The Use and Abuse of Drugs On Saturday, 15th April, 1967, the fourteenth Symposiun~ of The Forensic

Science Society, entitled "The Use and Abuse of Drugs", was held a t the Cairn Hotel, Harrogate. The President, Dr. E. G. C. Clarke, took the chair for the morning session, and Dr. A. K. Mant for the afternoon session. One hundred members and guests were present a t the Symposium. In the evening an informal dinner was held a t the Cairn Hotel. The following four papers were amongst those presented a t the Symposium.

D rug Trafficking GEORGE ARMSTRONG

Detective Sufierinte~zdent, Liverpool a d Hootle Co~zstabulavy, E l z g l a ~ d

The Drug Menace After reading sections of the Press and listening to some television programmes

one might obtain the impression that wc in this country are fast becoming a nation of drug takers, if not addicts. The graphic picture painted is that teen- agers in particular, readily resort to the use of drugs, often for no other reason than to enjoy a new sensation and, lurking in the background, there is the evil 'pusher' who can, should he desire, manipulate these people to his benefit, either financially or physically.

This picture, often colourfully pigmented by reports of isolated cases before the Courts in all parts of the country, tends to leave the ordinary public with a vague yet horrifying impression that such practices are rife and involve a large percentage of our population.

While this is far from the truth, as only a very small minority are affected, it would be wrong for me to suggest that the incidence of drug addiction in this country is inconsiderable ; in fact figures show quite clearly that addiction is on the increase.

The Interdepartmental Committee on Drug Addiction which, under the chairmanship of Lord Brain, recently concluded its research into this problem found that known addicts to dangerous drugs in this country rose from 454 in 1959, to 753 in 1964, and that the increase was virtually confined to heroin. Of the 342 heroin addicts, 328 had been introduced to the drug through non- medical channels. Nearly 40 per cent. of the known addicts were under 35 years of age and 40 of them were under the age of 20 years.

I t was acknowledged tlien that the problem was largely confined to London and so it is today.

Tlle latest official figures for 1966 show there were 1,139 known addicts in the country, of which 749 were dependant on heroin. However, these statistics should be considered as only the tip of the ice-berg, as there are obviously some who have not yet come to our notice and many more who a t present are just flirting with dangerous drugs and arc not yet fully committed to them.

Altllougli tlie picture of drug habituation has changed alarmingly within the last few years, I do not believe that, as yet, there is a highly organised illicit traffic in drugs in this country, but the field is ripe for exploitation and it is hoped that the new Bill on dangerous drugs, following the recommendations of the Brain Committee, will alleviate the danger and stamp out this social infection.

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International Control Although the dangers of drugs and their inherent addiction were foreseen

many, many years ago, and although there existed several multilateral drug control treaties between certain countries, it was not until 1912, at the Hague, that various contracting nations agreed to control the sale and use of dangerous drugs in such a manner as would confine them to medical and legitimate purposes, and thus prevent their diversion into illicit channels.

After the Great War of 1914-1918, the League of Nations was entrusted with the general supervision of international trafficking in drugs but, later, this task was undertaken by the United Nations and the World Health Organisation, to which all contributing nations have now to submit an annual account.

I t was conceded that to make international control anything like successful i t was necessary not only to control drugs imported into a country to ensure they passed only into the hands of authorised persons, but to have an efficient internal or domestic control to prevent these drugs reaching a 'black market'. I t was recognised, too, that if the domestic controls were inadequate and illicit supplies, even in small quantities at a time, were channelled to unauthorised persons, then the system of import and export controls would be largely defeated.

The Government of that day must have had these dangers in mind when the Dangerous Drugs Act of 1920 was formulated. This was followed almost yearly by further Acts of Parliament, Regulations and Statutory Orders, all with the purpose of tightening our control of dangerous drugs. Eventually the Law became rather complex but the air was cleared by the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1965, which superseded all previous legislation, excepting the companion Dangerous Drugs Regulations, No. 2 of 1964, and the Drugs (Prevention of Misuse) Act, 1964, which deals with the problem of amphetamines.

