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Dynamic positioning

Offshore support vessel Toisa Perseus with, in the background, the fifth-generation deepwater drillshipDiscoverer Enterprise, over

the Thunder Horse Oil Field. Both are equipped with D s!ste"s.

Dynamic positioning (DP) is a co"puter-controlled s!ste" to auto"aticall! "aintain a vessel#s position and headingb! using its own propellers and thrusters. osition reference sensors, co"bined with wind sensors, "otion sensorsand g!roco"passes, provide infor"ation to the co"puter pertaining to the vessel#s position and the "agnitude anddirection of environ"ental forces affecting its position. $%a"ples of vessel t!pes that e"plo! D include, but are notli"ited to, ships and se"i-sub"ersible "obile offshore drilling units &'OD(), oceanographic research vesselsand cruise ships.

The co"puter progra" contains a "athe"atical "odel of the vessel that includes infor"ation pertaining to the wind andcurrent drag of the vessel and the location of the thrusters. This knowledge, co"bined with the sensor infor"ation,allows the co"puter to calculate the required steering angle and thruster output for each thruster. This allows operationsat sea where "ooring or anchoring is not feasible due to deep water, congestion on the sea botto" &pipelines,te"plates) or other proble"s.

D!na"ic positioning "a! either be absolute in that the position is locked to a fi%ed point over the botto", or relative to a

"oving ob*ect like another ship or an underwater vehicle. One "a! also position the ship at a favorable angle towardswind, waves and current, called weathervaning.

D!na"ic positioning is used b! "uch of the offshore oil industr!, for e%a"ple in the +orth ea, ersian ulf , ulf of'e%ico, est /frica, and off the coast of  Bra0il. There are currentl! "ore than 1233 D ships. 415

Contents 

• 1Factor!

• 67o"parison between position-keeping options

• 8/pplications

• 9cope

• :;equire"ents

• <;eference s!ste"s

o <.1osition reference s!ste"s

o <.6Heading reference s!ste"s

o <.8ensors

•=7ontrol s!ste"s

• 2ower and propulsion s!ste"s

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• >7lass require"ents

• 13+'/

• 11;edundanc!

• 16D operator 

• 18?'7/

• 19ee also

• 1:;eferences

• 1<$%ternal links

Factory 

D!na"ic positioning started in the 1><3s for offshore drilling. ith drilling "oving into ever deeper waters, @ack-up barges could not be used an! "ore and anchoring beca"e less econo"ical.

?n 1><1 the drillship Cuss 1 was fitted with four steerable propellers, in an atte"pt to drill the first 'oho well. ?t waspossible to keep the ship in position above the well off Aa @olla, 7alifornia, at a depth of >92 "eters.

 /fter this, off the coast of  uadalupe, 'e%ico, five holes were drilled, the deepest at 128 " &<31 ft) below the sea floorin 8,:33 " &11,=33 ft) of water, while "aintaining a position within a radius of 123 "eters. The ship#s position wasdeter"ined b! radar ranging to buo!s and sonar ranging fro" subsea beacons.

hereas the Cuss 1 was kept in position "anuall!, later in the sa"e !ear hell launched the drilling ship Eureka thathad an analogue control s!ste" interfaced with a taut wire, "aking it the first true D ship. 465

hile the first D ships had analogue controllers and lacked redundanc!, since then vast i"prove"ents have been"ade. Besides that, D nowada!s is not onl! used in the oil industr!, but also on various other t!pes of ships. ?naddition, D is not li"ited to "aintaining a fi%ed position an! "ore. One of the possibili ties is sailing an e%act track,useful for  cablela!, pipela!, surve! and other tasks.

Comparison between position-keeping options

Other "ethods of position-keeping are the use of an anchor spread and the use of a *ack-up barge. /ll have their ownadvantages and disadvantages.

Comparison position-keeping options[2]

Jack-up barge Anchoring Dynamic positioning

Advantages:

•  No complex systems

with thrusters, extragenerators and controllers.

•  No chance of running off 

 position by system failures or blackouts.

•  No underwater hazards

from thrusters.

Advantages:

•  No complex systems

with thrusters, extragenerators and controllers.

•  No chance of running off 

 position by system failures or

 blackouts.

•  No underwater hazards

from thrusters.

Advantages:

• Maneuerability is excellent! it is easy to

change position.

•  No anchor handling tugs are re"uired.

•  Not dependent on waterdepth.

• #uick set$up.

•  Not limited by obstructed seabed.

