds is of particular interest to phmners since, as the editors note, it is "decidedly the most planned countr\ among the European nations'. Peter Hall extends the point: "the evolution of the Dutch urban system since World War I! in many ways anticipates that of the rest of Europe' .

The book has 15 chapters and 17 authors, yet it manages to attain a coherence which is rare with this type of collation. The evolution of the Dutch planning system is explained "as a response in part to the fragmented denominational and cultural environment of the Netherhmds'. Several chapters which deal with specific aspects of planning dramatically demonstrate the contrast between the early postwar years of increasing affluence and the current era of stagnation

and planning uncertainty. Scarce resources and increased competition for them has transformed the planning scene. There are, however, some re- markable achievements: urban renew- al in the Hague, the Delta works ('the masterpiece of Dutch hydraulic en- gineering'), the Zuiderzee Polders and the new towns. But Dutch planners, like their peers in other countries, now have to work in an unfriendly economic climate: the final chapter underlines this and, understandably, has little comforting guidance to offer.

Regional planning in England The cynic may well ask whether there is any such thing as regional planning in England. The true answer must be "not much', but there is a continuing valiant attempt by the London and South East Regional Planning Confer- ence (which is now known in abbrevi- ated form as SERPLAN - a considerable musical improvement on the former SCLSERP). The organization is constituted by the London Boroughs and the County and District Councils for Bedfordshire, Berkshire, Bucking- hamshire, East Sussex. Essex, Hamp- shire, Her t fordshi re , the Isle of Wight, Kent, Oxfordshire, Surrey and West Sussex. Its population is some 17 million - about a third of the total for England and Wales. (Its address is 50-64 Broadway, London SWIH 0DB).

Though the South East is the most prosperous region in the UK, its population is static, and its economic lead over the rest of the UK appears to be na r rowing- mainly because of the economic decline of inner London and the areas straddling the Thames Estuary (Regional Trends in the South East: the South East Regional Monitor 1983-84, 1984). A later report (Im- plementing the Regional Strategy for the South East, 1986) comments that, despite local authority initiatives, 'no appreciable effect can be seen yet on the indicators of deprivation, particularly unemployment' . An appendix to this report reproduces the Govern- ment's South East Regional Strategic Guidance (of June 1986). This contains the highly revealing statement that "it is necessary to recognise the

Book u'atch

limitations of the land use phmning process. It is the priwlte sector, not the planning system, that generates economic growth."

The latest SERPLAN report, De- veh)pment Potential in the Eastern Thames Corridor (1987) highlights the "considerable potential" in this area of traumatic economic decline. "Part of the problem is the poor image which the area seems to have in the eyes of many developers and industrialists, and what is needed is a concerted effort by the authorities involved to eliminate the problems and to prom- ore the area's latent potential." Re- commended are "a significantly en- hanced programme of infrastructure and environmental treatment'. This has a very familiar ring to readers of regional planning reports over the last 4(1 years and, typically, it is not clear whether it is a statement of intent or hol~e.

Land Use Planning attd the Housing Market: An Assessment by Coopers and Lybrand (Plumtree Court, Lon- don EC4A 4HT), published in 1985, consists of a summary report and two working papers. The study was com- missioned by the Department of the Environment "to assess and report on the varying assessments and assump- tions about new housing made by the planning authorities and house builders, and to assess the extent to which both the provision in phms and hind which is made available for housing takes account of the requirements of the market for new priwltc sector housing'. The conclusion is clear: "there is no doubt that most of the structure plans of the 197()s paid little attention to the market demand for housing. The structure phms tended to be based on a sltrvo'-analysis-lflan approach which required a rather de- terminist view of the issues which they examined'. But there is a deeper issue: "market demand for housing was not and probably cannot [my emphasis] be estimated in an area and over time; this precludes its incorporation into structure phms and prevents any meaningful quantitative comparisons to be made with plan figures'.

