Physical, emotional and social health, fitness and well-being

Key definitions

HealthA state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmity

FitnessThe ability to meet/cope with the demands of the environment

Well-beingA mix of physical, social and mental factors that gives people a sense of being comfortable, healthy and/or happy.

Physical health and well-beingAll body systems working well, free from illness and injury. Ability to carry out everyday tasks.

Mental health and well-beingA state of well-being in which every individual realises his/her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.

Social health and well-beingBasic human needs are being met (food, shelter and clothing). The individual has friendship and support, some value in society, is socially active and has little stress in social circumstances.

SerotoninA ‘feel good’ chemical released during exercise.

Reasons for participation in physical activity, exercise and sport, and how performance in physical activity/sport can increase health, well-being and fitness.

Physical health and well being

Mental health and well being

Social health and well being Fitness

• Improves heart function

• Improves efficiency of the body systems

• Reduces the risk of some illnesses e.g. diabetes

• Able to do everyday tasks

• To avoid obesity

• Reduces stress/tension

• Release of feel good hormones – HAPPY (serotonin)

• Able to control emotions

• Opportunities to socialise/make friends

• Cooperation

• Teamwork

• Have essential human needs (food, shelter, clothing)

• Improves fitness

• Reduces chance of injury

• Can aid in the physical ability to work, e.g on your feet all day/manual labour.

How might exercise help our well being?

scenario how exercise may suit the needs of these people which type

Key termSerotonin: A ‘feel good’ chemical released during

of well-being this relates to.

A person who has few friends outside of work

Join a gym or a sports club and meet new people with similar interests – meet new friends

Social well being

A person who is beginning to become overweight

Cardiovascular exercise burns calories/ uses energy – help to stop weight gain or even lose weight

Physical

A person who has a highly stressful job e.g. Nurse in A&E

Doing exercise may be a distraction from problems or a release of seratonin

Mental

A person who gets out of breath when walking up hill

Exercise can lead to an improvement in cardiovascular fitness

Fitness

A person who gets angry very easily

Exercise can allow a person to ‘compete’ and release anger – rugby/ boxing & other CONTACT sports can channel anger

Mental

A person who prefers to work independently

Team sports develop co-operation and communication – develop people/ team skills

Mental

a person with a heart condition

Exercise makes the heart work harder – becomes bigger/ stronger - cardiac hypertrophy. Exercise can help lose body fat – obesity can cause heart disease. Start gradually and build up.

Physical

The consequences of a sedentary lifestyle, obesity and somatotypes

What is a lifestyle?A lifestyle is a choice we make about - how we choose to live our lives

Being active Smoking Drinking alcohol Type of diet we eat Amount of sleep we get

Key term: SedentaryThe term ‘sedentary refers to a person’s choice to engage in little, or irregular, physical activity.

The consequences of a sedentary lifestyle

Consequence Physical, mental or social?

gaining weight/ becoming obese Physical

Heart diseasePhysical

HypertensionPhysical

DiabetesPhysical

Poor sleep/ insomniaPhysical

Poor self esteem/ confidence Mental

Tired/ lethargic Physical/ mental

Lack of friends/ poor communication skills

Social

Key termObese: A term used to describe people with a large fat content, caused by an imbalance of calories consumed to energy expenditure. A Body Mass Index (BMI) of over 30 or over 20% above standard weight for height ratio.

In simple terms BMI compares your weight to your height.You can work out your own BMI using the following formula:

BMI= weight (kg)Height x height (m)

A score of less than 20=underweightA score of 20-25= correct weightA score of 25-30 = overweightA score of 30+ = Obese

Obesity and its effect on performance

Why would being obese affect the following?

Limit stamina/ cardiovascular endurance The person would struggle to perform long distance activities because carrying a heavier weight

Limit flexibility It would make it difficult to use the full range of movement at joints when attempting to perform skills

Limit agility It would be difficult to change direction quickly carrying a heavier weight.