I have no intention of burdening you with the Law on this subject, let it suffice for me to say that the current legislation gives effect to the obligations which we in this country haveientered into internationally. The Law is sufficient to ensure that supplies of dangerous drugs are channelled solely to licit persons, but only if one takes no account of human frailties, such as greed, slackness and disinterest which, I am convinced, are responsible for the leakage of these drugs to people who so often occupy the twilight fringe of our society.

Sources of Supply Drugs, especially in powder or pill form, are easy to conceal and, therefore,

ideal subjects for smuggling. For instance, what could be more innocuous than a tin of talcum powder in the possession of a mother coming into the country with a baby? Yet that powder could be cocaine or heroin. I t must be accepted that some narcotics are being smuggled into this country but, because of the close liaison the police have with H.M. Customs and Excise, and the success we have achieved in the field of detection, I believe this to be inconsiderable at the moment.

Then what other sources are open to the trafficker ? There is the doctor who over-prescribes for a patient or believes the story of the 'lost' prescription ; there is the chemist who does not notice a forged prescription, there are the hospitals, all with a tempting supply of drugs, and even some nursing homes ; there is the flimsy drug cupboard of the chemist's shop available to anyone with the incentive to break into the premises and last, but certainly not least, there is the lack of total security at the premises of some manufacturers and whole- salers of drugs.

We also have the growing problem of amphetamines, such as drinamyl (purple hearts), dexedrine (dexxes) and durophets (black bombers). No doubt these tablets fulfil an essential role in the field of medicine, but perhaps i t is not surprising that so many find their way into the wrong hands as I understand that manufacturers are allowed a margin of up to one per cent. to cover overspill

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and wastage. Large numbers of these tablets, broken or otherwise, can there- fore remain unaccounted for in the receipt and packing of many millions of tablets and the accepted wastage a temptation to the employees to use them- selves, or pass them to a trafficker.

These 'pep' pills which are so relatively easy to procure are sometimes the stepping stones to the hard drugs. As a police officer, having to deal with the problem physically rather than examining it clinically, I do not wholly subscribe to the general view that amphetamines are not habit forming. I t may be I am wrong in my assumption but I do know that the regular and even increasing dosage of these substances tends in time to retard the desired uplift and the subject is then liable to reach for the hard drugs in his desire for a new experience. This is where the danger lies.

The Persons Attracted to Drugs Primarily, drugs must give pleasure or, alternatively, create a feeling of

well-being, by relieving tension or providing a means of escape from responsi- bilities created by modern society, but it is not generally realised by the subjects that this initial 'honeymoon stage' as it has been called, can never really be re- captured after a while, even by increasing the dosage. The people most likely to fall within this category are :-

Criminals hoping to bolster their courage prior to committing crime. Prostitutes, to keep awake and physically active for their chosen pro- fession. So-called intellectuals and social mis-fits who seek a new field for ex- ploration. Degenerates resorting to drugs rather than face responsibility. Foolish youngsters trying to emulate some celebrities in the field of entertainment

and Students seeking to relieve stress accumulated whilst studying.

They are all fair game for the trafficker. While not referring to statistics but relying on what I have seen and heard,

it does appear that the escalation of drug habituation often commences with amphetamines, then cannabis, and, finally, the hard addictive drugs. Many subjects of course remain on the amphetamines, some progress only to can- nabis, while others may go straightjto heroin, cocaine or their derivatives. Much depends on the subject so-called circle of friends.

A person dependant on drugs is often in a sense of social isolation and is there- fore prone to introduce as many of his associates to the use of drugs, not only to ease this feeling of loneliness but with the purpose of forming a group of people in the hope that through them a source of supply will be maintained. I t is this inherent grouping or herding together of addicts which eases the task of the police officer engaged in the investigation of trafficking because once a member of the circle is detected enquiries usually lead to the identification of the others involved.

