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Wilkinson, T. J. (2003) 'The organization of settlement in highland Yemen during the Bronze and Iron Ages.',Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies., 33 . pp. 157-168.

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ProcHding3 oftM SemilfoTfor Arabian StudiD 33 (2003): IS7~168

The organization of settlement in highland Yemenduring the Bronze and Iron Ages

T.J. WILKINSON

Until the early 19800 when Alessandro de Maigret rec­ognised and defined for the first time the Bronze Age ofsouth-west Anlbia (de Maigret 1990), IIJ'Cbaeologistswe'" faced with an embarrassing gap in the culturalsequence of Yomen. This gap, between the Neolithicand the late second millennium Be was, moreover, bal­anced by an equivalent gap in our geographical knowl­edge of the IIJ'Cbaeology of early communities in theYemeni highlands. Although a number of r<:connais­sanees had been made of the highlands south of San~i\the lack of a ceramic sequence inhibited the recognitionof early settlement. Not only is it now possible to startto fill in this chronological gap with • range of BronzeAge and Iron Age cultures, we can also discern somepatterns in the distribution of settlement. Here variousfacton; that influenced the development of landscapeand settlement structure in the: Dbamir region are de­scribed from the late fourth millennium BC up to therecent pas!-

Since 1994, six seasons of IIJ'Cbaeological surveyshave been conducted in the Dbamir region by a teamfrom the Oriental Institule, Chicago. These studies havedemoostraled thai from at least the early thin! millen­nium BC, the highlands of Yomen were occupied bynumerous villages and towns. This paper will examinethe macroscopic structure' of the landscape, and willdescribe bow settlements related to large intermontanebasins, route aystems, and other la""scape features. Thecultural landscape will also be examined within the coo­leX! of environmental cbange as deduced from sedimen­tary oequeuces recorded through ancient lakes andmmbes. This approacb enables us 10 see bow culturaldevelopmenl bas occurred in the conleX! of a changingphysical environment

The Eavlroameatal 8equeate

It is now well atlested that the Indian Ocean monsoonstrengthened considerably following the last glacialmaximum (around 19,OOO BP), with the result that the

period between around 9000 and 3000 BC was signifi­cantly moister thao today. This is well ilIusttaled by so­called proxy climate records derived from sedinvntsaccumulated in the adjacent ocean basins. For examplethe ratio of key elements such as zinc to aluminium var­ies according to the upwelling of Indian Ocean watm,whicb itself is mainly determined by the strength of theIndian Ocean monsoon (Sirocko 1996) (Fig. 1). Conse­quently as the proportion of zinc to aluminium increasesit can be inferred that the monsoon strengthened andmore rainfall fell over south-west Arabia. Fig. I alsoindicates the approximate duration of lakes in interiorArabia and higbland Yemen, together with the cbrono­logical range of the bumic palaeosols recorded in theDbamir area, and sediments inlerpreled as being theresult of soil erosion (Wilkinson 1999). Finally, thenumber of archaeological sites recovered by the Dhamirsurvey is shown to provide an indication of cultural ac­tivity.

11 is evident from Fig. 1 that the duration of Arabianlakes and the bumic palaeosol (Jabrin soil, see Wilkin­son 1997) coincides closely, but not exactly, with thepeak in Zn:Al ratio and therefore monsoon rainfall. Onthe other band, sediments resulting from soil erosionlargely accumulated aIIer this peak and occupy the pe­riod of drier atmospheric conditions. Finally there ap­pears to be a significant increase in the number of sitesin the Bronze Age, aamc:ly those of thin! and secondmillennium BC date; again this is when climatic condi­tions were somewhat drier than before.

Unfortunately, although a large number of radiocar­bon determinations exist for lakes in the interior of Ara­bia (Robens 1982; Uzine ., 01. 1998), al present thereare only two daleS on lake development in the highlandsof Yemen. Nevertheless, as in the interior of Arabia,these dates suggest thaI lakes or man;bes were in exis­tence from at least 9600 to 6050 BC (Fig. 2). Moistconditions are also implied, although with I... cer1llinty,from the presence of the distinctive mid-Holocene pa­laeosol (the Jabrin ..,il) whicb bas yielded a large num­ber of daleS between 9000 and 3000 BC (Fig. 2). Over-•