Disadvantages: Disadvantages: Disadvantages:

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•  No maneuerability once

 positioned.

• %imited to water depths

of &'( meters.

• %imited maneuerability

once anchored.

• )nchor handling tugs are

re"uired.

• %ess suitable in deep

water.

• *ime to anchor out

aries between seeral hours

to seeral days.

• %imited by obstructed

seabed +pipelines, seabed.

• -omplex systems with thrusters, extra

generators and controllers.

• igh initial costs of installation.

• igh fuel costs.

• -hance of running off position in case of

strong currents or winds, or due to system

failures or blackouts.

• /nderwater hazards from thrusters for

diers and 01s.

• igher maintenance of the mechanical

systems.

 /lthough all "ethods have their own advantages, d!na"ic positioning has "ade "an! operations possible that were

not feasible before.

The costs are falling due to newer and cheaper technologies, and the advantages are beco"ing "ore co"pelling asoffshore work enters ever deeper water and the environ"ent &coral) is given "ore respect. ith container operations,crowded ports can be "ade "ore efficient b! quicker and "ore accurate berthing techniques. 7ruise ship operationsbenefit fro" faster berthing and non-anchored "oorings off beaches or inaccessible ports.

 Applications

BC underwa!

?"portant applications include

• ervicing  /ids to +avigation & /TO+)

• 7able-la!ing

• 7rane vessels

• 7ruise ships

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• Diving support vessels

• Dredging

• Drillships

• FOs

• Flotels

• Aanding platfor" docks

• 'ariti"e research

• 'ine sweepers

• ipe-la!ing ship

• latfor" suppl! vessels

• ;ockdu"ping

• ea Aaunch

• ea-based C-band radar 

• huttle tankers

• urve! ships

Scope

 / ship can be considered to have si% degrees of freedo" in its "otion, i.e., it can "ove in an! of si% a%es.

Three of these involve translation

• surge &forwardEastern)

• swa! &starboardEport)

• heave &upEdown)

and the other three rotation

• roll &rotation about surge a%is)

• pitch &rotation about swa! a%is)

• !aw &rotation about heave a%is)

D!na"ic positioning is concerned pri"aril! with control of the ship in the hori0ontal plane, i.e., the three a%es surge,swa! and !aw.

Requirements

 / ship that is to be used for D requires

• to "aintain position and heading, first of all the position and heading need to be

known.

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• a control co"puter to calculate the required control actions to "aintain position

and correct for position errors.

• thrust ele"ents to appl! forces to the ship as de"anded b! the control s!ste".

For "ost applications, the position reference s!ste"s and thrust ele"ents "ust be carefull! considered when designinga D ship. ?n particular, for good control of position in adverse weather, the thrust capabilit! of the ship in three a%es

"ust be adequate.

Reference systems

Position reference systems

There are several "eans to deter"ine a ship#s position at sea. 'ost traditional "ethods used for ships navigation arenot accurate enough for so"e "odern require"ents. For that reason, several positioning s!ste"s have been developedduring the past decades. roducers of D s!ste"s are ongsberg 'ariti"e,+avis $ngineeringO!, $, D7+, artsila &e% A-8), 'T-div.7houest, ;olls-;o!ce plc, ra%is /uto"ation Technolog!, . The applicationsand availabilit! depends on the t!pe of work and water depth. The "ost co""on osition referenceE'easuring s!ste"sE$quip"ent &;E'$) are

satellite in orbit.

• DGPS, Differential GPS. The position obtained b! is not accurate enough

for use b! D. The position is i"proved b! use of a fi%ed ground-basedreference station &differential station) that co"pares the position to theknown position of the station. The correction is sent to the D receiver b!long wave radio frequenc!. For use in D an even higher accurac! andreliabilit! is needed. 7o"panies such as Geripos, Fugro or 77 Technologiessuppl! differential signals via satellite, enabling the co"bination of severaldifferential stations. The advantage of D is that it is al"ost alwa!savailable. Disadvantages include degradation of the signal b! ionospheric orat"ospheric disturbances, blockage of satellites b! cranes or structures anddeterioration of the signal at high altitudes. 485 There are also s!ste"s installed onvessels that use various  /ug"entation s!ste"s, as well as co"bining position with AO+/.495