The Chain of Distribution Irrespective of the type of dangerous drug involved the trafficker must have a

source of supply available through illicit import, or already in this country. There must also be a ready market for its sale. If the drugs have to be imported then it involves a distributor having good contacts with the person responsible for their despatch and, generally, a carrier of the goods who cannot easily be connected with either of them. Once the drugs have evaded the import controls then there is often another carrier involved- usually someone of previous good character with legitimate access to the docks-who will take the narcotics to the main distributor at a pre-arranged spot.

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Often these drugs are despatched immediately to various centres such as London, Birmingham, Manchester, or the hfidlands, usually by road, and concealed in the motor vehicle behind a loose panel, a false floor, or even in the spare wheel.

Large distributors will rarely keep any of the consignment close enough to them to provide an instant link of identification, for instance, the drugs might be concealed in an empty room of a large sub-let dwelling house where, even if found, it might be difficult for the police to connect them with it. Rarely do they deal direct with the ordinary public but rely on disposing of the drugs through 'pushers', or 'ounce men' as they are termed in Liverpool, who buy from them small quantities at a time and dispose of the drugs in the beat clubs, licensed and gaming clubs, coffee bars, and other places where their customers congregate. By these methods the large distributors minimise their chances of detection and, in turn, the 'pushers' are rarely caught in possession of large quantities of dangerous drugs.

Sometimes a 'pusher' will try to insure against this risk of detection by en- trusting the drugs to a carrier while he maintains his contacts and seeks new customers. However, his carrier-often a woman of the prostitute class-will never be very far away from him as it is to her that potential customers are sent.

The Search for Evidence The chief dread of the trafficker, and indeed the customer, is to be found in

possession of dangerous drugs, or the utensils sometimes necessary for their use. They will go to great lengths to conceal the drugs but over the years certain common factors have emerged during our enquiries into drug trafficking in Liverpool.

Opium We do not have a particularly large problem in the illicit import of opium,

the smoking of which is wholly confined to Orientals resident in the city, or seamen on shore leave. In this connection we have the close co-operation of the Water Guard of H.M. Customs and Excise who, last year (1966), made a number of seizures of opium found concealed in vessels entering the Port. Their largest haul last year was 64 lbs. of prepared opium which would have been worth a great deal of money had it succeeded in reaching the illicit market where smears of this substance can be sold at prices ranging from 216 to 101- according to demand.

The practice of opium smoking in the city appears to be diminishing. Last year only 13 persons were arrested and charged with offences in this connection.

Three contributing factors appear to be responsible for this decline ; the colony of resident Orientals has been sharply reduced in recent years, the smok- ing of opium is not too difficult to detect because of its sickly odour which per- vades the premises and, perhaps the most significant, the new generation born in this country has quickly turned to our way of life and has shunned this health searing practice of opium smoking.

An added complication is the paraphernalia necessary for its preparation. Raw opium has to be soaked in water, then strained through a fine gauze linen or flannel and boiled until it thickens. The result is a dark brown treacly substance which, when rolled into small pills, is ready for smoking.

Then there must be a pipe, a needle to manipulate or reheat the opium, and a small lamp and some sweet vegetable oil, for its fuel. A mineral oil is rarely used as it tends to impart an unpleasant flavour to the opium.

The whole operation is somewhat laborious and the various utensils become impregnated in the process. When not in use they are therefore carefully hidden from view but a close examination of the floorboards of the premises searched invariably brings them to light.

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Heroin and Cocaine These are naturally harder to detect during a search because of the very

nature of the substances. Although Liverpool has a very large and varied sea-trade with all parts of the

World, we are not unduly troubled by the illegal import of heroin or cocaine, but it requires our constant vigilance. Last year (1966), there were no arrests and no seizures in respect of these drugs. In that year, too, we only had three known addicts in the city and even these have left us now. However, already this year (1967) another addict has been found in possession of heroin and is now serving a term of imprisonment. I t may interest you that when he was arrested he was found to be completely in the grip of the drug and his condition became so pitiful that within a few hours we had to call on the services of a doctor to sedate him.