158 T.J. Wilkinson

ONUI'I"lber d siles 100

".0~'::'O::'-..:3O::"'''':'''::'-'':50::'-_60::::'-':'7;;0'''':80+- -''''_'''':;'77:"-'7:,","'77Fo <.... 7..KLl....L '.170 :\.~. _ ~ISI8m1c------------- 7./ ///////.11 Himyarle

~ -------------g -- ~-Age~-----~~--~~-u£----------~I- ~?>_--~~-_ _ _ _ _ _ _.. _ ~ __~ a",nzeAge

501--- c:;;."......::::::._-+.- .. _ _ t; _I--------.~>-_F.._62~ __=_ ________ Neo,"hie

I- ::;.-r;:::::--+_-- '.625- _ :: _ _ _

t====::~~:::::=::t 9.550_ - :: - - - - - - - - - -.-r :;; •1001---."..L'C-" ~L....2'~ __~ _

'"1---\-----------l.~.... 17.700

1501--"....---------11-_-.;L ~19.380

1-_<+ -114- 19.760

1--4,.--------*1-'0.630

2OOL_..J.~ ~L... 24.080-..FIGURE I. From left /0 right: a). Climate proxy curvefrom core in the Arabian Sea. (Sirocko 1996). b). The dura­tion oflalc.es in inferior Arabia and the high plains a/Yemen. c). The JaJrriin pa/aeoso/jrom the Yemen highlands.

d). The date ofBronze Age sites in the Khawliin. (After de Maigrel 1990). f). The chronological range ofvalleyfillsresultingfrom soil erosion. f). The number 0/archaeological sites 0/various periods recorded by the Dhamiir

survey up until 200J.

all, the alternations of wet and dry conditions in theYemen highlands are best illustrated from a deep sec­tion exposed in the side of a well just below the villageofaJ-AdhIa [Allla'] to the west of Dhamir.

no aJ-Adbla SectIo.

This sequence consists of some 5 m of sedimentary lay­ers deposited in a small basin that is now entirely culti­vated. The lowest levels consist of a yellowish red soilcontaining calcium carbonate concretions that clearlydeveloped under a dry or semi-arid soil climate duringthe late Pleistocene (Fig. 4). After this, environmentalconditions appear to have become slightly moister untilaround 10,000 BC, when a lake or marsh containingfreshwater molluscs developed. This wet episode ap­pean to coincide with the beginning of the npid in­crease in global tempenltur< and strengthened monsoon

conditions that occurred at the very beginning of thepost glacial period (i.e. around the 11,880 DP date onFig. I). Tbe pool nr lake then shallnwed so that a peatymarsh (black humic clay) fotmed. which was then fol­lowed during the mid-Holocene by the development of adeep sequence of humic soils. Although the sequence ataJ·Adhla is not sufficiently well dated to be interpretedin detaiL. we can infer from other sectiOIUi in the areathat this dark brown mid-Holocene: soil continued todevelop until around 3000 Be, after which loam, sandand clay eroded from the surrounding hills accumulatedin the valley floor. These mineral sediments show DO

sign of having accumulated in a moist or humic envi­ronment and for this period of some 3()()().5000 yeanone can infer that either environmental conditions badbecome somewhat drier or there was more soil erosionas a result of increased human activity, or a combinationof both. On Fig. 4, this phase of increaaed lI<CIt-

17w"'11""- o!unlemenl in highlond Y.....,. dJuing the Bronu and Iron Age.r 159

Survey Sample Con1ext Lab. No. Conventional Calibnlted 2 sigmaNo. C-14 Age B.P. range B.C.