This constitutes a fundamental challenge to the basis of the UK planning system and raises a host of thorny


Book watch

questions which many interested parties may prefer to ignore. Surprisingly, the nine members of the steering group for this study were not members of the Conservative Party Central Office or the Adam Smith Institute but, with one exception (the repre- sentative of the Housebuilders Fed- eration), were governmental officials - mostly from the Department of the Environment. Moreover, they have no hesitation in stressing the point that builders do not operate or think in terms familiar to planners: instead they look to "market signals'. It fol- lows that the planning system should concern itself with ways of improving the process to respond to demand. It is suggested that there are three types of change which are needed. First, there should be clearer signals from the market. (A working paper includes a list of possible indicators, together with the suggestion that those operat- ing in the market should work with planners to develop useful indicators.) Second, the plans themselves should consciously take note of such demand factors and, of critical importance, the plans should be sufficiently flexible to be able to respond to demand in the course of implementation - including the identification of criteria which, when met, should signal a need for a review. Plans should ensure that sites of varying size and location are available.

Clearer guidance

Finally, clearer guidance from central government is required, and appeal decisions should be consistent with exhortations. The review of structure plans should be simplified and accelerated and other major aspects of the planning process should be streng- thened - 'including some possible limit on the extent of public participation'. The 'rationale for some of the more rigid land constraints which flow from national policies' also needs review, particularly the planning presumption against development of agricultural land.

This is the most important report since the Planning Advisory Group's The Future of Development Plans (HMSO, 1965). Unfortunately, it has two incidental weaknesses. First, it is

too brief (a rare complaint): secondly, the fact that it is published by consul- tants and not by the DOE or HMSO reduces its ease of accessibility. This may suit some since, as the authors note at the end of their hard-hitting proposals, "none of these suggestions offers easy solutions'.

Quality of life

'Quality of life, though impossible to define to everyone's satisfaction, is a concept that elicits much interest and that stimulates much research." So starts the introduction to Research on dw Quality of Life edited by Frank Andrews of the Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan - an i n s t i t u t i o n which has a long- established reputation in this field. The book (published by the Institute in 1986) is a collection of 13 papers and is wide-ranging in coverage, though the editor stresses that it is not intended to be a comprehensive survey. Given the amount of research carried out in this area, that would be a most formidable undertaking. There are three "clusters' into which the contributions are organized. First, there are three chapters on the 'psychological determinants of perceived well-being'. Second, there are reports of six studies that deal with the "conceptualization and description" of the life quality of particular groups of Americans. These relate to dimen- sions such as "subjective mental health', and specific groups such as the young, the elderly, and black Amer- icans. Finally, there are four papers on the social content of life quality, such as social support, living arrangements and intergenerational relationships.

The book had its origins in a symposium and it exhibits the typical strengths and weaknesses which flow from this: highly detailed, in-depth case studies of wide diversity, lacking any overall conceptual framework. This is heavy reading, but it is reward- ing for those who want to dig deeply in this field.

The field is, indeed, one in which mammoth effort can be applied - as witnessed by a volume with the appropriately lengthy title Quality of Life in American Neighborhoods: Levels of AfJluence, Toxic Waste atul

Cancer Mortality in Residential Zip Code Areas by Ja~,. M. Goukt and Alice Tepper Marlin (Westview Press, 1986). Seven-eighths of the volume are tables for zip code areas, listing 13 factors, including population, house- holds, owneroccupation, income, age and toxic waste. This again is not an easy book to comprehend, but the blurb helps: "the author reports the number of abandoned toxic waste sites and the per capita level of toxic waste generation in each area, and explores the relation of these factors to the wide geographic variation in cancer mortality and the relationship to poverty and affluence. Cancer mortality is highest, not in the large affluent urban areas but in those areas with above average industrial waste levels. On the other hand, some of the highest income suburban neighborhoods lie sufficiently close to the toxic-ridden areas to share common environmental risks.' If this is difficult to comprehend (and there is more) it is because it is inherently so. The publisher commends the book as "an invaluable reference tool for industry, environmentalists, lawyers, real estate brokers, and university, corporate, and public libraries'.