• Acoustics. This s!ste" consists of one or "ore transponders placed on the

seabed and a transducer  placed in the ship#s hull. The transducer sends an

acoustic signal &b! "eans of pie0oelectric ele"ents) to the transponder, whichis triggered to repl!. /s the velocit! of sound through water is known &preferabl!a soundprofile is taken regularl!), the distance is known. Because there are"an! ele"ents on the transducer, the direction of the signal fro" thetransponder can be deter"ined. +ow the position of the ship relative to thetransponder can be calculated. Disadvantages are the vulnerabilit! to noise b!thrusters or other acoustic s!ste"s. The use is li"ited in shallow watersbecause of ra! bending that occurs when sound travels through waterhori0ontall!. Three t!pes of H; s!ste"s are co""onl! used

• Ultra- or super- short base line, USB or SSB. This works as

described above. Because the angle to the transponder is "easured, acorrection needs to be "ade for the ship#s roll and pitch. These aredeter"ined b! 'otion ;eference (nits. Because of the nature

of angle "easure"ent, the accurac! deteriorates with increasing waterdepth.

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•

• ong base line, B. This consists of an arra! of at least three

transponders. The initial position of the transponders is deter"ined b!(BA andE or b! "easuring the baselines between the transponders.Once that is done, onl! the ranges to the transponders need to be

"easured to deter"ine a relative position. The position shouldtheoreticall! be located at the intersection of i"aginar! spheres, onearound each transponder, with a radius equal to the ti"e betweentrans"ission and reception "ultiplied b! the speed of sound throughwater. Because angle "easure"ent is not necessar!, the accurac! inlarge water depths is better than (BA.

•

• Short baseline, SB. This works with an arra! of transducers in the ship#s

hull. These deter"ine their position to a transponder, so a solution is foundin the sa"e wa! as with ABA. /s the arra! is located on the ship, it needsto be corrected for roll and pitch.4:5

• !iser Angle "onitoring. On drillships, riser angle "onitoring can be fed into

the D s!ste". ?t "a! be an electrical inclino"eter  or based on (BA, where ariser angle "onitoring transponder is fitted to the riser and a re"oteinclino"eter unit is installed on the Blow Out reventer &BO) and interrogatedthrough the shipIs H;.

Aight taut wire on the HOS Achiever 

•

ight taut #ire, $% or %$%. The oldest position reference s!ste" used forD is still ver! accurate in relativel! shallow water. / clu"pweight is lowered tothe seabed. B! "easuring the a"ount of wire paid out and the angle of the wireb! a gi"bal head, the relative position can be calculated. 7are should be takennot to let the wire angle beco"e too large to avoid dragging. For deeper waterthe s!ste" is less favourable, as current will curve the wire. There are howevers!ste"s that counteract this with a gi"bal head on the clu"pweight. Hori0ontalATIs are also used when operating close to a structure. Ob*ects falling on thewire are a risk here.

• &anbeam and CyScan. These are laser based position reference s!ste"s.

The! are ver! straightforward s!ste", as onl! a s"all pris" needs to beinstalled on a nearb! structure or ship. ;isks are the s!ste" locking on otherreflecting ob*ects and blocking of the signal. ;ange depends on the weather,but is t!picall! "ore than :33 "eters. 4<5

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• Artemis. / radar-based s!ste". / unit is placed on a nearb! structure and

ai"ed at the unit on board the ship. The range is several kilo"etres. /dvantageis the reliable, all-weather perfor"ance. Disadvantage is that the unit is ratherheav!.4=5

• DA!PS, Differential, Absolute an' !elatie Positioning System. 7o""onl!

used on shuttle tankers while loading fro" a FO. Both will have a receiver. /s the errors are the sa"e for the both of the", the signal does notneed to be corrected. The position fro" the FO is trans"itted to the shuttletanker, so a range and bearing can be calculated and fed into the D s!ste".

• !ADius425 and !a'aScan. These are radar based s!ste", but have no "oving

parts as /rte"is. /nother advantage is that the transponders are "uch s"allerthan the /rte"is unit. The range is t!picall! :33 J 1333 "eters.

• nertial naigation is used in co"bination with an! of the above reference

s!ste"s, but t!picall! with gnss &lobal +avigation atellite !ste") andH!droacoustics &(BA, ABA, or BA).

*ea'ing reference systems

• Gyrocompasses are nor"all! used to deter"ine heading.

'ore advanced "ethods are

• !ing-aser gyroscopes

• &ibre optic gyroscopes

• Seapath, a co"bination of and inertial sensors.

Sensors

Besides position and heading, other variables are fed into the D s!ste" through sensors

• "otion reference units, ertical reference units or ertical referencesensors, +!Us or "!Us or +!Ss, deter"ine the ship#s roll, pitch and heave.