OS 228.1.2.130 Arch. charcoal Beta 117426 3890:!: 80 B.C. 2575-2130

OS 66 Op2J4 Arch. charcoal Beta 101067 4070:!: 80 B.C. 2880-2440

OS 226.C.3O.81 Arch. charcoal Beta 117420 4270 :!:70 B.C. 3030-2630

Moshak 1a)'9f b CIIarcoal in pa- Beta 78544 435O:!: 60 B.C. 3095-2880

IaeosoI

OS 228.1.5.153 Arch. charcoal Beta 117427 4470:!: 50 B.C. 3345-2925

OS 226C.33.105 Charcoal in pa- Beta 117422 452O:!: 50 B.C. 3360-3035

IaeosoI

P~ 57 nr. Dhamar Organic horizon 4630:!: 80 B.C. 3370

aI105-15Ocm

OS 226.C.18.103 Charcoal in pa- Beta 117421 4810:!: 70 B.C. 3715-3375

IaeosoI

OS 297.1.c Charcoal in pa- Beta 117428 5690:!: 70 B.C. 4715-4365

IaeosoI

OS 297.1.d Charcoal in pa- Beta 117429 592O:!: 70 B.C. 4940-4620

IaeosoI

P~ 24 Risabar Organic horizon 6010:!: 90 B.C. 4900

at 75-95cm

OS 226.C.17.118 CIIarcoal in pa- Beta 117423 6290:!: 70 B.C. 5335-5060

IaeosoI

$add Adh-Ohra' II, Charcoal in pa- Beta 90836 6290:!: 70 B.C. 5335-5060

#2 IaeosoI

$add Adh-Dhra' Charcoal in pa- Beta 90837 7080:!: 140 B.C. 6175-5635

II,' 1 IaeosoI

P~ 22 Oa Jahran SheU 7210:!: 90 B.C. 6050

$add adhDhra'a Peat 9260 :!:60 B.C. 9000

al-Adhla (WP 333) SheI Beta 155780 10060 + 60 B.C.10150-9330=

FIGIIJU: 1.1IJJdiocarlJon detmninorions from soils and lake dqxJsits in 1M Dhamiir area.C4librotions ill ila/ics an approxintote only.

160 TJ. Wilkinson

Survey sample No. Lab. No. Conventional Calibrated 2 sigmaC-14 Age B.P. range B.C.

OS 101: Dp 4/5 Beta 101071 2590:!: 60 B.C. 830-530

OS 228.1.4.116 Beta 117424 3000:!: 90 B.C. 1430-940

OS 228.1.14.126 Beta 117425 3050:!: 80 B.C. 1450-1030

OS 66: Sd.l.Un.l Beta 90835 31oo:!: 120 B.C. 1620-1005

OS 101: Dp 316 Beta 101070 3260:!: 60 B.C. 1670-1410

OS 101: Dp 312 Beta 101069 3510:!: 60 B.C. 1960-1670

OS 66: Sd.l.Un.2 Beta 90834 3600:!: 60 B.C. 2145-1735

OS 101: Dp 4/8 Beta 101072 3730:!: 70 B.C. 2320-1920

OS 66 Dp 4/1 Beta 101068 3860 :!:SO B.C. 2470-2130

OS 228.1.2.130 Beta 117426 3890:!: 80 B.C. 2575-2130

OS269-3~ Beta 167968 3940:!: 70 B.C. 2590-2210

OS324HSSl601 #11 Beta 156625 4070:!: 40 B.C. 2870-2570

OS 66 Dp 214 Beta 101067 4070:!: 80 B.C. 288D-2440

OS324HSS1501 #6 Beta 156626 41oo:!: 40 B.C. 2870-2570

OS 269.1.18 Beta 167967 4120:!: 40 B.C. 2870-2570

OS 269.3.34 Beta 167970 4440:!: 40 B.C. 3350-3010

OS 228.1.5.153 Beta 117427 4470:!: 50 B.C. 3345-2925

OS 269.3.24 Beta 167969 4480 + 50 B.C. 3360-3010-FIGURE 3. Radiocarbon determinations from Jour Bronze Age sites in the Dhamiir Qrea..

mulation of mineral soils and sediments is representedby the transitional soil and the anthrosol above. the lat­ter having accumulated at least partly as a result of theconstruction of valley floor terraced fields.

Chronology of Brooze Age sites

So far, five Bronze Age sites from the Dhamlr areahave supplied radiocarbon dates that contribute to anoverall chronological framework for the Yemen high­lands (Wilkinson, Edens & Gibson 1997; Edens & Wil­kinson 1998; Edens 1999). The sites of Jublibst al-Juriif(OS 169), Hayt ai-Sua<! £I:IaYl Sawlid] (OS 324), andl;Iammal al-Qi< (OS 101) wen: excavat<d under the di­rection of Chris Edens, whereas Sibal (OS 66) was ex­cavat<d by McGuin: Gibson and Chris Edens, and Khar-

raib (OS 228) by McGuin: Gibson and Krista Lewis.Radiocarbon determinations demonstrate that the earli­est ceramic·using horizons recognised in the highlandsaround Dbamir occur in the lower levels of Jublbat al­Jwiif (OS 269; cf. Fig. 3). These date from the latefourth millennium Be. Other early occupations havebeen daled 10 the fil1l1 half of the third millennium BC alJublbal al-Juriif as well as at Hayt ai-Sua<! (OS 324).Radiocarbon determinations from Sibal (OS 66) suggesta long span of occupation ranging from the early ormid-third millennium BC until around 1300 BC, bUIdctenninations from cultural layers associated with ar­cbilccture and middens fall in • IWTOwer third and earlysecond millennium BC BIlge. On the other hand,l;Iammat al-Qli' appealS to have been occupied mainlyduring the final pan of the third millennium and