Livable places

Partners for Liwlble Places is a Washington, DC based non-profit organization representing more than 1200 organizations and individuals "committed to improving communities" economic health and quality of life'. It was founded in 1977 and has become increasingly active and in- novative. Its publication list is now impressive. Three recent titles have arrived at the Bookwatch desk. The first is Jonathan Propp's Neighbor- hood Open-Space Amenity Strategies (1985) which is an amdysis of the revitalization activities in six neighbourhoods. Second (also published in 1985) is The Economics of AmeniO,: Community Futures attd Quality of Lff? - A Policy Guide to Urban Economic Development. As the Pre- face explains, the book "is about how cities, faced with the need to diversify and strengthen their local economies, can employ creative revitalization strategies that allow them not only to


weather the tides of national economic change, but simultaneously to improve their quality of life'. Third, there is a substantial volume on The Return of the Livable Cio': Learning from America's Best (Acropol is Books, Washington, 1986). The authors (Robert H. McNulty, R. Leo Penne and Dorothy R. Jacobson) submit that the volume "documents many of the imaginative, thoughtful, and catalytic tools cities are using to effect their economic transition and to retain and expand private investment'. The assets are great: "indigenous natural, cultural, and historic resources, man-made attractions, and civic institutions'. These are shared by all communities. Of course, revitalization is not a cure for all ills, and many US cities will continue to experience serious economic, social and financial problems. 'No amount of wishful thinking will make the problems dis- appear, but the rebirth "*success stor- ies" are not fabrications. Behind them are real achievements in urban development and redevelopment. ' Forty cities are discussed, including Portland (ME), Baltimore, Boston, Pittsburgh, Ind ianapol i s , Louisvil le , Chatta- nooga, Richmond (VA), Tampa, St Louis, St Paul, Tulsa, Denver, Salt Lake City, Seattle, San Antonio, San Diego and many small towns.

Partners for Livable Places is a protagonist, a resource and a catalyst for action. Its address is 1429, 21st Street, Washington, DC 211036. Spe- cial reduced prices are available for order of all the three books reviewed - a real bargain! (In US currency, $22.00 instead of $43.95, plus post- age).

The new towns in the UK are good examples of livable places if the spate of recent books are to be believed. Mostly sponsored by their former development corporations (as their epitaphs?) they sing their praises loud and clear. Of quite different character is a monograph by Christopher Carter and Michael Keating, The Designation of Cumbernauld New Town (The Open University, Faculty of Sciences, Working Paper 2, 1986). This is subti- tled A Case Study of Central- Local Governnlent Relationships in Scotland During the 1950s. Extending over some 100 pages, it details the back-

ground to the establishment of the only new' town to be designated in the 1950s. The story unfolds almost with a sense of inevitability, though it did not seem so to those involved at the time. They were preoccupied with conten- tious issues which now seem often to be of a curious or strange nature. (For example, if the new town went ahead, how much should Glasgow pay for the "relief which it would bring to the city's horrendous housing problems?)

I have a particularly personal interest in this study because of my association with the official history of the new towns (Environmental Plan- ning, Vol 3: New Towns Polio', HMSO, 1979), but the more significant point is the important role played by Scottish civil servants in obtaining political acceptance of the new town. The authors warn ~envious English readers' to be cautious about similar possibilities south of the border. In fact, however, there is plenty of evi- dence that the Scottish story is not unique to that country. Whether this is a matter for acclaim or concern is a major question which warrants more study than it has so far had. (The address of the Open University is Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA.)

Van Nostrand Reinhold publications

Certain publishers are conspicuous by the frequency of their titles in Book- watch, but typically the focus has been on the subject rather than the publisher. Here a new departure is made: on receiving a score of books from Van Nostrand Reinhold, it was decided to review the batch as a whole. About a dozen of their more recent publications are referred to here.

The range of titles is an impressive one. I cannot ascertain or impose a logical classification, so I start at random with the Directory of hlterna- tional Periodicals and Newsletters on the Built Environment by Frances C. Gretes (1986), which aims to provide a comprehensive guide to the periodicals in this field. My immediate reac- tion is one of being overwhelmed; but, of course, no one is expected to consult, let alone read, nearly 2(XI0 titles. The bibliographic analysis will

Book watch

be sufficient to help most searchers (though the first random keyword l sought, "Property" was absent). It would require an advanced librarian to assess the adequacy of this volume: I found it helpful.

The Yearbook of Landscape Architecture: The L~sues of Energy edited by Richard L. Austin et al (1985) is more modest than its title suggests. It contains 10 articles on energy problems, including: the use of resource-recovery plants: the develop- merit of small-scale hydroelectric projects to augment energy resources without harming the environment: the revival of the energy-wise siting and landscaping techniques of the past: and the use of slope orientation, vegetation, water and site surfaces to design energy-efficient homes.

