Early Civilizations:

India and ChinaThe Indus and Huang He River Civilizations

From Pre-history to 1500’s

(Siam)

(Persia)

Ceylon

The sacred Ganges River will develop its own civilization.

The earliest Indian civilization flourished for about 1,000 years, then vanished without a trace. Archaeologists have only recently begun to uncover evidence of these early people, whose civilization included the following characteristics:

Vishnu

Ganesha

They developed the written language of Sanskrit.

Although the inhuman sati/sutee system was denounced among all circles by then, Mahabharata stories told that a woman called Madri immolated herself on her husband's funeral pyre in the sixth century A.D. (CE.). According to Hindu customs and traditions, widows had no right to remarry if their husbands died. Those who refused to perform sati were thrown into the fire by force as a punishment.

How Ganesh cursed the Moon

Brahma said Kartikeya should get the fruit because he was younger, and so Kartikeya ate the sweet fruit. But Ganesh was still very angry. He tried to frighten Brahma by suddenly jumping out in front of Brahma in his scariest form. And Brahma was really scared! But then Chandra, the Moon God, began to laugh and laugh at silly Ganesh who was so greedy that he couldn't give the fruit to his father or his little brother, and so babyish that he couldn't control his anger.

Now Ganesh turned all his anger on Chandra. "I'll get you, Chandra! I'll curse you - anyone who looks at you will be cursed themselves and will do something wrong. So nobody will ever look at you again!" Now that was very sad - imagine nobody ever looking at the beautiful moon! So the other gods went to Ganesh and asked him to change his mind and forgive the moon for laughing at him. In the end, Ganesh is really soft-hearted, so he did forgive Chandra and people could look at the moon again - except for one night a year, on Ganesh's birthday, when Hindus believed it was unlucky to look at the moon.

Now long ago Brahma was sitting with Shiva when a man called Narada came along. And Narada offered a beautiful fruit to Shiva as a sacrifice. It was a really wonderful fruit, that Narada had chosen specially for Shiva. But Ganesh, Shiva's son, really loves fruit. He said he wanted it, and then of course Ganesh's brother Kartikeya wanted the fruit too. They started fighting and yelling, and Shiva asked the wise Brahma to decide who should eat the fruit.

Early Civilizations in India and China (2500 B.C.–256 B.C.)

Shiva

Mohenjo-DaroHarappa

Aryans

Vedas

Krishna

Enlightenment is achieved through meditation. The ultimate goal is nirvana, union with the universe and release from the cycle of rebirth.

Saṃsāra is a Sanskrit word, the literal meaning of which is "a wandering through" –the passage through many states of existence involved in the endless cycle of death and rebirth. Also, it means getting too caught up in the world’s “paper chase.”

Followers accompanied the Buddha as he preached across Northern India.

Some Buddhists set up monasteries and convents that grew into centers of learning.

Missionaries and traders spread Buddhism across India to many parts of Asia.

This will be covered more intensely in another section later.

The Spread of Islam

MuhammadBecame the Prophet of

Islam

Muhammad said he heard the angel Gabriel calling him to be the messenger

of God.

Muhammad devoted his life to spreading Islam.

Muhammad made a journey from Mecca to Medina, where he was welcomed by Muslim

converts. This was a turning point for Islam.

Muhammad returned to Mecca and worked to unite Arabs under Islam.

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The Teachings of Islam

Islam is monotheistic, based on the belief in one God. ALLAH

Islam arose in the Arabian Peninsula and became one of the world’s major religions.

Muslims believe that the Q’ran/Koran contains the sacred word of God and is the final authority on all matters.

All Muslims accept five duties, known as the Five Pillars of Islam:• faith• daily prayer• charity• fasting during Ramadan• hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca

1

There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His prophet.

The Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire

4

• In the 1100s, Muslim invaders entered northern India and organized a sultanate, or land ruled by a sultan. Rajah was the Indian tribal chief/hereditary ruler name.

• Sultans introduced Muslim traditions of government to India.

• Many Turks, Persians, and Arabs migrated to India to serve as soldiers or officials.

• Trade between India and the Muslim world increased.