The organization ofsettlement in highland Yemen during the Bronu and Iron Age.J 161

YellO'Nish-red soil with calcium carbonate Dry late Pleistocene soilconcretions.

1.00m

2.00m

3.00m

4.00m

5.00m

Upper Antlvosol

Anthrosol Il-horizoo

Transltlonal soil

Dart< brownhumicday

B1ac:k Humic dayLakelMarsh 10150-9330 Cal BePale brown silt loam withwith fine vertical root holes

Oark grey-brown humtcsilty clay

Pale brown sitt loam

Drier soil with erosionin association withcultivation

Moist mki-Holoceneenvironment withstable organic-rictlsoils

Moist earty HoloceneWet earty Hokx:ene dimateRelatively drylate Glacial dimate

Moist episode

FIGURE 4. A sutch section through the sedimentary sequence at al-Adhla {Apla']. west ofDhamiir.and iriferred environm~ntal conditions.

the first half of the second millennium BC. The latestBronze Age occupation falls in the range 1200-1300 BCat Kharraib. In some cases the span of radiocarbon datesappears to be longer than would be e"peeted from thedepth of stratigraphy, and it is therefore possible thatcertain early dates (such as the earliest from KharTaib:OS 228) may relale to stray pieces of charred materialresulting from pre-occupation clearance activities. Thisdoes DOt appear to be the case for the dates from JubibataI-JurUf and Hayt ai-Sua<! when: the radiocarbon deter­minations are from charcoal contained within a strati­pphic sequence of cultwa1 deposits. Jubibat aI-Jwilfand Hay! al-Suad were excavated in the 200t seasonand their cultwal sequence and palaeobotanical remainswill be reported by Chris Edens and Heidi Ekstrom in afuture volume ofArabiQn Archaeology and Epigraphy.

Settlemeat aad cUmate cbaage

The latest evidence from Jubibat aI-JurUf indicates thatceram.ic-using societies were already in place during themoist interval of the mid-Holocene. In other words,some sites that have been identified as Bronze Age OD

the basis of meagre and Jess diognostic assemblages

may in fact be as early as the late fowth millennium Be.Overall, it is apparent from bolb the Indian Ocean coresand the numerous relict lakes in the Arabian peninsulathat environmental conditions did dry significantly dur­ing or immediately after the third millennium. Morc­over, there was also a clear increase in the number ofsites in the: late third and second millennium BC (Fig.I). Since some of these sites were as large as S ha. itappean that there was • significant incrcasc: in humanactivity in the Bronze Age, an increase which occurredin the face of a drying climate (Fig. I). The combinationof increased human activity and • drier late Holoceneclimate would have placed significant suess on ecosys­tems: climatic drying would place a stress on the plantconununities, whereas increased human populations andtheir domestic livestock. would have both rcmovedvegetation and disturbed ground conditions (Wilkinson1999).

Bronze Age sites in tbeir laadsupe coatest

Typically in the Dhamir r<gioo a large number of ar­chaeological sites occupy hill- or plateau-lOp locations.This is particularly the case for those of Bronze Age

162 TJ. Willtinson

FIGURE 5. A plan ofthe building at the west end ofHoytal-Suad[/fayl Sawiid}.

Although many settlements in the DbamIr region areon high points, they are not necessarily on the highestremote hills, but occupy plateaux or hills that were con­venient for lower ground (presumably for access to cul­tivation and pasture), but which also provided somemeasure of security. Certainly l;Iammat al-QAc (Wilkin­son, Edens & 8Bmltt 2001) was an eminently defensiblesite, whereas others such as Kharraib (DS 268: Edens1999) and Jubftbat a1-Juriif (OS 269) were situated nnplateaux which overlooked lower ground on one side,but with a plateau on the other. It bas also been ob­served that many Bronze Age sites are located close towadis that could be readily temeed (C. Edens, pe=naIcommunication) or perhaps could be converted to checkdam cultivation, as has been recorded at Sedd adh-Dhra'[Sadd ai-DUrrah] (Wilkinson 1999). Overall, manyBronze Age settlements can be seen to occupy situationsthat combine a measure of security (and perhaps thestatus of a hilltop location) with access to agriculturaland pastoral resources that were available on the plain.