Urban space

Finding Lost Space: Theories of Urban Design by Roger Trancik (1986) is concerned with 'lost space', or "the inadequate use of space [which] afflicts most urban centers todav'. It traces leading urban spatial design theories and explores contemporary approaches to urban spatial design. The basic question is "how can we regain in our shattered cities a public realm that is made of firmly shaped, coherently linked, humanly meaningful urban spaces?" This is an ew)cative and s t i m u l a t i n g book. Energy- Efficient Housing Design by Jonathan Lane (1986) is very different, it presents what is described as 'a novel solution to the problem of creating c o s t - e f f e c t i v e , e n e r g y - e f f i c i e n t h o m e s ' . The three b e s t - k n o w n approaches (passive solar, superin- sulation and earth shelter) are integrated here to produce a more efficient and economical design than is possible with any one method. The blurb claims much, but the promise is here.

Vittorio Magnago Lampugnani 's Architecture and City Planning in the Twentieth Century (1985) is a transla- tion of a 1980 book which has, as its main message , the theme that 'architecture and city planning cannot be viewed as separate phenomena nor as isolated from outside influences'. From this starting point, the author


Book watch

"interprets the major architectural m o v e m e n t s . . , that have occurred in Europe and the United States in our century'. As the blurb proclaims, this is a thought-provoking survey which is intended to provide 'a departure point for in-depth exploration of the material presented'.

Playground Design: Outdoor En- vironments for Learning and DevHol> merit by Aase Erikson (1985) provides detailed guidelines for organizing and implementing design ideas for play- grounds. More specifically, it elo- quently demonstrates the value of (and the hard work involved in achiev- ing the) participation of both children and parents in the design process.

The problems involved in Housing an Aging SocieO' are well documented in the collection of essays edited under this title by Robert J. Newcomer, M. Powell Lawton and Thomas O. Byerts (1986). The range of relevant issues is extraordinarily wide: from neighbour- hood quality to housing preferences and choices; from rural aspects to urban rooming houses; and from cri- minal victimization of the aged to supportive living arrangements. J. David Hoglund takes a more focused approach in Housing ]?~r the Elderly: Privacy and hldependence in Environ- ments for the Aging (19851, though he allegedly attempts "a complete and sensitive look at the influences of architecture and environment on the aging individual'. In fact, this is a much more design oriented book which considers a range of design approaches to the needs of the elderly. The main part of the book analyses 16 projects in Sweden, Denmark and the UK that "respond to the changing needs of attitudes of and attitudes toward the elderly'.

Urban design The Urban Design Process by Hamid Shirvani (1985) is a mitre integrated book which "explores in detail the designer's responsibility tit serve the built, human, and natural environ- ments, analysing land use, building form, traffic circulation, open space" and much more. This is a contemporary review of the state-of-the-art design of US cities. It attempts too much but, so far as it goes (in a mere 200

pages), it is interesting and promising: perhaps the author mav try his hand in the future on a tar,,er canvas.

How to Make Cities Liveahh" edited by Gary O. Robinette (1984) is, according to its subtitle, a set of "design guidelines for urban homes- teading'. In fact, it is an account of two case studies of revitalization in Baltimore inner-city neighbourhoods. The discerning (US) reader can learn much from this slender (150 page) volume, though the emphasis is largely on physical design. Similarly with Diane Y. Carstens' Site Pla;ming and Design for the Elderh' (19851, the focus is as the title indicates. The extent and depth of analysis is impressive, but it is not self-evident that the book provides "practical solutions': there are many non-design factors involved in the implementation of schemes such as these. Michael A. Stegman collates some of these in his Housing Finance and Public Policy: Cases and Sutqflemenmry Readings (1986). This aims at a wider audience: "students of city planning, public policy and business administration its well as those interested in real estate, a rch i t ec tu re , and de ve l opme n t ' . While the other Van Nost rand Reinhold books may be accused of being narrow in scope and vision, this is at the opposite extremc. It encom- passes investor strategies, public- private financing partnerships, the regulation of private market activities, sweat-equity and a host of local and national housing issues. I found it enthralling, but at the end I wits not sure where 1 had arrived.

Very different in character is k),'il- i O, Siting and Public Ol?position by Michael O ' t | a re , Lawrence Baeow and Debra Sanderson (1983). This asks the simple question: why do prisons, hazardous waste facilities and low-income housing projects arouse such opposition from those who live near to where they arc proposed to be located? The argument is an interesting one: the authors reject the conventional view that local opponents are uninformed or irrational, and argue that current siting practices invite opposition. This develops into a series of guidelines for successful siting proc- edures, including a new twist in the t r ans f e r of d e v e l o p m e n t r ights

(though the term is not used). I found the case less than convincing, but it is at the least interesting, and at the most promising.