Heroin is fast becoming a fashionable drug, probably because it is easy to conceal and hard to detect, its application is not generally cluttered by the use of instruments or utensils, and its effects are relatively quick-acting.

We have found pills, similar to aspirin but containing heroin, in the possession of addicts, but the purer forms of this drug in powder or fine crystal are often administered by placing the substance in the ends of cigarettes, or burning it on a piece of tin foil and inhaling the resultant fumes.

If an addict is really 'hooked' on the drug he will invariably resort to the hypodermic syringe. Improvised syringes are often used and in the early stages the solution is injected into the fleshy parts of the arms and legs. This method brings about a relatively slow reaction and, in time, the addict will gravitate towards being a 'main liner' by introducing the solution directly into the large veins in the crook of the elbows. The desired result is then achieved within seconds.

We look for these physical signs of regular intravenous injections when questioning suspects as these, and the finding of a syringe, however improvised, and even a stout rubber band used as a tourniquet to distend the veins, form valuable supporting evidence of addiction.

Cannabis Our main problem in Liverpool is cannabis which, though in some circles is

not considered a drug of true addiction, is in my opinion the most dangerous. Its action is unpredictable but very often, and particularly when taken with even a small amount of alcohol, the subject will resort to frenzied violence without any provocation.

Last year of the 67 persons arrested in the City of Liverpool and charged with being in unauthorised possession, importing, or being concerned in the management of premises dealing in dangerous drugs, 57 were connected with cannabis. Sentences ranging from Probation, fines of up to £100 and terms of imprisonment from one month to three years were imposed.

Perhaps the influence of cannabis can best be illustrated by the fact that one of these men was also responsible for the murder of a prostitute whom he literally beat to death with his feet and hands. In two other instances, where in each case the motive was robbery and the excuse 'that he had been smoking the weed', another man almost killed his victims by battering their heads un- mercifully with housebricks. Only the skill of the surgeons saved their lives.

The main traffickers in cannabis are the coloured non-Europeans resident in the city who, through the years, have forged a very good and profitable liaison with some crew members of ships sailing between West Africa, the Indian Continent and Liverpool, and those persons responsible for the shipment of the drugs. Sometimes the cannabis is concealed in sacks of yams or other innocuous cargo which bear a distinguishing mark for easy identification, or is hidden in the most ingenious fashion on board these ships to be brought off at leisure.

I t is recognised that certain ships are vulnerable to this type of trafficking and this has not escaped the notice of H.M. Customs and Excise who last year

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made seizures totalling more than 120 lbs. of cannabis, the largest single find being just over 58 lbs. in weight.

Generally, the large scale traffickers will deal only with the type of cannabis grown and processed in their native country, for instance, a West African pedlar usually distributes the dried plant or seed cannabis while the Indian or Pakistani will resort to block or resin cannabis. Our biggest haul last year (1966) was 48 lbs. of block cannabis which was found in a furnished but temporarily un- occupied dwellinghouse in the city, the owner of which was on holiday in Pakistan. His associate, who had means of access to the house, was subsequently arrested and convicted of being concerned in the management of premises used for dealing in cannabis.

Once cannabis, or indeed any other drug, is landed at a port the trafficker is faced with the problem of getting it to tlie illicit market. In Liverpool the docks are patrolled by us and we are perhaps fortunate in that the Dock Estate is an enclosed area.

If the trafficker cannot arrange for the drugs to be brought out of the docks in legitimate cargo then he has to resort to other and often ingenious methods. Sometimes a dummy run is arranged to note and test the reaction of the police officers on duty at the various dock gates and, on occasion, a calculated risk is taken by carefully hiding the drugs in a vehicle in such fashion that even if found the police miglit have difficulty in successfully connecting the driver with the drugs.