Limit speed/power Carrying more weight makes it harder to move faster.

Obesity and its effects on health and well-being

Causes…. Physical, Mental or SocialIt may make the individual conscious of how they look and therefore uncomfortable in social situations

SOCIAL

It can lead to depression MENTAL

It can cause loss of confidence MENTAL

It contributes to heart disease/heart attacks PHYSICALIt causes cholesterol to rise PHYSICAL

It may make the individual feel unable to leave home

SOCIAL

It can contribute to the development of diabetes PHYSICAL

It can contribute to the development of cancer PHYSICALIt can make the individual feel like they can’t contribute to society

MENTAL

It can lead to injury PHYSICAL

It can contribute to increased blood pressure PHYSICALIt can make the individual feel that they cannot comfortably enjoy activity.

PHYSICAL

It can lead to an inability to socialise SOCIAL

SOMATOTYPES

What is a somatotype?

Somatotype is a method of classifying body types.

There are three distinctive somatotypes (body shapes); Ectomorph, Mesomorph and Endomorph.

These three somatotypes are extremes, meaning most people do not necessarily display these body types. Most people have a mix of two or possibly all three.

1. Ectomorph

Definition: A somatotype characterised by being tall and thin with narrow shoulders and narrow hips

This shape is characterised by:• Very thin and lean (usually tall)• Narrow shoulders, hips and chest• Not much fat/muscle• Long arms and legs• Thin face and high forehead

The ectomorph body shape is often beneficial for activities where the characteristics of being tall and lean are an advantage.

Write down as many sporting examples as you can that would suit an ectomorph body shape. • High jumper• Jockey• Long distance runner

Choose one example and justify (give reasons for) why that body type would suit that sport.

An ectomorph would be suited to long distance running because;

Less body weight to carry means you can run faster/ further/ for longer. Also don’t need large muscle mass as strength and power is not important.

Longer limbs – longer stride length.

2. Mesomorph

Definition: A somatotype characterised by muscular appearance with wide shoulders and narrow hips

This shape is characterised by:• A wedge shape• Large muscle content• Broad shoulders and thin waist

The muscular nature of a mesomorph is excellent for producing power and strength. They don’t have ridiculous amounts of muscle but do have distinctive muscle definition in the chest and shoulders.

Write down as many sporting examples as you can that would suit a mesomorph body shape.

Boxer, tennis player, footballer, rugby player, netball player, sprinter, swimmer……

Choose one example and justify (give reasons for) why that body type would suit that sport.

A mesomorph would be suited to being a netball player because;

More muscle would mean more strength/ power in order to throw the ball harder or further.

Lower body fat – less weight to carry around court – more speed/ muscular endurance

3. Endomorph

Definition: A somatotype characterised by a pear-shaped body/fatness with wide hips and narrow shoulders

This shape is characterised by:• Pear-shaped body• High content of fat• Fat round middle, thighs and upper arms.

The pear shaped appearance can be beneficial for activities that simply require bulk.

Write down as many sporting examples as you can that would suit an endomorph body shape.

Sumo-wrestler, some rugby forward positions, some American football positions

NOTE: These examples are usually a combination of endomorph/ mesomorph

Choose one example and justify (give reasons for) why that body type would suit that sport.

An endomorph may be suited to being a rugby forward as they are heavier to push in a scrum or maul. Increased body weight can help generate more power in a contact situation.

Measuring Somatotypes

Most sports require a mix of all three somatotypes.

Each extreme is given a 7 on a scale of 1-7.

So an extreme mesomorph would have a score of 1 (endo) 7 (meso) 1 (ecto).

A tennis player would have a 2 (endo) 6 (meso) 4 (ecto). This is because they would have little body fat, lots of muscle and would be quite tall.

Energy use, diet, nutrition and hydration

We all need energy to function every day. We need this for growth, repair, development and for movement.