• %in' sensors are fed into the D s!ste" feedforward, so the s!ste" can

anticipate wind gusts before the ship is blown off position.

• Draught sensors, since a change of draught influences the effect of wind

and current on the hull.

• Other sensors depend on the kind of ship. / pipela! ship "a! "easure the

force needed to pull on the pipe, large crane vessels will have sensors todeter"ine the cranes position, as this changes the wind "odel, enabling thecalculation of a "ore accurate "odel &see 7ontrol s!ste"s).

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Control systems

Block diagra" of control s!ste"

?n the beginning ?D controllers were used and toda! are still used in the si"pler D s!ste"s. But "odern controllersuse a "athe"atical "odel of the ship that is based on a h!drod!na"ic andaerod!na"ic description concerning so"e of the ship#s characteristics such as "ass and drag. Of course, this "odel is not entirel! correct. The ship#s position andheading are fed into the s!ste" and co"pared with the prediction "ade b! the "odel. This difference is used to updatethe "odel b! usingal"an filtering technique. For this reason, the "odel also has input fro" the wind sensors and

feedback fro" the thrusters. This "ethod even allows not having input fro" an! ; for so"e ti"e, depending on thequalit! of the "odel and the weather. This process is known as dead reckoning.

The accurac! and precision of the different ;s is not the sa"e. hile a D has a high accurac! and precision, a(BA can have a "uch lower precision. For this reason, the ;Is are weighted. Based on variance a ; receives aweight between 3 and 1.

Power and propulsion systems

To "aintain position a0i"uth thrusters &electric, A-drive or K-drive) bow thrusters, stern thrusters, water *ets, rudders and propellers are used. D ships are usuall! at least partiall! diesel-electric, as this allows a "ore fle%ibleset-up and is better able to handle the large changes in power de"and, t!pical for D operations.

The set-up depends on the D class of the ship. / 7lass 1 can be relativel! si"ple, whereas the s!ste" of a 7lass 8ship is quite co"ple%.

On 7lass 6 and 8 ships, all co"puters and reference s!ste"s should be powered through a (.

Class requirements

Based on ?'O &?nternational 'ariti"e Organi0ation) publication <9:4>5 the 7lassification ocieties have issued rules forD!na"ic ositioned hips described as 7lass 1, 7lass 6 and 7lass 8.

• $quip"ent 7lass 1 has no redundanc!.

Aoss of position "a! occur in the event of a single fault.

• $quip"ent 7lass 6 has redundanc! so that no single fault in an active s!ste"

will cause the s!ste" to fail.Aoss of position should not occur fro" a single fault of an active co"ponent ors!ste" such as generators, thruster, switchboards, re"ote controlled valves

etc., but "a! occur after failure of a static co"ponent such as cables, pipes,"anual valves etc.

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• $quip"ent 7lass 8 which also has to withstand fire or flood in an! one

co"part"ent without the s!ste" failing.Aoss of position should not occur fro" an! single failure including a co"pletel!burnt fire sub division or flooded watertight co"part"ent.

7lassification ocieties have their own 7lass notations

3escription 4M15"uipment

-lass

%0 5"uipment

-lass

3N5"uipment

-lass

6%5"uipment

-lass

)785"uipment

-lass

 N9 5"uipment

-lass

75"uipment

-lass

Manual position control and

automatic heading controlunder specified maximum

enironmental conditions

$ 3:+-M3;N:18$)/*8

$ 3:8$< $

)utomatic and manual

 position and heading control

under specified maximum

enironmental conditions

-lass & 3:+)M 3;N:18$

)/* =

3:8&

3: & 3:8$& 3:8 ) 3;N):18

)M>)*

)utomatic and manual

 position and heading controlunder specified maximum

enironmental conditions,during and following any

single fault excluding loss of acompartment. +*wo

independent computer

systems.

-lass 2 3:+)) 3;N:18$

)/*0 =3:82

3: 2 3:8$2 3:8 7 3;N):18

)M>)* 0 

)utomatic and manual

 position and heading control

under specified maximum

enironmental conditions,

during and following anysingle fault including loss of a

compartment due to fire orflood. +)t least two

independent computer systems

with a separate backup system

separated by )?< class

diision.

-lass @ 3:+))) 3;N:18$

)/*01 =

3:8@

3: @ 3:8$@ 3:8 - 3;N):18

)M>)* 08

D+G rules 6311 t< 7h= introduced D series of classification to co"pete with /B D series.