• During the Mongol raids, many scholars fled from Baghdad to India, bringing Persian and Greek learning.

Babur Founds an Empire In 1494In 1494, an 11-year-old boy named Babur inheriteda kingdom in the area that is now Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. It was only a tiny kingdom, and his elders soon took it away and drove him south. But Babur built up an army. In the years that followed, he swept down into India and laid the foundation for the vast Mughal Empire.Babur was a brilliant general. In 1526, for example, he led 12,000 troops to victory against an army of 100,000 commanded by a sultan of Delhi. A year later, Babur also defeated a massive army. After Babur’s death, his incompetent son, Humayun, lost most of the territory Babur had gained. Babur’s 13-year-old grandson took over the throne after Humayun’s death.

Akbar the Great

Akbar accomplished the following:

• Implemented policy of religious toleration• Employed paid officials, instead of hereditary

officeholders• Modernized the army• Encouraged international trade• Standardized weights and measures• Introduced land reforms

During his long reign, Akbar strengthened Mughal India.

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Bollywood is re-making Indian history!

With Akbar’s death in 1605, the Mughal court changed to deal with the changing

times. The next three emperors each left his mark on the Mughal Empire.

Jahangir and Nur Jahan Akbar’s son called himself Jahangir—“Grasper of the

World.” And he certainly did hold India in a powerful grasp. It was not his hand in the iron glove, however. For most of his reign, he left the affairs of state to his wife.

Jahangir’s wife was the Persian princess Nur Jahan. She was a brilliant politician who perfectly understood the use of power. As the real ruler of India, she installed her father as prime minister in the Mughal court. She saw Jahangir’s son Khusrau as her ticket to future power. But when Khusrau rebelled against his father, Nur Jahan removed him. She then shifted her favor to another son.

This rejection of Khusrau affected more than the political future of the empire. It was also the basis of a long and bitter religious conflict. Jahangir tried to promote Islam in the Mughal state, but was tolerant of other religions.

When Khusrau rebelled, he turned to the Sikhs. This was a nonviolent religious group whose doctrines blended Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sufism (Islamic mysticism). Their leader, Guru Arjun, sheltered Khusrau and defended him. In response, the Mughal rulers had Arjun arrested and tortured to death. The Sikhs became the target of the Mughals’ particular hatred.

Jahangir’s son and successor, Shah Jahan, could not tolerate competition and secured his throne by assassinating all his possible rivals. He had a great passion for two things: beautiful buildings and his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Nur Jahan had arranged this marriage between Jahangir’s son and her niece for political reasons. Shah Jahan, however, fell genuinely in love with his Persian princess. In 1631, Mumtaz Mahal died at age 39 while giving birth to her 14th child.

Artistic depiction of Mumtaz Mahal

Shah Jahan, who commissioned the Taj Mahal -"Shah Jahan on a globe" from the Smithsonian Institution

As one enters through Taj Mahal Gate, the calligraphy reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you."

The tombs of the Shah and his beloved wife.

The Mosque at the Taj Mahal

The Mosque at the Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal ---- Hindi: ता�ज महल; Persian/Urdu: محل (تاج• The Taj Mahal ---- Hindi: ता�ज महल; Persian/Urdu: محل is a mausoleum located in تاج

Agra, India, built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

• The Taj Mahal (also "the Taj") is considered the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements from Persian, Ottoman, Indian, and Islamic architectural styles. In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site and was cited as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage."

• While the white domed marble mausoleum is its most familiar component, the Taj Mahal is actually an integrated complex of structures. Building began around 1632 and was completed around 1653, and employed thousands of artisans and craftsmen. The Persian architect, Ustad Ahmad Lahauri is generally considered to be the principal designer of the Taj Mahal.

The base structure is a large, multi-chambered structure. The base is essentially a cube with chamferededges and is roughly 55 meters on each side (see floor plan, right). On the long sides, a massive pishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with a similar arch-shaped balcony.On either side of the main arch, additional pishtaqs are stacked above and below. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated on chamfered corner areas as well. The design is completely symmetrical on all sides of the building. Four minarets, one at each corner of the plinth, facing the chamfered corners, frame the tomb. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; their actual graves are at a lower level.