• We also need additional energy if we are exercising.• Energy is measured in calories or kilocalories (kcal). These calories come from the food and drink we

consume. • Therefore, the more calories we consume through food the more energy we have to use. • If we do not use the calories they are stored in the body causing weight gain.

Gaining and losing weight…

Gain weight

Lose weight

Weight stays the same

Daily calorific Intake

How many calories should the average adult male and adult female consume per day?

Females = 2000 kcal/day Males = 2500 kcal/day

However, certain factors will affect these values.

What might affect the amount of calories you can consume each day? How?

Factors that affect calorie consumption

How?

Age After the age of 25, the amount of calories needed becomes less.

Gender males usually need more calories than females .Height Taller people generally need more calories than

shorter peopleEnergy Expenditure The more exercise we do, the more calories we

need.

Calories out

Calories in

Calories out

Calories in

Calories in

Calories out

What are the 7 Components of a healthy Diet?

Carbohydrates Fats Proteins Vitamins Minerals Fibre Water

BALANCED DIET Has a recommended percentage of carbohydrate, fat and protein that we should consume each day.

Carbohydrates 55-60%Fats 25-30%Proteins 15-20%

Why do we need a healthy balanced diet?

• There is no single food that contains all the nutrients that the body needs. That is why we need to have a balanced diet.

• We should have a balanced diet to ensure we eat the right amount of calories to deal with the energy that will be needed

• Any unused energy will be stored as fat, which could cause obesity.• We need a balance of all the food groups as they each play a key role.

The body needs nutrients for energy, growth and hydration.

What is a healthy balanced diet?

• Eating the right amount (for energy expended)/ right amount of calories/ eating according to how much you exercise

• Eating different food types to provide suitable nutrients, vitamins and minerals• Eating a diet that contains 55-60% carbohydrate• Eating a diet that contains 25-30% fat• Eating a diet that contains 15-20% protein• Eating ‘5-a-day’ (5 portions of fruit and veg where 1 portion is fist sized)

The 7 food groups; examples and functions

Food group Examples Function More detailCarbohydrates Simple- sugars, sweets,

cakes, jamComplex- bread, pasta, potato, rice

Major source of energy for all types of exercise, of all intensities

Protein Animal-meat, poultry, fish.Dairy- Milk, cheese, eggs

Growth and repair of muscle tissue

Fats Butter, milk and cheese. Also an energy source. It provides more energy than Carbohydrate but only at low intensity.

Helps to carry vitamins in the body.

Water Any liquid Needed for transportation and body temperature control

Fibre Wholegrain bread and cereals

Important for the digestive system

Prevents constipation , reduces blood cholesterol and bowel cancer

Vitamins A - dairy productsD - oily fish, eggsC - citrus fruits, broccoli, liver

Maintain the efficient working of the body systems and general health

Vitamin A – skin function and growthVitamin D – helps bonesVitamin C – immune system, skin, blood vessels

Minerals Calcium-in Milk/ cheese/ dairy foodIron- found in meat

Maintain the efficient working of the body systems and general health

Calcium – good for teeth and bone growthIron – helps immune system and production of red blood cells

2 types of carbohydrates

Complex – bread, pasta, cereal – take longer for the body to digest but provide a longer supply of energy – healthier fuel

Simple – Already in the form of glucose – energy drinks, sugary snacks – Can supply a quick source of energy during sport

2 types of fat

Saturated fat (usually animal fat)

Unsaturated fat (usually vegetable fat and oils)

Some fat is essential – recommended 25 – 30% of our diet.

However high intake of Saturated fat is harmful;• High cholesterol• Heart disease• Narrowing of arteries

Water

Why do we need water in our diet?

Water makes up more than half the human body. Necessary to maintain hydration. Important for reactions, lubrication and temperature control.