Finally, from the house of Van Nostrand Reinhold, are two books dealing with computer applications to planning. Steven I. Gordon's Contlm- ter ModeLs in Envirmlnlental Planning (1985) is a practical guide in the area indicated by the title including hazardous waste models, as well as models concerning water quality, air quality and stormwater runoff. Cartography an d Site Analysis t+'ith Micro¢'onztmtetw by N. Brito Mutunayagam and All Bahrami is promoted as a 'hands-on volume" which is 'user friendly'. This is a matter of relativity, but it certainly requires some prior computer sophis- tication. It is an 'intermediate' rather than it beginner's text. As such it is well and clearly presented.

Canadian perspectives A Canadian perspective of tile urban level of government is provided by Local and Urban Politics in Canada by Donald J.H. Higgins (Gage, 1986). This builds upon, and greatly expands the thinking of the author's earlier Urban Canada: Its Government and Politics (Gage, 1977). The new book reflects the growth in Canadian urban political studies over the last decade (as well its changes in the urban political scene, caused by a variety of factors of which the demographic and the economic arc salient), lliggins stresses the diversity of local government and politics in Canad;.i. (The diversity is, of course, even greater in the USA). This diversity constitutes a real stumbling block to a comprehensive understanding of local government. Local and Urban Politics in Caneula "aims to provide a framework tk~r the analysis of the institutions and structures of government, and the dynamics of political life in Canada's localities'. The author exceeds his ambitions: though focused on Canada, and directed at Canadian readers, the volume is a notable contribution to a general understanding of the dynamics of urban politics.

For those deeply interested in the rapidly shifting sands of Canadian politics, 'the seventh ammal review of


national priorities and federal spend- ing produced by the School of Public Administration at Carleton Universi- ty" will be of interest (Michael J. Prince, ed, How Ottawa Spends: 1986-87 - Tracking the Tories, Melhuen, 1986): it is a mid-term assessment of the Mulroney government (written before the late 1986 and early 1987 ~scandals'). In addition to a general overview and an analysis of "Fiscal Facts and Trends', the volume includes essays on energy and north- ern development.

Vancouver's Past: Essays in Social History is a delight to read. It consists of 10 papers edited by Robert A.J. McDonald and Jean Barmen (Univer- sity of British Columbia Press, 1986). There is no conceptual framework': the papers deal with a miscellany of 'hitherto neglected areas of the city's past', and are of intrinsic individual interest (particularly, of course, to those who know Vancouver). The subjects covered include the social significance of the historical low density, suburban character of the city. the character of its neighbourhoods, medical and women's history, and housing reform.

More integrated and powerful is Power and Place: Canadian Urban Development in the North American Context edited by Gilbert A. Stelter and Alan F.J. Artibise (University of British Columbia Press, 1986). I have lost track of how many volumes of essays these two stalwarts have edited, but they are all characterized by a consistently high standard of writing. Some previous volumes have suffered from poor quality printing and production (with frequent changes in publisher); but this one is faultless. Its focus is on the relatively neglected question of power in urban development: who has it? On whose behalf is it used? To what extent is the nature and shape of an urban place "a reflec- tion of the power structure of the larger society?' The 14 papers explore various aspects of these and related issues. They are organized into five sections "in order to emphasize different aspects of the relationship of power to place'.

The first section is an introductory overview by Stelter. Section II deals with three levels of the political eco-

nomy of urban growth: the national system of cities: the impact of different levels of government on individual city growth: and the local initiatives for growth generated from within communities. The third section examines the forces at work in shaping the physical environment, with essays on planning, land development, the building industry and internal trans- portation companies. This is followed by three essays on local government: these discuss the declining autonomy of municipal government, the move to larger units with metropolitan forms and the impact of suburbanization on the effectiveness of local government. The final section gives a concluding overview of how the value systems of Canada and the USA affect the character of each country's urban development. This is a first class set of interesting, analytical essays.