Aurangzeb’s Reign

All was not well in the royal court either. When Shah Jahan became ill in 1657, his four sons scrambled for the throne. The third son, Aurangzeb (AWR•uhng•zehb), moved first and most decisively. In a bitter civil war, he executed his older brother, who was his most serious rival. Then he arrested his father and put him in prison, where he died several years later. After Shah Jahan’s death, a mirror was found in his room, angled so that he could look out at the reflection of the Taj Mahal.

A master at military strategy and an aggressive empire builder, Aurangzeb ruled from 1658 to 1707. He expanded the Mughal holdings to their greatest size. However, the power of the empire weakened during his reign.This loss of power was due largely to Aurangzeb’s oppression of the people. He rigidly enforced Islamic laws, Sharia, outlawing drinking, gambling, and other activities viewed as vices. He appointed censors to police his subjects’ morals and make sure they prayed at the appointed times. He also tried to erase all the gains Hindus had made under Akbar. For example, he brought back the hated tax on non-Muslims and dismissed Hindus from high positions in his government. He banned the construction of new temples and had Hindu monuments destroyed. Not surprisingly, these actions outraged the Hindus.

By the end of Aurangzeb’s reign, he had drained the empire of its resources. Over 2 million people died in a famine while Aurangzeb was away waging war. Most of his subjects felt little or no loyalty to him.As the power of the central state weakened, the power of local lords grew. After Aurangzeb’s death, his sons fought a war of succession. In fact, three emperors reigned in the first 12 years after Aurangzeb died. By the end of this period, the Mughal emperor was nothing but a wealthy figurehead.

He ruled not a united empire but a patchwork of independent states.As the Mughal Empire rose and fell, Western traders slowly built their own power in the region. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India. In fact, they arrived just before Babur did. Next came the Dutch, who in turn gave way to the French and the English. However, the great Mughal emperors did not feel threatened by the Europeans. Shah Jahan let the English build a fortified trading post at Madras. In 1661, Aurangzeb casually handed them the port of Bombay. Aurangzeb had no idea that he had given India’s next conquerors their first foothold.

Portugal will establish trade centers in Goa and Calicut.The British will play the rajahs off one another, and will eventually take control of all of India.

Ancient China

The Huang He River Valley Civilizations

Typical Chinese rural village

Though his methods were brutal, Shi Huangdi ushered in China’s classical age.

Shang Dynasty

• Head of political & religious life

King

• Advisors to King

• Government & religious officials

• Land Lords

Nobles

• From the far regions

Warriors leaders

• Pottery

• Clothes

• Tools

• weapons

Artisans

• Worked long hours

• Little pay

• Over taxed

Farmers

• Lowest rank

• Important labor resource

Slaves

• Hua Mulan is a heroine who joined an all-male army, described in a famous Chinese poem known as the Ballad of Mulan. The poem was first written in the Musical Records of Old and New from the 6th century, the century before the founding of the Tang Dynasty; the original work no longer exists, and the original text of this poem comes from another work known as the Music Bureau Collection, an anthology of lyrics, songs, and poems, compiled by Guo Maoqian during the 12th century. The author explicitly mentions the Musical Records of Old and New as his source for the poem. Whether she was a historical person or whether the poem was an allegory has been debated for centuries—it is unknown whether the story has any factual basis.

• The time setting of the story is uncertain. The earliest accounts of the legend state that she lived during the Northern Wei dynasty (386–534) but there has been no proof. However another version reports that Mulan was requested as a concubine by Emperor Yang of Sui China (reigned 604–617).

• Evidence from the extant poem suggests the earlier interpretation.

The “Dragon Bones” StoryFu Hao was married to King Wu Ding. He was a great warrior king, but he made peace with the surrounding tribes by marrying one woman from each tribe and he ended up with 60 wives. She was smart enough to earn his favor by working in his government and he trusted her to perform special rituals and offer sacrifices, which was very unusual for a woman at that time, anywhere in the world.It was also very unusual for a woman be so powerful and to lead military campaigns. She was in charge of up to 13,000 soldiers and was the boss of two generals Zhi and Hou Gao. The Shang had been fighting with the Tu-Fang for ages until Fu Hao defeated them once and for all. Then she won major battles against the Yi, Qiang and Ba tribes, and led the earliest recorded large-scale ambush in Chinese history.