What factors can affect how much water we should consume?• The environment – desert, rainforest - hotter• Temperature – hotter it is more you sweat• Amount of exercise/ activity level

KEY TERMS:

Dehydration

Excessive loss of body water interrupting the function of the body

Hydration

Having enough water (water balance) to enable normal functioning of the body

Rehydration

Consuming water to restore hydration

What does dehydration result in?• Increase in heart rate – heart has to work harder –can cause irregular heart rate• thicker (viscous) blood / Slows blood flow to working muscles / less oxygen to muscles/ harder to

remove waste – slows recovery/ performance dips next day• Increase in body temp so could overheat/ faint/ pass out/ have to stop• Slows reaction time/ slower to react to a stimulus e.g. slower start in 100m• Slows decision making e.g. late making a tackle in football• Muscle fatigue/ cramp/ cannot carry on

Correct diet for sport…

• Balanced diet important to maintain health/ immune system/ not get ill• Increased complex carbohydrate before training / competing for more energy • Possibly Increased simple carbohydrate during training / competition• Increased protein after training/ competition – in events that rely upon strength / power - for muscle

growth and repair• Increased water consumption before/ during/ after training/ competing to maintain hydration • Overeating carbohydrate leads to storage of body fat – carefully controlled consumption• Strict control of fat content within diet to avoid health issues• Day before competing – may eat a lot of carbohydrate ‘carbohydrate loading’ for endurance events

like the marathon• Total amount of daily calories needs to be higher

Key terms

Balanced DietEating the right amount (for energy expended)/ the right amount of calories/ eating according to how much you exercise/ eating different food types to provide suitable nutrients, vitamins and mineralsCarbohydrateFood source that acts as the body’s preferred energy sourceDehydrationExcessive loss of body water interrupting the function of the bodyEctomorphA somatotype characterised by being tall and thin with narrow shoulders and narrow hipsEndomorphA somatotype characterised by a pear-shaped body/fatness with wide hips and narrow shouldersFatFood source that provides energy at low intensitiesFitnessThe ability to meet/cope with the demands of the environmentHealth A state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease and infirmityHydrationHaving enough water (water balance) to enable normal functioning of the bodyMental health and well-beingA state of well-being in which every individual realises his/her own potential, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her community.MesomorphA somatotype characterised by muscular appearance with wide shoulders and narrow hipsMineralsInorganic substances that assist the body with many of its functionsObese: A term used to describe people with a large fat content, caused by an imbalance of calories consumed to energy expenditure. A Body Mass Index (BMI) of over 30 or over 20% above standard weight for height ratio.Physical health and well-beingAll body systems working well, free from illness and injury. Ability to carry out everyday tasks.RehydrationConsuming water to restore hydrationSedentaryThe term ‘sedentary refers to a person’s choice to engage in little, or irregular, physical activity.SerotoninA ‘feel good’ chemical released during exercise.Social health and well-beingBasic human needs are being met (food, shelter and clothing). The individual has friendship and support, some value in society, is socially active and has little stress in social circumstances.VitaminsOrganic substances that are required for many essential processes in the bodyWell-beingA mix of physical, social and mental factors that gives people a sense of being comfortable, healthy and/or happy.

3.2.1 SPORTS PYSCHOLOGY

Classification of skills

Skill and ability

Skills

• Skills are learned and, when mastered, are consistently done in a way that looks easy and uses the correct technique.

• Although skills can be mental (thinking skills) we tend to think of sporting skills as physical.• E.g. The lay up shot, riding a bike or the sprint start in athletics.

Abilities

• Abilities are something you inherit from parents. • They are known as traits that you have as a person and are fairly stable throughout life. • Abilities can help a person to learn a skill more easily.• For example – agility / balance/ speed/ power/ co-ordination/ reaction time/ endurance

Classification of skills

• You are not able to perform sporting skills immediately when you are born; they have to be learned.

• You always try to learn the basic skills first before mastering a more advanced version of the skill.

• E.g. Babies first learn to stand whilst holding onto something. Then they learn to move each foot in turn whilst holding onto something. They will then let go and take their first few steps before getting more confident and going quicker. Once they can move quickly then may then start to run.