Policy issues

Two other recent Canadian studies are by authors with the harmonious names of Bryan and Brym. lngrid A. Bryan's Economic Policies in Canada (Butter- worths, 2 ed, 1986) is a wide-ranging, analytical survey of current economic problems and policies in Canada. This achieves its objective of integrating "the vast literature available on Cana- dian economic issues'. It deals with resource allocation, renewable and non-renewable resources, energy, problems of Canadian manufacturing and a range of policy issues. A major section discusses the distribution of income and the final part debates economic stabilization issues. This is an important economic study.

Robert J. Brym (who edited The Structure of the Canadian Capitalist Class, Garamond Press, Toronto, 1985) is the editor of Regionalism in Canada (Irwin, 1986). This is a collection of papers emanating in part from a 1983 conference held in Toronto on 'The Structure of the Canadian Capi- talist Class'. The volume contains essays which "can all be viewed as attempts to assess the relative importance of regional versus class causes of various interprovincial differences'. The six authors (all Canadian sociologists) argue for and against neo-Marxist interpretations of Cana-

Book it'lllCh

dian society, and its regional dinaen- sion. Ralph Matthews. in a concise and stimulating final essay, underlines the area of agreement between the two approaches and suggests the directions in which further research should go.

Ruben Bellan's essay on The Un- necessary Evil: All Answer to Cana- da's High Unemployment (McClelhmd and Stewart, 19861 is a racy, confi- dent, hard-hitting analysis which demonstrates the author's determination (according to the blurb) "to do what he can to end the tragic, avoidable waste of a Canadian unemployment rate of almost 10 percent'. His answer is in opposition to the conventional wis- dom. Government deficits are not necessarily bad. Rather than trim funds for public job creation, Bellan suggests that thev be increased "judi- ciously'. This and other economic stimulants would result in a rise in productivity and consumption that would revitalize the private sector. 'The full employment demanded by society is entirely possible in our free enterprise s y s t e m . . , if only we could see beyond the myths of today's conventional economic and political wis- dom." If only this was the case.

A superb collection of historical papers is now in its second edition: Readings in Canadian History edited by R. Douglas Francis and Donald B. Smith (Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada, 2 Volumes, 1986). Of particular interest are the sections on "Urban and commercial development in the Canadas in the mid-nineteenth century" in Volume I and three essays on 'Urbanization* in Volume 2: but there is much more in these 1162 pages.

Constitutional reform Much shorter is the concise overview of Canadian history by Kenneth McNaught which is now back in print: The Pelican History of Canada (Pen- guin Books, 19851. The significant political developments that have taken place in the early 1950s are reflected in a new (fourth) edition of Introduction to Canadian Politics and Government by W.L. White, R.H. Wagenberg and R.C. Nelson (Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada, 1985). One of


Book watch

these developments, of course, is constitutional reform. This has had very wide repercussions which are the subject of a continuing series of publications. One such is an in-depth analysis of the Canadian aboriginal peoples by Bryan Schwartz: First Principles, Second Thoughts': Aboriginal Peoples, Constitutional Reform and Canadian Statecraft (Institute for Research on Public Policy, Montreal, 1986). This presents a comprehensive analysis of the politics, policy and law of constitutional reform with respect to the aboriginal peoples since the patriation of the Canadian Constitution. More concerned with employment and economic development, and focused on the Micmac Indians of Nova Scotia, is a study by Fred Wien, published by the same Institute: Rebuilding the Econo- mic Base o f Indian Communities: The Micmac in Nova Scotia (1986). For the general reader, a succinct account of the position of Canada's aboriginal peoples is given by Donald Purich in Our Land: Native Rights in Canada (Lorimer, Toronto, 1986). He paints "a quick, compelling portrait of the vibrant precontact Indian and lnuit cultures" and relates the effects of European colonization and government 'indian policy'. The core of the book deals with current issues of native rights land claims, economic development, self-government and constitutional protection. A separate chapter is devoted to the special case of the M6tis.