King Ding must have been very proud of her because he built a magnificent tomb for her after she died. Her battle-axes and other weapons were buried with her, along with sacrificial bronze vessels and tortoise shells which are marked prepared by Fu Hao. This shows that she was a high priestess and could cast oracles (which means that they thought she could tell the future).Fu Hao died about 1200 BC, but her name survives because the Chinese word 'Hao' means 'good'.

Shang Dynasty

Government

Religion

Society

Achievements

Kings ruled, nobles advisedKing at center of religion, priests used oracle bones to make predictions

Royal family/nobles at highest level. Artisans at middle level, farmers, slaves at lower levels

Writing system, use of bronze, calendar, war chariots, and bows

The Zhou Dynasty• The longest lasting Dynasty in Chinese

history- 900 years• Nomadic farmers settled near the Shang

Dynasty’s kingdom• They were skilled fighters & farmers• They used iron weapons (stronger than

the Shang’s bronze weapons)

Textbook page 167

Mandate of HeavenAfter the Zhou overtook the Shang Dynasty- they had to get the people to accept them as the new kings. They claimed that heaven granted the emperors the right to rule based on their ability to govern well and fairly.The Son of Heaven gives the right to a just rulerThe overthrow of a ruler meant he had lost the Mandate of Heaven because he was no longer worthy of it.

Zhou Government Structure

King gives land to the Lords

Lords preform military service

Lords protect the Peasants

Peasants work the farmland & serve the Nobles

Zhou Accomplishments • Huge public works, new dikes,

dams and canals, better agriculture, transportation, and communication

• Civilization grew, more people than anywhere else

“Kung Fu-Tzu”or Confucius

• Believed society should be like a family with everyone having roles & responsibilities

• Wanted a return to ethics- moral

values of the ancients• Lords ignored Confucius• Confucius was a traveling

teacher with great respect, sharing his ideas with all • After Confucius’ death—his

students wrote down his proverbs or

Analects

Confucianism• Kung Fu-Tzu lived 551-479 BC• It is not a religion, but an ethical code of morals for

individuals, society, and government• Primary goals: order, harmony, peace and happiness on earth• Achieved through education, self-effort, and self-reflection

Confucianism Impact• Initially spread through the Analects after his

death by his students• Later, his students too positions within the

government• Ideals formed the basis fro the civil service exam

in China• Became foundation of Chinese education• Teachings spread to Korea and Japan Confucius &

Confucianism

Origins Founder Principles DiffusionChina during the Zhou Dynasty

After the end of feudalism crime was rampant and Confucius spoke of returning to the moral standards of the ancients

Kung Fu-Tzu (Confucius) 551-479 BC

Ethical code dealing with moral character of individuals, society, and government

Goals: order, harmony, peace, and happiness on earth

Achieved through education, self-effort, and self-achievement

Standard of conduct- Five Relationships stressing Filial Piety

Students/ followers obtained government jobs

Analects of his teachings

Basis for Chinese Civil Servant Exam

Foundation for Chinese education

Teachings spread through Korea & Japan

Origins Founder Principles DiffusionChinese philosophies merged into one basic teaching

Grew as a reaction to the spread of Confucianism and Buddhism, so it took longer to “catch on”

Lao- Tse “The Way” or “The Path”

Focus on achieving balance and harmony within nature

“effortless doing”- man’s actions are at one with nature

Symbol- Yin/Yang

The Three Jewels: compassion, moderation, & harmony

Tao Te Ching text

Spread to areas immediately near China

Incorporated into the teachings & beliefs of several philosophies and religions-most notable: Buddhism and Shintoism

Teachings of Lao-Tse (Daoism)

Don’t Sweat the Small Stuff

• Key concept: “Effortless doing” occurs when man’s efforts & actions are in harmony with the universe & not in conflict with the natural order

• Harmony with nature

Reflects harmony and balanceSymbol emphasizes the Three Jewels:compassionmoderation humility

Tao Te Ching Text

The dynastic cycle refers to the rise and fall of dynasties.