Often it is left to the wiles of a seaman, or some other person with legitimate access to the Dock Estate, who will attempt to walk from the docks, particularly when the shift changes of dockers occur, or when police officers a t the gates are fully engaged with other matters.

Such methods as taping blocks oi cannabis to the soles of the feet, or sewing thin strips of the drug inside a waist belt have been attempted and, on one occasion, a man detained was found to have 2 lbs. of seed cannabis evenly distri- buted around his thighs and buttocks and tied tightly within a plastic bag to his body. His outward appearance gave absolutely no indication of what he was carrying.

It takes considerable time and patience when searching premises for dangerous drugs as the most inaccessible and unlikely places are utilised. Drugs have been found underneath floorboards, the treads of staircases, in chimneys, behind loose bricks in internal walls, underneath fireplace tiles, in tea caddies, tobacco pouches, fountain pens, cigarettes, aspirin hottles, radios, pianos and settees. No possible hiding place can be ignored, on one occasion drugs were even found concealed behind a loose brick of an outer wall, access to which could only be gained by reaching far out of a bedroom window.

In an effort to cut down the time taken to ensure a thorough search has been made of suspected premises, we have trained a police dog to nose out cannabis and tests so far have achieved a remarkable degree of success.

Domestic Control of Dangerous Drugs It is apparent that the domestic control of dangerous drugs is in urgent need

of review but I believe this has long been recognised and the envisaged new Bill on dangerous drugs, the product of lengthy and careful research into the problem, will do much to eliminate this highly profitable and illicit trading in drugs.

The danger is the obvious likelihood of addiction and the misery, the physical and mental degeneration inextricably linked with it. If the subject is so 'hooked' there are but two thoughts in his mind, where can he satisfy his craving and how can he obtain his supplies ? Generally, an addict is not wealthy, he has often no thought of the future and will go to any length-he will cheat, lie or steal-all in the hope of maintaining what he considers an essential supply.

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Clinics I t seems, therefore, that the time is ripe for drug addiction to be considered

more or less as a communicable disease in that the subject should be isolated. I believe the Bill which is now before Parliament will provide for such treatment and the establishment of clinics to which addicts will be sent. If this does happen then the worry and responsibility of dealing with drug addiction will be taken from the shoulders of general practitioners and these patients handed to tlie care of specialists equipped for tlie task of weaning them back to a normal and - - heafihy life.

However, the answer to this problem may not be so simple, much will depend on whether the addict wislies to be cured, whether anv form of compulsion will be introduced to ensure treatment, and whether an efficient after-care service will be established.

Amphetamines I trust the new Bill will also meet the fast growing problem of amphetamines

by bringing them under stricter control and so ensure that manufacturers, whole- salers and even pharmacists would have to eliminate the unaccountable wastage, overspill and even loss which currently provides such a ready market.

Publicity In recent years the taking of dangerous drugs and 'pep' pills appears to have

had the wrong sort of publicity-not I hasten to add from official sources-in that it has almost been glamourised. This form of 'off-beat' publicity reached a new peak some weeks ago when an entertainer-a highly popular figure with the teen-agers of this country-arnestly suggested in a letter to the Press that as cannabis was harmless and non-addictive it should be removed from the category of a dangerous drug, but offences in respect of the hard drugs, such as cocaine and heroin should be regarded much more seriously. His contention was that when a young person realised cannabis was not doing him any harm he would assume, quite reasonably, that all such drugs were equally harmless.

This stupid and ill-informed argument has already liad repercussions in Liverpool where we have received several enquiries from anxious and sometimes angry parents, who see all the careful advice they gave their impressionable teenage sons and daughters on these matters being brought to nought.

A national and concerted publicity campaign, directed particularly towards young people, would do much to correct these erroneous impressions and would forcibly bring to the attention of everyone the perils of drug taking.