Finally in this list of Canadian publications are two very different books. The first is Russell J. Anthony and Alastair R. Lucas, A Handbook on the Conduct o f Public Inquiries in Canada (Butterworths, 1985). This is precisely what its title indicates: a handbook. It is addressed to lawyers and others involved in public inquiries, and con- centrates on information-gathering and project type inquiries rather than those established to investigate sus- pected wrong-doing. In contrast is a second edition of Murray Bookchin's The Limits o f the City (Black Rose Books, Montreal, 1986). This analyses, within a Marxist framework, the rise of the bourgeois city. Bookchin's purpose 'is to provide the reader with an idea of what the city was once like at its best, to recover high standards of

urbanism all the more to question the present lack of standards in judging the modern metropolis and the society that fosters its growth'. Though a philosophical essay, it has a practical message: 'Libertarian municipalism constitutes the only viable social and political alternative I can envisage to the impasse of proletarian socialism • . . and the rampant urbanization that will dissolve all community ties that exist today'. He is optimistic that it is not too late to prevent society becoming enmeshed by ~the sinews of bureaucratization'.

S h o r t e r n o t i c e s

Developments in British Politics 2 edited by Henry Drucker et al (St Martin's Press, 1986) is explicitly ~a direct replacement" for the highly successful former volume of this: title (published 1983, reprinted 1983, revised 1984 and 1985). Both were designed to meet the need for a book that would deal with the "exciting and fast-moving' flow of UK politics. The volume under review deals with the central issues in the study and practice of politics - including ideology, the party system, government (inside and outside Whitehall) and a range of current policy issues. As a foreign resident I found it particularly useful in bringing me up to date with the contemporary political scene. Of particular interest to readers of Cities is the discussion of the deterioration in c e n t r a l - l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t relationships: this has been to the detriment of the older inner urban areas, insignificantly affected by the 'purely cosmetic" Urban Programme•

Alan Grant 's The Anwrican Politic- al Process (Gower, 1986) has had a somewhat slower turnover: the first edition was published in 1979, the second in 1982. This is an up-to-date, rather than an "instant' book. In the words of the blurb, it 'examines both the formal and the informal institutions of government, and analyses how these bodies interact in the making of public policy in the United States in order to provide an understanding of contemporary American politics'. It is a succinctly written (sometimes too much so) introduction to the machinery and processes of US government.

Gerald Houseman's State and Local Government: The New Political Bat- tleground (Prentice-Hall, 1986) covers some of the same ground but. though much of the discussion is about processes, it also deals with a number of policy areas such as "the continuing urban crisis" and the problem of inter- state competition for business and industry. These areas are chosen to add force to the rnain theme of the book: that the states are inadequate instruments of government• He cites their 'remoteness; nonaccountability: lack of access to information and to officials; centralization: and, only on occasion but still far too often, out- right repression when those who run the institutions of state government feel threatened. There is also the dispiriting problem of corruption." Houseman presents a formidable in- dictment, and he sees little likelihood of significant improvement, unless it be by way of the "new Iocalism . . . born of the realization that self-help is a much better strategy than reliance upon politicians and policy-makers at any level of government . . . This localism contains the seeds of the participatory ideal and the very limited but feasible development of democracy at the local, if not the state, level of government." House- man is not optimistic, though others have argued that this is a hopeful place to start - see, for instance, Peggy Heilig and Robert J. Mundt, Your Voice at City Hall: The Politics. Proce- dures and Policies o f District Repre- sentation (University of New York Press, 1984) where it is argued that changes in the method of selecting city council members (from election at- large to election by geographically def ined districts) may result in changes in the distribution of power in favour of minority groups.

The United States League of Sav- ings Institutions (USLSI) has a continuing programme of publications on the many facets of homeownership. Their wealth of material is illustrated by Homeownership: Returning to Tradition, published in 1986. This demonstrates that homeownership affordability in the USA continued to improve in 1985 and, as in 1983, first-time buyers made up a substantial proportion (39%) of sales. However,


the housing market is characterized by volatility, and what appears to be a trend in one period can often be seen not to be so by the date the figures are published. However, the USLSI main- tains a flow of publications which enable the interested analyst to be as up-to-date as possible. Publications (and a catalogue), are available from the League at 111, E. Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL 60601.

Keeping up to date is also a problem in relation to planning law. It is also a tedious and difficult business, since it involves not only changes in legislation, but also court decisions, depart- mental circulars and even ministerial pronouncements. We must therefore be grateful to those legal scholars who painstakingly keep abreast of planning matters, digest them and present us with an up-to-date collation. This is particularly useful when the up-dates extend beyond law to policy, as is the case with Malcolm Grant 's Urban Planning Law: First Supplement (Sweet and Maxwell, 1986). This is excellently done and is relatively easy to use (overcoming some of the objec- tions which l raised on this form of updating in the November 1986 Book- watch - where I argued in favour of the presumably costly alternative of a loose-leaf format). I hear that a new paperback edition will incorporate both the original and the supplement. But, by that time, another supplement will be required. Such is the treadmill which writers who seek to keep us in- formed have to work. Grant obviously enjoys this labour of love: otherwise he could not produce such well organized and interesting material.