The Dynastic Cycle in China3

Buddhism became popular among the Chinese, especially in times of crisis. It was appealing becauseIt promised an escape from suffering, offered hope of eternal happiness.presented Buddha as a compassionate, merciful god. taught that anyone could gain salvation through prayer, good works, and devotion.

No, not him!

Han emperors instituted the civil service examIn order to find the most qualified officials. They made Confucianism the official belief of the state.

Explorations will stop. Confucian scholars had little interest in overseas ventures. To them, Chinese civilization was superior to all others. The Chinese wanted to preserve ancient traditions, which they saw as the source of stability. Fleets of seagoing ships were costly and did not produce any profits. Even the knowledge of the outside world was a danger.

Tikki Tikki Tembo is set in ancient China and invents an ancient Chinese custom whereby parents honor their first-born sons with long, elaborate names that everyone is obliged to say completely – no nicknames, no shortening of any kind – while second-born sons are typically given short, unimportant names. A boy named Tikki Tikki Tembo-no Sa Rembo-chari Bari Ruchi-pip Peri Pembo ("The Most Wonderful Thing in the Whole Wide World") and his little brother Chang ("Little or Nothing") are playing near a well that their mother has warned them to avoid. Chang falls in the well and his older brother runs to their mother and tells her Chang has fallen down the well. Their mother tells him to get the Old Man with the Ladder. He goes and tells the old man. Chang is rescued and then recovers quickly. Some time later, the boys are again playing near the well. This time, the older brother falls in. Chang runs to their mother and tries to tell her that "Tikki Tikki Tembo-no Sa Rembo-chari Bari Ruchi-pip Peri Pembo has fallen into the well." At first she cannot hear him so he says it again. However, because Chang is out of breath from running he sputters and then mispronounces the name. His mother insists that he repeat the name—but with respect. He tries repeatedly until finally his mother tells Chang to get the Old Man with the Ladder. Chang goes to the Old Man with the Ladder. Initially, the old man does not respond because he is asleep. Further, when Chang tries to wake him up, the Old Man with the Ladder—annoyed—tries to fall back asleep. After Chang breathlessly repeats his brother's predicament the Old Man goes with Chang to save his brother from the well. They get Tikki Tikki Tembo-no Sa Rembo-chari Bari Ruchi-pip Peri Pembo from the well, but because of the long time he was in the well, he requires days to recover. The end of the story says that this is why the Chinese have short names.

Genghis Khan

• Genghis Khan (emperor) of the Mongol Empire the largest contiguous empire in history.

• He came to power by uniting many of the nomadic tribes of northeast Asia. After founding the Mongol Empire and being proclaimed "Genghis Khan", he started the Mongol invasions and raids of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, Caucasus, Khwarezmid Empire, Western Xia and Jin dynasties. During his life, the Mongol Empire eventually occupied a substantial portion of Central Asia and China.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Asia_1200ad.jpg

In the 1200s, Genghis Khan united Mongol tribes and conquered a vast empire that stretched from the Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe.

Genghis Khan imposed strict military discipline and demanded absolute loyalty. His highly trained armies contained some of the most skilled horsemen in the world.

In their conquest of China, the Mongol armies faced the problem of attacking walled cities. Mongol and Chinese armies used missile weapons against each other.

It took 150 years for the Mongols to complete their conquest of China.

Once a conquest was complete, the Mongols were not oppressive rulers. They often allowed conquered peoples to live much as they had — as long as they paid tribute to the Mongols.

The heirs of Genghis Khan established peace and order within their domain. Historians today refer to this period as the Pax Mongolica, or Mongol Peace.

Name: fasteddie

Only Mongols could serve in the military or hold the highest government jobs.Chinese officials were allowed to rule in the provinces. The Chinese despised their foreign conquerors. A mix of Chinese and foreign customs developed.Foreigners were welcomed into China and a number of Chinese products, such as gunpowder and porcelain, were introduced in Europe.