NA 

here ?'O leaves the decision of which class applies to what kind of operation to the operator of the D ship and itsclient, the +orwegian 'ariti"e /uthorit!&+'/) has specified what 7lass should be used in regard to the risk of anoperation. ?n the +'/ uidelines and +otes +o. 62, enclosure / four classes are defined

• 7lass 3 Operations where loss of position keeping capabilit! is not considered

to endanger hu"an lives, or cause da"age.

• 7lass 1 Operations where loss of position keeping capabilit! "a! cause

da"age or pollution of s"all consequence.

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• 7lass 6 Operations where loss of position keeping capabilit! "a! cause

personnel in*ur!, pollution, or da"age with large econo"ic consequences.

• 7lass 8 Operations where loss of position keeping capabilit! "a! cause fatal

accidents, or severe pollution or da"age with "a*or econo"ic consequences.

Based on this the t!pe of ship is specified for each operation

• 7lass 1 D units with equip"ent class 1 should be used during operations

where loss of position is not considered to endanger hu"an lives, causesignificant da"age or cause "ore than "ini"al pollution.

• 7lass 6 D units with equip"ent class 6 should be used during operations

where loss of position could cause personnel in*ur!, pollution or da"age withgreat econo"ic consequences.

• 7lass 8 D units with equip"ent class 8 should be used during operations

where loss of position could cause fatal accidents, severe pollution or da"agewith "a*or econo"ic consequences.

Redundancy ;edundanc! is the abilit! to withstand, while on D "ode, the loss of equip"ent which is online, without losing positionandEor heading. / single failure can be, a"ongst others

• Thruster failure

• enerator failure

• owerbus failure &when generators are co"bined on one powerbus)

• 7ontrol co"puter failure

• osition reference s!ste" failure

• ;eference s!ste" failure

For certain operations redundanc! is not required. For instance, if a surve! ship loses its D capabilit!, there is nor"all!no risk of da"age or in*uries. These operations will nor"all! be done in 7lass 1.

For other operations, such as diving and heav! lifting, there is a risk of da"age or in*uries. Depending on the risk, theoperation is done in 7lass 6 or 8. This "eans at least three osition reference s!ste"s should be selected. This allowsthe principle of voting logic, so the failing ; can be found. For this reason, there are also three D control co"puters,three g!roco"passes, three ';(Is and three wind sensors on 7lass 8 ships. ?f a single fault occurs that *eopardi0esthe redundanc!, i.e., failing of a thruster, generator or a ;, and this cannot be resolved i""ediatel!, the operationshould be abandoned as quickl! as possible.

To have sufficient redundanc!, enough generators and thrusters should be on-line so the failure of one does not result in

a loss of position. This is left to the *udg"ent of the D operator. For 7lass 6 and 7lass 8 a 7onsequence /nal!sisshould be incorporated in the s!ste" to assist the DO in this process.

Disadvantage is that a generator can never operate at full load, resulting in less econo"! and fouling of the engines. Toavoid the engines to work under low loads, there#s an allocation "ode to the thrusters called biasing, in which thethrusters are set in pairs counteracting each other, with a precise control of such counteraction, in order to ad*ust thegeneratorsEengines working load. hen an engine works under a low load for so"e ti"e it accu"ulates carbondeposits on the upper part of the c!linder, which can da"age the pistons and all other "oving equip"ent related to thepiston "ove"ent.

The redundanc! of a D ship should be *udged b! a failure "ode and effects anal!sis &F'$/) stud! and proved b!F'$/ trials.4135 Besides that, annual trials are done and nor"all! D function tests are co"pleted prior to each pro*ect.

DP operator

The D operator &DO) *udges whether there is enough redundanc! available at an! given "o"ent of the operation.

?'O issued '7E7irc.=82 &uidelines for d!na"ic positioning s!ste" &D) operator training) on 69-3<-1>><. Thisrefers to ?'7/ &?nternational 'arine 7ontractors /ssociation) ' 11=4115 as acceptable standard.

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To qualif! as a D operator the following path should be followed

1. a D ?nduction course L On-line $%a"ination

6. a "ini"u" of <3 da!s seagoing D fa"iliarisation

8. a D /dvanced course L On-line $%a"ination

9. a "ini"u" of <3 da!s watchkeeping on a D ship

:. a state"ent of suitabilit! b! the "aster of a D ship

hen the watchkeeping is done on a 7lass 1 D ship, a li"ited certificate will be issuedM otherwise a full certificate willbe issued.