Valley floor resources must have included marshesor meadows that developed on the dry or drying early tomid Holocene lakes. So far, the Dhamir project haslocated three main areas of relict lakes: (a) in the Qi<Jaluan, whicb is by far the largest, (b) in the area be­tween Mahnashah and sile OS 281 (see below: Fig. 8),and (c) near al-Adhlah. to the south-east of M8$na<atMaryah (west ofDham!r). In the case nfthe Qi' Jahrin,the presence of a lake was first recorded by Acres(1982), and sections recorded by member> nf theDhamlr project show that lake deposits and overlyinghwnic soils extended to within I kin of the Bronze Agesite of Hawagir (OS 293). In addition, nwnerous minorbasins appear to have contained verdant valley floormeadows, which remain in the form of the humic hori­zons of buried soils.

Such valley floor meadows and marshes would haveprovided excellent grazing for flocks of sheep and cat·tie, which would, in tum have contributed to the wealthof the local communities. Sucb a relationship is mostevident at the site of Hawagir (DS 293) which sprawlsover some 15-20 ha on what 1S now the edge of the cul~

tivated QiI,< Jahrin plain near to the relict lake. This sitewas investigated by three soundings in 1999, and ac~

cording to the pottery recovered, occupation dates tosome time in the secnnd millennium, probably duringthe second half. Although this site is difficult to evaluatebecause of its disturbance by post Bronze Age fields, itis by far the largest known Bronze Age site in the re­gion. Following the abandonment of Hawagir sometimetowards the end nf the Bronze Age it wu replaced by anIron Age site (OS 291) positioned on the summit of the

Sm

05324

o

C(N~

m 0 0

()' 0 OqOC7CJCJlb o_ ------,

date. For ex.ample Hayt al-Suad, discovered in 200 I,consisted of numerous rectilinear buildings scatteredacross a dipping plateau of brown vesicular volcanicrock overlooking a valley eroded in softer volcanic ash,tuffs and gabbro. Although many building plans wereincomplete, one large structure was measured in thelower (western) pan of the site. To the east, where quar­rying had removed much of the archaeological midden.two large buildings with up to 1.60 m depth of occupa­tion deposits were panly excavated under the directionof Christopher Edens. Throughout this c. 3 ha site.building stones were large (> I m in length and 1 mhigh) rough blocks hewn from the vesicular volcanichilltop. In the main part of the site, blocks were set up­right to fonn rectangular chambers, the largest of whichmeasured 14.00 x 3.50 m together with additional rooms(Fig. 5), although in the section excavated by Edenslarge blocks were laid flat on top of one another.Whether these two contrasting building styles representa chronological difference in architecture remains to beseen.

11re organizolion ofsettlemenI in highland Yemen during Ihe Bronze and Iron Ages 163

distinctive peak illllJltAiately to the south.Equally imporlllnt in the case: of Hawagir is the loca­

tion of this site on what appears to be • major ancientoonb-soutb route through the highlands This route re­mains in use today as a series of nortIHouth seeton oflocal routes that skirt the eastern side of the lake basin(Fig. 6). Not only are seven! large sites located alongthis route, but also there are wayside cisterns (0 on Fig.6), as well as at least two groups of inscriptions. A shortdistance to the DOnh..east of Hawagir. Qatabanian in-

scriptiom refer to a nearby temple which might haveformed a wayside shrine located at a convenient andwell shaded stoPPing point along the route. A secondgroup of inscriptions along this route 0CClmi below HaidSayan. where • series of inscribed graffiti occur near thebase of the bill. Finally, a pair of distinctive and impOT­tanl sites (OS 326 and 342) face each other across theroute immediately to the south of~bah.

Rather than positing that any single factor contrib­uted to the location of Bronze Age settlement, it seems

-o

•....

.........HcI6ocel.l.IM

'\ 1

000-

)/

IEdgiIoI .....