English planning legislation requires local authorities to determine which parts of their areas are of such special architectural or historic interest that it is desirable "to preserve or enhance" them, and to designate them as conservation areas. (For those who require statutory reference, the provision is to be found in section 277 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1971, as amended.) Following designation, the local authority are required to formulate and publish proposals for the preservation and enhancement of such areas. This is part of the day-to-day work of a planning authority: the reference to it

here is occasioned bv the arrival of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea's publication CHELSEA: Conservation Area Prw~osals State- ment (Director of Planning and Trans- portation, The Town Hall, Hornton Street, London W8 7N8, 1986). l have not seen many such Statements, but this is an eloquent and attractive production. The text is clear and jargon-free, and the illustrations are evocative. This is a first-class planning authority document.

Land Use Planning Techniques and Policies is less than its title suggests until one notes that it is a report on the proceedings of a symposium sponsored by the Soil Science Society of America and the American Society of Agronomy. It represents 'a continued effort of agronomists and soil scien- tists to provide biologically and physi- cally based information to further the development of . , . policy instruments [which] strike an appropriate balance between land use for food production and that for living space and environmental quality'. Some of the papers are technical, but there are some general ones, including 'Global Perspectives on Land Use', 'Land Use Planning in the 1980s' and 'Agricultu- ral Land Use Concerns in Canada'. The Soil Science Society of America is located at 677 South Segoe Road, Madison, W1 53711.

Hugh Brogan's Longman History o f the United States o f America (Long- man, 1985) has now been reprinted as The Pelican History o f the United States o f America (Penguin Books, 1986). This is a classic which is as compelling reading as a Michener novel. It is, of course, a general history rather than a specifically urban history; but the two overlap. As Bro- gan notes at one point, 'the rise of Philadelphia illustrates another general truth about American history: the importance of the cities, and of the process of urbanization'.

On the UK scene, one no longer favoured mechanism for attempting to resolve land-use conflicts over large areas has been regional planning. Though never developed to the extent that many hoped (and many did not), the regional economic planning councils represented a half-hearted attempt to devise a tier of planning between

Book watch

central and local government. Mario Rui Martins" An Organizational Approach to Planning (Gower, 1986) discusses the rise and fall of the councils against the background of a case study of the West Midlands. It then proceeds to an organizational analysis in which fact and theory are blended. Like other writers, Martins has no optimistic prediction for regional planning in the future.

Louis Hellman's Architecture for Beginners is a somewhat heavy- handed comic book (Writers and Readers Publishing in association with Unwin Paperbacks, 1986). As with all good comics, there is an underlying serious vein. For example, one "bal- loon" asks "Isn't architecture an art?'. The answer is 'Yes, but not an isolated, museum a f t . . . It's an art that affects evervbody. . . Everybody ex- periences architecture, like it or not. You don't have to look at modern paintings or listen to modern music if you don't want to, but if a new building goes up in your neighbour- hood . . . you can't avoid seeing it." There is also the Russian version of a teaser that pops up in one form or another all over the world: "Why do you get the best view of the city from the Palace of Culture, comrade?'. Answer: 'Because from there you can't see the Palace of Culture, comrade'. There is a great deal more in similar vein, which some will find intriguing, but others may find tedious. Person- ally, I enjoyed it in small doses.

Pride o f Place: Building the Amer- ican Dream (Houghton Mifflin, 1986) is "the book of the film" or, to be more precise, the 'companion' volume to the American Public Broadcasting System television series. It is a sump- tuous coffee-table production, lavishly illustrated and engrossing. The author, Robert A.M. Stern, writes an informative "story of American architecture'. Stern is an award- winning architect, but he writes in a jargon-free, easy style. There are no academic pretensions: the book is simply to be enjoyed.

J. Barry Cullingworth College of Urban Affairs and

Public Policy, University of Delaware Newark, DE 19716, USA


Download - Whatever happened to planning?

Top Related