The Role of the Police The Home Office is responsible for tlie domestic control of dangerous drugs,

but the field of prevention and the detection of offenders is left more or less to the police who, through regular visits to pharmacists and through their own sources, build up dossiers on those persons who appear to be obtaining large supplies of drugs, and those who are believed to be trafficking in them.

Although in Liverpool we have a Drugs Section in our Central Vice Squad, this is not so in all places, and often detectives have to devote part of their time to this task, or officers are seconded to these duties for relatively sliort periods.

Throughout the country we now have within the Police Service Vice, Fraud, Traffic and Crime Squads, and a good argument could be made out for the establishment of Drug Squads, not a t town, city, or even county level, but regionally, with a central control and index. In this day of quick mobility and the extent of the problem of drug-trafficking the formation of these squads, comprising police officers who would have an opportunity of specialising in this important work unencumbered by routine duties, would make a considerable impact on the illegal trafficking of drugs.

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This centralisation, this pooling and digesting of information has not been neglected a t international level. The International Criminal Police Organisation --or INTERPOL as it is more commonly known- with headquarters in Paris is linked by firm and established lines of communication with the police forces of the 98 countries affiliated to it.

This World-wide system of co-operation between the different police forces has proved invaluable and has led to many large scale seizure of drugs in transit and the arrests of international traffickers.

Forensic Science Laboratories While I have the opportunity, let me make a plea, too, for a quicker system or

easier method of identifying drugs. At present we have to send substances by post, rail, or car to the nearest Forensic Science Laboratory, in our case 29 miles away at Preston. Often we find ourselves late a t night with a suspect in possession of a powder, pill, or substance, which we believe to be a dangerous drug but have no means a t hand of establishing that fact. I appreciate that the Dangerous Drugs Act, 1965 provides in certain circumstances, powers to arrest a person on reasonable suspicion of having offended against this Act, but, sometimes, we are placed in the embarassing position of having to wait until our suspicions have been confirmed by the laboratory before dealing with the prisoner.

Conclusion If we are able to tighten our internal control of drugs in this country, I concede

we will not wholly eradicate those persons who feel the necessity for these drugs, yet will not seek treatment through authorised channels to nullify their addiction. I t must be accepted, therefore, that a very lucrative market will still exist for traffickers but, because of the resricted domestic sources, they will have to rely largely on what can be illegally imported. This danger has been recognised both by H.M. Customs and Excise and the police, but I am confident that if the police forces of this country are geared to meet the new challenge, and are ably sup- ported by legislation, we will make it very unprofitable for the trafficker in dangerous drugs to operate with any real success.

DISSCUSION

Dr. W . H . D. Morgalz: What is the "ideal service" which the Forensic Science Laboratories can provide for the police in the identification of drugs.

Mr. Armstrong: The "ideal service" would be that police officers could take substances which they suspected to be dangerous drugs to a Forensic Science Laboratory and have them identified almost immediately.

My original remarks on this subject should not be construed as criticism of the staffs of these laboratories; we always have had the fullest co-operation from them. ,411 I was seeking was some method or system whereby we could at least shorten the sometimes anxious days before our suspicions are confirmed that the substances are dangerous drugs.

I do not know of any short term answer to the problem. In some police districts, when a large scale raid is planned the laboratory of that district is notified and staff is made available to begin tests on these substances as soon as they are brought for examination. Perhaps if Vice Squads are regionalised, chemists could be attached to them to give on the spot opinions, to be confirmed later a t the laboratories.

In my ignorance, my plea for some reactor or agent to be developed for use by the police to confirm their suspicions of substances a t the time, but, from what I have heard today from various speakers, I now accept this is not possible and that tests, often protractcd, have to be made belore such substances can be positively classified.

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Dr. H . J . Walls: Is there any evidence of distribution in Liverpool of LSD and similar hallucinogenic drugs?

Mr. Armstrong: There is no evidence of distribution in Liverpool of LSD or similar hallucinogenic drugs.