,,•

FIGURE 6. The area of1M Qa Johnin to the north ofDhomar showing 1M approximolelimits ofthe early/mid Holocene lake. three north-sOllth roules (/-3), andsome major siles

mentioned in the tut. North is 10 the lOp. The highland area is above roughly 2400 mabove sea level.

164 TJ. Wilkinson

FIGURE 7. The buildingal al-'Aqir (DS 341) (lOp right). at the $0_.scale as a group ofBronze Age buj/dings al KJrarraib (DS 118).

(Drawn by E. Barban... and G. Barran).

on the east side of the wadi and the ancient route, and asmall c. I ba building complex (OS 342) on the westside or the WAdI Jubhan. OS 342 includes the remainsof a building the plan of which suggests that it may havebeen a major Brooze Age building of specialized func­tion (Fig. 7). This large building contrasts markedlywith the typical Brooze Age buildings or other settle­ments investigated, which mainJy consisted of elongatedstructures of apparently exclusively domestic function.In contrast to the standard Bronze Age bouse of theYemen highlands, the al-<Aqir building consisted of adurable double wall 16 m north-south x 19 m east-west.which enclosed an area comprising a forecourt to theeast and a group of rooms to the west (Fig. 7). Centrallylocated within the rear range of rooms was a 6 x 6 mroom with smaller abutting chambers to the east as wellas a range of other rooms built against the back wall.

•

.",,"

:' . " .; ..,.'

'. ~.'

......." .......: -..' '.:', ,..

more likely that there was a tension between differentstruetuntJ elements of the landscape. At least four con­tributory factors can be suggested:1 The presence of grazing within the centres of many

basins provided an excellent resource which, by be­ing capable of sustaining large flocks or berds, mayhave generated some degree of wealth for localcommunities.

2 A location close to some form of terraceable or cul­tivable land either on slopes (as at l:Iammat a1-QA()or on minor wadis would have provided essentialfood supplies.

3 HilI- or plateau-top locations provided some meas­ure of defence or security for communities, and insome cases, such as at l:Iammat aI Qa< I this mayhave been formalized by the construction of a circuitdefensive wall (Wilkinson, Ede.u & Gibson 200 I).

4 The presence of north-south routesystems would have increased theopportunities for the exchange ofgoods, and, because people (and per­haps animals) moved along them,this could have increased the de­mand for food and other supplies atroadside settlements.Specifically, the site of Hawagir ap­

pears to have occupied an optimwn lo­cation for access to pastures in the basincentre, as well as a key position adja­cent to a major north-south route. Onthe other hand, the site has minimaldefensive capabilities, except that it isadjacent to a prominent hill immediatelyto the south, which after Hawagir'sabandonment was occupied by the IronAge settlement OS 291 (Jabal Asaro).Other Bronze Age settlements such asijammat al-Qa< have excellent defen­sive capabilities, but valley floor graz­ing, although present, was probably lessextensive than around Hawagir. Thissite too may have been positioned on anorth-south route (Route 3, below).

Also apparently oriented on the an­cient north-south Route 2, is a pair ofsites Kharaba. Jubhan (OS 326) and al­'A.qir (or KhAniq: OS 342) positionedon opposite sides of the north-southvalley lrnown as the Widi Jubbln (Fig.6). These sites comprise a large IronAge and Brooze Age complex (OS 326)extending over some 3-4 ha of plateau

The organization ofsenlemenr in highland Yemen during the Bronze and Iron Ages 165

The enclosure was entered from the south via a monu­mental entrance, or alternatively the rooms could beaccessed by a second smaller entrance from the west.Surface pottery suggests 8 Bronze Age date for thisbuilding as well as for neighbowing structures. AJ·though the function of the main building can only beguessed at, it is possible that it was used to control orwatch over the movement of people and goods travel·ling along the main north-south route that went past thesite. In addition., the site of aI.cAqir also included theremains of several other wcll--construeted buildings ofunknown function.

On the other band, little can be said about KharibalJubhin because the presence of intensive Iron Age 00·

cupation as well as post-Iron Age fields has disturbedthe earlier Bronze Age occupation., which is now onlyhazily evident in the form of scatten of potsherds ofapparently Bronze Age date.