To understand skilled actions we classify them into various categories. This is called skill classification.We then place these skills onto continua (lines).

A continuum is an imaginary scale between two extremes and is usually represented in linear form eg.

A learned action/behaviour with the intention of bringing about pre-determined results with maximum certainty and minimum outlay of time and energy

Inherited from your parents, abilities are stable traits that determine an individual’s potential to learn or acquire skills.

Freezing Cold Warm Hot Boiling

There are four of these that we need to know:

• The Basic to Complex continuum• The Open to Closed continuum• The Self-paced to Externally-paced continuum• The Gross to Fine continuum

1. Basic to complex Continuum

In deciding where a skill fits on this continuum you need to consider;

• Who is the skill being taught to; e.g. a beginner or a more experienced performer?• How much decision making is involved- do you need to use high level thinking?• Are the movements easy to carry out without much experience?•

Basic Skill Complex Skill

• Few decisions to be made.• Few decisions affect the success of the

movement.• Tend to be taught as a beginner.• Learned fairly quickly• Walking is an example of a very BASIC

SKILL

• Complex decision making.• Lots of decisions to be made in order to be successful.• Tend to be taught after experiencing success in basic skills• Can take considerable time to master.• EG Back somersault with a half twist is an example of a

very COMPLEX SKILL

Basic Complex

2. Open to closed Continuum

What you need to consider;

• What is going on in the environment when performing the skill?

• Is the environment stable – is it changing or not?• Do other people affect how the skill might be done, e.g. opposition players• Do decisions need to be made as to how to the skill because of things on within the environment?

OpenClosed

3. Self-paced to externally-paced Continuum

What you need to consider;

• Who or what controls when the movement/skill should start?• Who or what controls the speed, rate or pace at which the movement skill is performed?

Self-paced Skill Externally-paced Skill

• The start of the movement is controlled by the performer

• The speed, pace or rate of the movement is controlled by you.

• The start of the movement is controlled by external factors

• The speed, pace or rate of the movement is controlled by external factors

Self-Paced External

4. Gross to fine Continuum

What you need to consider;

Open Skill Closed Skill

• Unstable environment.• The way you do the skill is affected by

people around you.• You may decide to do the skill

differently to ‘normal’ because of the environment.

• The skill is often externally-paced.

• EG Shooting during a game of football in open play is far more OPEN than….

• Stable environment.• The way you do the skill is not affected

by people around you.• You will not change how you do the

skill. It is done the same way every time because there are no factors/people within the environment to affect how you do it.

• The skill is typically self-paced

• …shooting from the penalty spot

• How much of the body is being used to perform the skill?• Are large groups of muscles being used or small muscle groups?

Gross Fine

Basic Information processing

Our brains are only able to process one piece of information at a time. The speed at which we do this will demonstrate what level of performance we are at. An elite performer will process the information more quickly than a beginner and will prioritise the information that is most important. This is because they don’t need to think about each component individually, like a beginner might do.

E.g. When a person first learns to do triple jump, they think about each hop, step and jump, whereas elite athletes have mastered that skill and therefore would think about more advanced techniques such as spacing of each hope, step and jump.

What is information processing?

Information processing is using the available information in order to make a decision; this is choosing a suitable skill or movement.

When a beginner performs a skill then will do so in the same way every time. E.g. when they serve in tennis, they will usually do the same type of serve each time to make sure they get it in.

Basic Information Processing Model

Key Term

Information processing: Making decisions. Gathering data from the display (senses), prioritising the most important stimuli to make a suitable decision.

Gross Skill Fine Skill

• Involves big movements of the body.• Involves the use of large muscle groups.• Movements tend not to rely on accuracy

and precision

• Involves small, precise movements.• Involves the use of small muscle groups.• Movements tend to involve precision and

accuracy.

INPUT

Performer takes in information from the environment/display (for example, what they can see, what they can hear, what they can feel)

They choose what is the most relevant signal/cue/stimulus/piece of information to them at that time.