The D training and certification sche"e is operated b! The +autical ?nstitute &+?). The +? issue logbooks to trainees,the! accredit training centres and control the issuance of certification.

ith ever "ore D ships and with increasing "anpower de"ands, the position of DO is gaining increasingpro"inence. This shifting landscape led to the creation of The ?nternational D!na"ic ositioning Operators /ssociation&?DO/) in 633>. www.dpoperators.org

?DO/ "e"bership is "ade up of certified DO#s who qualif! for fellowship &fDO), while 'e"bers &"DO) are thosewith D e%perience or who "a! alread! be working within the D certification sche"e.

!CA 

The ?nternational 'arine 7ontractors /ssociation was for"ed in /pril 1>>: fro" the a"alga"ation of /OD7 &originall!the ?nternational /ssociation of Offshore Diving 7ontractors), founded in 1>=6, and DGO/ &the D!na"ic ositioningGessel Owners /ssociation), founded in 1>>3. 4165 ?t represents offshore, "arine and underwater engineeringcontractors. /cerg!,  /llseas, Heere"a 'arine 7ontractors, Heli% $nerg! olutions roup, @. ;a!'cDer"ott, aipe", ubsea = andTechnip have representation on ?'7/#s 7ouncil and provide the president. reviouspresidents are

• 1>>:-< - Derek Aeach, 7ofle%ip tena Offshore

• 1>>=-2 - Hein 'ulder, Heere"a 'arine 7ontractors

• 1>>>E6333 - Donald 7ar"ichael, 7ofle%ip tena Offshore

• 6331-6 - @ohn "ith, Halliburton ubseaEubsea =

• 6338-9 - teve reston, - Heere"a 'arine 7ontractors

• 633: - Frits @an"aat, /llseas roup

&633: Gice-resident - nut Boe, Technip)

hile it started with the collection and anal!sis of D ?ncidents,4185 since then ithas produced publications on different sub*ects to i"prove standards for D

s!ste"s. ?t also works with ?'O and other regulator! bodies.

See also

•  /utono"ous spaceport drone ship

• 'ercur! k!hook, 'ercur! 'arine k!hook Digital /nchor  for outboard

"otor boats uses and electronic co"pass to lock position andheading for d!na"ic positioning against wind and tide.

References

1. ump up  httpEEwww.nautinst.orgEenEd!na"ic-positioningEwhat-is-d!na"ic-positioningEinde%.cf"

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6. N @u"p up to a b ?ntroduction to D!na"ic ositioning, ?'7/

8. ump up  "IMCA M 141, Guie!ines on the se o# DGPS as a Position$e#erence in DP Contro! S%ste&s" '

9. ump up  "(eripos DP s%ste& can )e insta!!e *ith severa! Au+&entations%ste&s as *e!! as GO-ASS support, the% can isa)!e an% sate!!ite or

service via !tra corrections receive via Spot)ea& or In&arsat !inks'" '

:. ump up  "IMCA M 1.1, The /asic Princip!es an se o# H%roacousticPosition $e#erence S%ste&s in the O##shore Environ&ent" '

<. ump up  "IMCA M 10, A $evie* o# Marine aser Positionin+ S%ste&s" '

=. ump up  "IMCA M 104, A $evie* o# the Arte&is Mk ( Positionin+ S%ste&" '

2. ump up  "$ADius re!ative positionin+ s%ste&" '

>. ump up  "IMO MSC2Circ'34., Guie!ines #or vesse!s *ith %na&ic positionin+ s%ste&s"  PD56'

13. ump up  "IMCA M 133, Guie!ines on 5ai!ure Moes 7 E##ects Ana!%ses5MEAs6" '

11. ump up  "IMCA M 110, The trainin+ an e8perience o# ke% DP personne!" '

16. ump up  "IMCA DP Histor%"  PD56'

18. ump up  "IMCA M 191, Ana!%sis o# Station :eepin+ Incient Data 1;;4<=>" '

"#ternal links

• Aist of all offshore vessels

• ?'O, ?nternational 'ariti"e Organi0ation

• ?ntroduction to D!na"ic ositioning b! the ?nternational 'arine

7ontractors /ssociation &?'7/)

• +'D, +orwegian 'ariti"e Directorate

• OA Oilfield ea"anship eries - Golu"e > D!na"ic ositioning - 6nd

$dition b! David Bra!

• +?, The +autical ?nstitute

• The D!na"ic ositioning 7o""ittee of The 'arine Technolog! ociet!

• The ?nternational D!na"ic ositioning Operators /ssociation &?DO/)