The presence of a major north-south route can be in­ferred with greater confidence further to the south. Herea series of major sites or possible sites of ironAgeIHimyarite date form a disccm.ible alignmentroughly along the line of the present Ib1>-Dbamir roadThese sites (Fig. 8) are, from nottb to south, aI-l:Ierrin(OS 180, immediately to the nottb of Dbamir), Dbamir(which itself is a mounded settlement and has yieldedinscriptions), Dbamir Qarn (OS 240), Khirbet aI­l:Iusayn (OS 212; Barbanes 2000: 212-213), Riblt'Amrin (OS 226), and Zafir (DS 9). In the case ofZafir, this major senJemen~ the capital of the kin8domof l:Iimyar, is tuck.ed away 00 a side valley overlookingthe north-south road from Ibb to Dbamir. That this roadwas not the only route linking~ with the north isdemonstrated by the presence of a well--constructedpaved road from Zafir that crosses the bead reaches ofthe Wid! ShaJilah a= (Lewis 2002).

Conclusions

Overall, no single over-riding factor should be seen ..having determined senJement locations in the Yerncnihighlands. When 8 site occupics a hilltop, it benefitsfrom a secure location., whereas it sacrifices its access tofields, pastures, or in some cases any neuby route sys-.terns. On the other hand senJements like Hawagir nouIdtake advantage of (and perhaps grow rich from) theiraccess to both verdant valley Ooor J>llSlu= and a majornoJth...south route, but this was at the expense of secu­rity. Every location therefore repreaen1ed a trade-<>ffbetween economic, political aDd IOCW advantages.

The possible existence of inter-regional routesthrough the area, bowever, adds an interesting dimen­sion to site locations, and so far three routes have been=guised (Routes 1-3 on Fig. 6). Although the routesnottb of Dbamir lack the classic diagnostic features ofancient Yemeni roads such as stonc paving. Routes 2and 3 do exhibit occasional stretcbes boWlded by panli­lei walls of stones. These form a common feature oftraditional and ancient relict tracks in Yemen as well aselsewhere in the Near East. Significantly, there is notjust one but at least three alternative routes to the northof Dbamir. The westernmost (Fig. 6: I) is the modemmetalled road through Ma'blr and thence to the y ..!allpass and San'I'. The central roule (Route 2, describedabove) runs by Hawagir, below os 342, and to the eastof the QI' JaJuan. Finally a third roUle (Fig. 6: 3) isaligned futtbcr to the east below Manqadah and the QI'as-Sawld, through the town of Zarijah (which also in­cludes a Himyarite site, OS 323) and then north throughthe village of Ohira<.

Of these routes, the modem metalled road was cer·tainJy in use in the late nincteenth century when Harrispassed through Ma'bir and the 01' Jahrin en route forSan'l' (Harris 1893: 264, 283-85). Moreover if it is truethat one of the cisterns along this route bore aHimyaritic inscription inscribed into the plaster, as Hat·ris reports (1893: 283), then this route must extend back.some 2000 years.

Regarding Route 3, according to Clive Smith (per­sonal communication) Ohira< aJ-Kalb is on the routefrom Dbamir to San'I', taken by Sinan Pasha during hiscampaign in Yemen in 1569-1571. This route, whichwas to the cast of the present Ohamir-SanCI~ road. nor­mally was made in about six stages. Ohira' a1-Kalb washalf way between Dbamir and San'I' and may havecorresponded to the modern village of Dhinl' to thenottb of Zarijah. This Zarijah route was used by Jour­dain in 1609 (Clive Sntith, personal communication)and later by Niebuhr in 1763 (Niebuhr 1792). By 1917it existed as an alternative and shorter track over verymountainous COWltty; impossible for wheeled traffic butpracticable for pack. animaJs.1 Interestingly it was Route3, which was indicated to the field team by a Yemenicol1eague in 200 I as being the earlier IJojj route toSancl~ and onwards to Mecca.. As with other 10ng­distance routes in Yemen this was defined by occasionalstretches of pantllel walls on either side, and also fea.·tured one or two plastered cisterns of uncertain antiq­uity.

The presence of three possible allernative long- dis­tance routcs to the north of Ohamir should not occasion

166 T.J. Wilkinsoo

.-

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FIGURE 8. Map ofthe Dhamlir area showing the locations discussed in the tattogether with the alignment ofIron Age and Himyarite sites al- If,,"lin (DS 180).

Dhamlir.Qarn Dhamlir (DS 240). Khirbat al-Ifusayn (DS 212). Ribal 'Amrlin(DS 226). and ~ajar.