Early Ming rulers sought to reassert Chinese greatness after years of foreign rule. To accomplish this, they did the following:

• Restored the civil service system and made the exams more rigorous than ever• Revived Confucian learning• Repaired the canal system that linked regions and made trade easier• Made Chinese cities home to many industries, including porcelain, paper, and

tools • Developed new technologies, which increased output in manufacturing• Supported a revival of arts and literature

e

IrrigationPublic works—roads, canals, Etc. Distribution system

Textiles—silk, cottonPorcelain—chinaTea, silver, art, spices, furniture

Women—wealthy—stylized, but all women were treated as inferiors

Many workers died in the building of the Wall; they are buried within it as filler.

Over 5500 miles, most of which were added/maintained during Ming

大清Great Qing

• Silk production• The silkworms are born in spring,

are fed on mulberry leaves and make the floss thread, forming a nice cocoon, of which an elegant butterfly is born. The butterflies make eggs, of which worms are born again. It is the history of the cycle of the nature and the production of silk.

• Silk worms

In 1644, the Mings set up a new dynasty called the Qing (meaning pure). The Manchus extended their empire including Manchuria, Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet. Taiwan was added in 1683. It ruled a huge empire for almost 300 years.

CHINESE FOOT BINDING• At first only the rich people of China practiced foot binding.

This was because women with bound feet could not walk properly and needed a lot of care. Bound feet had to be washed daily and the toenails had to be cut every day so that they wouldn't grow too long and cut the foot. Sometimes the cloth would be wrapped too tightly and women would get gangrene or blood poisoning. Poor people didn't bind their daughters feet at first because they couldn't afford to spend a lot of time caring for a women who sat around not working. Eventually, the practice spread to the poor people who wanted their daughters to marry rich husbands. If a poor girl did not marry a rich husband, she had to try to work in the fields walking on her deformed feet. The Manchus tried to end the foot-binding—but that did not end until 1900s.

• Foot binding is a custom that started in China during the Tang Dynasty (618 - 907). Back then small feet were considered beautiful so young girls were forced to bind their feet to stop them from growing.Foot binding involved wrapping strips of cloth around the feet of baby girls. This binding process caused a lot of pain and even stopped them from walking correctly. Feet would become so deformed they looked like hooks and were called lotus hooks. Special small slippers were made to fit the feet. The shoes would get smaller as the feet became more deformed.

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Qing_Dynasty_1820.png

Ninja 忍者 A ninja or shinobi (忍者 ) was a covert agent or

mercenary of feudal Japan specializing in unorthodox arts of war. The functions of the ninja included espionage, sabotage, infiltration, assassination, as well as open combat in certain situations. The underhanded tactics of the ninja were contrasted with the samurai, who were careful not to tarnish their reputable image.

In his Buke Myōmokushō, military historian Hanawa Hokinoichi writes of the ninja:

“They travelled in disguise to other territories to judge the situation of the enemy, they would inveigle their way into the midst of the enemy to discover gaps, and enter enemy castles to set them on fire, and carried out assassinations, arriving in secret.”

A ninja or shinobi (忍者 ?) was a covert agent or mercenary of feudal Japan specializing in unorthodox arts of war. The functions of the ninja included espionage, sabotage, infiltration, assassination, as well as open combat in certain situations. The underhanded tactics of the ninja were contrasted with the samurai, who were careful not to tarnish their reputable image.

In his Buke Myōmokushō, military historian Hanawa Hokinoichi writes of the ninja: “ They travelled in disguise to other territories to judge the situation of the enemy, they would inveigle their way into the midst of the enemy to discover gaps, and enter enemy castles to set them on fire, and carried out assassinations, arriving in secret. ” The origin of the ninja is obscure and difficult to determine, but can be surmised to be around the 14th century. Few written records exist to detail the activities of the ninja. The word shinobi did not exist to describe a ninja-like agent until the 15th century, and it is unlikely that spies and mercenaries prior to this time were seen as a specialized group. In the unrest of the Sengoku period (15th - 17th centuries), mercenaries and spies for hire arose out of the Iga and Kōga regions of Japan, and it is from these clans that much of later knowledge regarding the ninja is inferred. Following the unification of Japan under the Tokugawa shogunate, the ninja descended again into obscurity. However, in the 17th and 18th centuries, manuals such as the Bansenshukai (1676) — often centered around Chinese military philosophy— appeared in significant numbers. These writings revealed an assortment of philosophies, religious beliefs, their application in warfare, as well as the espionage techniques that form the basis of the ninja's art. The word ninjutsu would later come to describe a wide variety of practices related to the ninja.