Dr. J . E. K. Ellis: There seems to be a tendency among some Police officers to believe that the "pep pill" craze is only temporary and is in fact on the decrease. Do you agree with this view?

Mr. Armstrong: I t is true that "pep pills" are the craze at the moment, but I do not subscribe to the view this is only a temporary phase, nor do I agree it is on the decrease. On the contrary, I am quite satisfied the habit is increasing rapidly.

Dr. M . St. John Cosgrave: Last night I saw a woman patient aged 48. In the preceding twenty four hours she had 39 Drinamyl tablets-set fire to her hair- slurred in speech-collapsed-and had been given a glass of brandy to revive her!

She was six stones in weight. Det. Ch. Ins*. E. Webster: If the taker appears to be not too uneasy it seems

that there is not much gain financially for the pusher. If so is this likely to lead to "breaks-in"?

Mr. Armstrong: I agree that unless the drug taker is addicted and unless there is a real and urgent demand for such drugs, there will not be much profit for the pusher.

In so far as financial gain is concerned, everything is geared to the demand and the availability of supplies. If drugs are in short supply and the demand is pressing, then the pusher can virtually demand any price, and get it too! This is when the addict, who cannot or will not pay an exorbitant price, turns towards breaking into premises where drugs are stored.

Mr. Norman Brown: Recently in the Metropolitan Police w-e have !lad supplies of blue coloured tablets bought as Amphetamines by teenagers. In fact they turned out to be harmless "blue coloured" tablets.

Miss N. J . David: Is there much evidence for innocuous or relatively harmless tablets being sold by unscrupulous pushers to susceptible teenagers who are all too enthusiastic to join the latest craze?

Mr. Armstrong: There is firm evidence that innocuous substances are being sold as dangerous drugs or pep pills to susceptible teenagers. There is on record a case of a taxi driver who saw two of his passengers furtively examining a substance which he thought was cannabis, and sensibly the driver took his taxi and the passengers to a police station. The "cannabis" turned out to be loose shag tobacco and bird seed. They were both relieved and disappointed on being told of how they had been hoaxed.

The danger is, of course, that teenagers may take these liarmless substances as the real thing. These pseudo tablets will have no effect on them, but the danger lies on another occasion when they may be sold dangerous drugs which, following their first experience, they may take in excessive quantities.

Det. Sztfit. A. Clzapman: Have either of the speakers had any experience of establishing the possession of drugs, in the absence of actual physical possession, from the results of the analysis of samples such as urine etc?

Mr. Armstrong: I have not any actual experience of proving physical possession of dangerous drugs from the analysis of samples of urine from the suspect. I understand this is done in Hong Kong where they have a vast problem in relation to heroin addiction. There, clinics have been set up to deal witll the addicts and also an efficient after-care service, in the course of which visits are regularly made to the patients and samples of their urine taken. If there is a positive reaction to these tests, the patients are returned forthwith to the clinics.

Mr. W . H. Jackson: Has anything been done to make an effort to find source of origin of marks on resinous hemp blocks and so stop the supply?

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Mr. Armstrong: I have not any personal knowledge of any efforts to find the source of origin of marks on resinous hemp blocks. However, I understand this has been tried in the past. Difficulty has been experienced by the offending country disclaiming all knowledge of the marks or suggesting they were put on deliberately to disguise their true source.

Dr. Ian G . Holden: Is "Prevention better than Cure" and if so what suggestions can be made to implement prevention?

Mr. Armstrong: Obviously prevention is better than cure, but the Police Service, so far, has failed to prevent crime being committed and I cannot see that it would have greater success with the problem of drugs. I hope my paper made it clear what we can do towards prevention, but I concede that we will never wholly eliminate the problem by these means. I should like to see efforts towards curing addiction being prosecuted with the same fervour we lend to prevention. Tackling the problem from these two angles would do much towards diminishing the demand and market for dangerous drugs, or pep pills, and make it unprofitable for the trafficker to exist.