The organizotion ofsenlement in highland Yemen during the Bronze and Iron Ages 167

surprise. It seems perfectly natural to expect tha~ de­pending upon local political conditions, it might be dif­ficult to rely on any single road. therefore an alternativeroad or two would always have been welcome.

Overall, several Bronze Age sites appear alongRoute 2. Although the evidence for a route at this earlydate is hardly strong. the alignment does becomeclearer, especially to the south during the Iron Age andHimyarite periods. The above-mentioned Iron AgelHimyarite sites may therefore have developed alongwhat may have been a long route system running north­south through the highlands, and may even have ema­nated from as far away as the vicinity of EudoimonArabia (Aden) and ultimately may have extended toSancI' and northwards.

At the beginning of this paper it was observed thatthe archaeology of the Yemen highlands was little un­derstood or appreciated until the 1980s. The now clearevidence that exists for 8 relatively dense pattern of set­tlements from as early as the third millennium BC (andindeed beginning in the fourth millennium) suggeststhat the highlands may have formed a core area aroundwhich the later incense trading kingdoms developed.Whatever the merits of this case, it is interesting thatmajor settlements such as Hawagir as welt as the pairKharibat Jabb!n and al-<Aqir (OS 342 and 326) appearto have developed along a possible major north-southroute. This could have represented an inteN'egiona1linkage that was in use as early as the second millen­nium BC. The presence of an Iron Age route throughthe highlands may therefore relate to the furtherstrengthening of trade links that developed throughoutsouth-west Arabia when the region became much moreclosely tied via trade to the Hijaz and the Levant. Nev­ertheless, to return to an earlier theme, it was probablythe tension between a number of environmental, ~nomic and political variables that was more significantto site locations than anyone factor alone.

It can be argued that despite the higblands beingwell~watered relative to the sunounding lowlands, cli­male change made this area less verdant during its mainperiod of growth during the third and second millenniaBC. Nevertheless, the bighlands continued to be moreattractive for long lerm sett.lement than the interior de­serts, and perhaps this contrast was more marked duringthe last few thousand years when the interior desertsbecame uninbabitable for all but the DlOSl well adaptedmobile pastoralism. That there was direct movement ofpopulation from the desert to the highlands remains tobe demomtrated, howevCT_ It seems reasonable to sug-

gest that long~istance routes may also have started tocontribute 10 the structure of the settlement pattern asearly as the Bronze Age, and although these routes mayhave been a factor in the growth of some settlements,the availability of large areas of potential pasture on thehighland basins must also have been a major contribu­tory factor to the wcalth of the local chiefdoms. Equallyduring all but the most peaceful of circumstances, theselocal leaders and their communities would have bene­fited from being positioned in higher, defensible loca·tions. Presumably each factor must have contributed, indifferent degrees, to the location, prosperity, and sus­tainability of these Bronze Age communities, with theresult that the factors underlying settlement choiceprobably varied considerably from place to place.

Acknowledgments

Funding for the 2001 field season came from the Na­tional Geographic Society, the American Institute forYemeni Studies and the Oriental Institute. I wish tothank the following mcmbcTs of the General Organisa­tion of Antiquities, Manuscripts and Museums for helpduring fieldwork: Ali Sanabani, Ahmed Haidari, andJamal a1-Mukrid. Abdullah Masa'udi was superiJ in hiscapacity as our driver, and considerable gratitude mustespecially go to officials of the General Organisation ofAntiquities Manuscripts and Museums, especially Dr.Yusuf Abdullah. and to Ahmed Shemsan, for help andadvice before and during the season. Special thanks goto my colleague Dr. Christopber Edens who directed theexcavations and who provided superb administrativeservices as director of the American Institute of YemeniStudies in San'!'. I also wish to thank tearn members:Krista Lewis, Josepb Daniels, Lamya Khalidi, BrianPittman, Heidi Ekstrom, and Bakiye YObnan for alltheir help during fieldwork. Fig. 5 was drawn with thehelp of Bakiye YlIkmcn, and thanks go to Peggy Sand­ers for drawing Figs 1 and 4.

Note

I am very grateful to Clive Smith who provided mewith valuable supplementary information on theeastern route. A good sketch map of Route I in the19th century is provided in Harris 1893: 264 and ofRoute 3 in the 18th century by Niebuhr (1792).

168 T.J. Wilkinson

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Author's addressT. J. Wilkinson, The Oriental Institute, Univenity ofChieago, 1155 East 58th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.email t-wilkinson@uchicago.edu