Ninja

忍者

• The mysterious nature of the ninja has long captured popular imagination in Japan, and later the rest of the world. Ninjas figure prominently in folklore and legend, and as a result it is often difficult to separate historical fact from myth. Some legendary abilities include invisibility, walking on water, and control over natural elements. The ninja is also prevalent in popular culture appearing in many forms of entertainment media. Later manuals regarding espionage are often grounded in Chinese military strategy, quoting works such as The Art of War (Sunzi Bingfa), by Sun Tzu.

الحشاشين \ جماعة Assassin حشاشونThe term 'Assassin' derives from the Arabic word Hashshashin literally "takers of hashish", more commonly called The Order of the Assassins. Their actual name is Nizari. They were active in the costal mountains of the Levant, then moved to Alamut by the Caspian Sea from the eighth to the fourteenth centuries. This group killed members of the Abbasid and Seljuq élite for political and religious reasons, but mostly targeted the Sunni Muslims.

It is commonly believed that assassins were under the influence of hashish and opium during their killings or during their indoctrination, and that assassin derives from hasishin. There is continued debate within the historical community whether these claims have any merit, as direct evidence from any contemporary source, Nizari or otherwise, is non-existent. Marco Polo and subsequent European visitors to the area received from rivals of the Nizarai, what were to these opponents, derogatory names for the Nizarai Ismaili, and significantly embroidered stories about them. Polo, Henry II, Count of Champagne, William Marsden, an envoy of Frederick Barbarossa, William, Archbishop of Tyre and others following, popularized the names and stories in Europe, oblivious to their origin in factional propaganda.

The Hermit Kingdom

As early as Han times, China extended its influence to Korea. Although Koreans absorbed many Chinese traditions, Korea was able to preserve its independence and maintain a separate and distinct culture.

Koreans adapted and modified Chinese ideas.

Examples: Koreans used the Chinese civil service examination, but adapted it to fit their own system of inherited ranks.Koreans learned to make porcelain from China, but then perfected techniques of making celadon—a porcelain with an unusual blue-green glaze.

In 1392, the Koreans overthrew their Mongol conquerors and set up the Choson dynasty. Choson rulers made important contributions to Korean culture. They reduced Buddhist influence and set up a government based upon Confucian principles. Over time, Confucianism greatly influenced Korean life. They developed hangul to replace the complex Chinese writing system. The use of hangul led to an extremely high literacy rate, or percentage of people who can read and write.

The Japanese kept some Chinese ways but discarded or modified others. This process is known as selective borrowing. Example: Japan never accepted the Chinese civil service exam to choose officials based on merit. Instead, they maintained their tradition of inherited status through family position.

Japan is located on an archipelago, or chain of islands, about 100 miles off the Asian mainland.Because four-fifths of Japan is mountainous, most people settled in narrow river valleys and along coastal plains. The surrounding seas have both protected and isolated Japan. Japan was close enough to the mainland to learn from Korea and China, but too far away for the Chinese to conquer. The seas also served as trade routes for Japan.

Feudalism—allegiance to one’s overlord

Bushido= Chivalry Samauri- Knight

Important literature came out of Japan. The Pillow Book was a series of anecdotes and observations about court life. The Tale of Genji was the world’s first full-length novel. Both were written by women.

Lady Murasaki Shikibu contributed much to the Japanese script known as kana, while men wrote with Chinese characters, kanji.

Seppuku: Ritual SuicideSeppuku:

Ritual Suicide

Kaishaku – his “seconds”

Kaishaku – his “seconds”

It is honorable to die in this way.

It is honorable to die in this way.

Ritual disembowelment saves face/honor.

A caterpillar,this deep in fall--still not a butterfly. Matsuo Basho

An old pondA frog jumps in -Splash! Matsuo Basho