For example, sight when watching a cricket ball flying through the air. This is called selective attention. It is a filtering process whereby they pick out the most important parts of the display that are relevant and discard those that are not.

DECISION MAKING

This is where the performer selects an appropriate response (movement/skill) from memory; perhaps one they have used in this situation before.

The short-term memory (STM) is the 'working memory’. Information from the display that has been attended to is held in the short-term memory for a short time (approx. 30 seconds). If your attention is directed to something else, the information is lost.

The long-term memory (LTM) holds information that has been rehearsed and stored. Thus if a memory or past experience is relevant to what is required at that time, it is compared to information in the short-term memory so that a suitable decision can be made.

The cricketer may have attended to the sight of a ball in the air. He/she recalls the memory of a previous catch (from LTM) and compares it to what he/she is currently seeing (STM) so that the decision to catch can take place.

OUTPUT

The decision chosen is sent to the appropriate muscles to carry out the response.

Input Decision Making Output

Feedback

For example, impulses sent to arms and hands to start the appropriate muscular movements for the catch to take place.

FEEDBACK

Information is received via themselves (intrinsic) and/or from others (extrinsic) regarding the success (or not) of the action.

Note, the feedback received may affect how you complete this skill in the future. For example, you can feel the ball in the hands (intrinsic) and your team mates cheer when

you catch it (extrinsic).

Apply it to a sporting situation

Goal Setting

You will understand;

Input

Decision Making

Output

Feedback

What happens here? What can you see/hear/feel? What signals/cues can you see?

What does the brain check first? How long is the information stored?What does the brain look for?

What happens here? What is affected?

What feedback would be received?

The definitions of types of goals The use and evaluation of setting performance and outcome goals in sporting examples How to use SMART targets to improve and/or optimise performance.

Types of Goals

There are two types of goals that you need to be aware of;

Performance goals Outcome goals

TASK: Why do we need goals?

Goals are used to provide motivation or to improve performance.

- Goal setting gives performers a target to aspire to and helps to prepare performers both physically and mentally.

1. Performance goals

2. Outcome goals

Using Performance and Outcome Goals

Which type of goal would be better suited to a beginner? Why?

PERFORMANCE GOALS best for a beginner. Outcome goals may rely on factors out of their control. E.g. scoring 2 goals maybe dependant

on assists from your own team, the position your manager plays you or how good the opposition is.

Outcome goals can de-motivate – if you don’t succeed. E.g. winning may be unrealistic. Beginners should concentrate on their OWN performance – ‘touch the ball 10 times in the

game’Which type of goal would be better suited to an elite athlete? Why?

Key Term

Personal standards to be achieved. The performer compares their performance against what they have already done or suggests what they are going to do. There is no comparison with other performers.

Key TermFocus on end result, for example winning.

Elite athletes are usually driven by WINNING so OUTCOME goals such as a trophy or medal. The very best can persist even when they fail and become more determined (ELITE ATHLETES

DON’T GET DE-MOTIVATED!)

Draw and complete the table below. What performance and outcome goals could be set for the badminton beginner and elite javelin thrower? (4 marks)

A complete beginner playing badminton against a more experienced player

Performance goal:To hit the shuttle more consistently than the last game

Outcome goal:To score a point

An elite javelin thrower performing at the Olympic games

Performance goal:To beat their personal best throw

Outcome goal:To win gold

SMART TARGET SETTING

It is generally accepted that whatever goals are set, they should follow the SMART principles. The goal should be:

S Specific Must be specific to the demands of the sport/muscles used/movements involved.

I want to improve my cardiovascular endurance to improve my time for a half marathon by 2minutes.

M Measureable It must be possible to measure whether it has been achieved.

I will compare my time from my first race to the time in the next race. 2 minute improvement.

A Accepted It must be accepted/agrees by the performer and the performer’s coach, if they have one.

I accept this as a short term target.

R Realistic It must actually be possible to complete the goal, that the person is physically capable.

Knocking two minutes off my time is a realistic target for my ability level if I train hard in between races.

T Time-bound It must be set over a fixed period of time.

My next race is in 6 weeks.

TASK:

1. write yourself a SMART target based on your GCSE PE or sport of your choice. 2. Explain how you have applied each of the SMART principles to your target.

E.g. I want to improve my cardiovascular endurance to improve my time for a half marathon by 2minutes. This is specific to running which is my sport. It is measurable because I will compare my time from my first race to the time in the next race to check if there is a 2 minute improvement. This is accepted as I have discussed this target with my coach. Knocking two minutes off my time is a realistic target for my ability level if I train hard in between races. It is timebound as I want to achieve this target in 6 weeks in my next trace.

Feedback

You need to be able to evaluate the use of the following types of feedback with specific links to beginners and to elite level performers;

Positive/negative Knowledge of results/knowledge of performance Extrinsic/intrinsic

Positive Feedback

This type of feedback is used to inform the athlete what was correct about the movement. Performers need to know if a movement is correct as this provides a reference point for future attempts at the movement (think back to the information processing model)

Positive feedback is essential in motivating athletes.

Negative Feedback

This type of feedback is used to inform the athlete what was incorrect about the movement. Negative feedback must include information on the action(s) required by the performer to achieve the correct movement.

Knowledge of Results

This is sometimes known as ‘KR’. It focuses on how successful you have been in achieving what you set out to do (the outcome).

It is usually factual and given to you by a coach or teacher.

Can you think of an example of positive feedback in sport from a coach or teacher?

Knowledge of performance

This type of feedback provides more detail about how well you did irrespective of the result.

It may relate to the technique used, or specific aspects of the movement you produced.

It deals with the quality of the performance, no the result.

Extrinsic Feedback

This is feedback received about performance which comes from outside of the performer, for example a coach or teacher.

It may also come from team mates or spectators and is generally given verbally or on a score card.

Intrinsic Feedback

This is information which is received from within the individual, for example how it feels, information from the sense or muscles.

This ‘feeling’ or sense that the movement of the muscles and joints has gone well ( or not) is often called kinaesthesis.

Beginner or Elite?

A tip to help you remember… Beginner REP Elite PIN

Beginners are more suited to Results (knowledge of), Extrinsic and Positive feedback

R- Results (knowledge of) – beginners like to know if they are successful

E- Extrinsic – beginners don’t necessarily have the knowledge to know if they are successful/ if they are improving / how to improve – need a coach/ teacher

P- Positive – lower in confidence / less skill – need positivity

Elite performers are more suited to Performance (knowledge of), Intrinsic and Negative feedback.

P-Performance (knowledge of) – result is obvious to an elite performer / often successful / need small details about technique to improve / small margins

I- Intrinsic – Elite players often have as much knowledge as coach/ know what they’ve done wrong

N- Negative – Can motivate SOME elite players / stop complacency / unlikely to be an elite sportsman if can’t take negative criticism (some still need positive)

GUIDANCE

We all need help and support whilst learning new skills. We need help and support from coaches or teachers in order to improve.

This is called GUIDANCE and there are four types.

Look at the four types and see if you can guess what they involve.

Visual Verbal Manual Mechanical

VISUAL GUIDANCE

This is simply when the performer can see something.

Demonstration of technique or skill by another person, for example the coach. Footage of performance via DVD, analysis software, slow motion, different angles Still images, for example posters or photographs.

VERBAL GUIDANCE

It involves another person (usually a coach or teacher) telling the learner what they are doing right or wrong.

This type of guidance is usually used with visual guidance.

It can also be used as a key word trigger, for example ‘point your toes’.

A coach/teacher talking to a performer, highlighting technique A coach/teacher highlighting a key ‘trigger point’, for example ‘and push’ when a

performer hits the trampoline.

MANUAL GUIDANCE

Manual guidance involves physically moving the performer through physical touch.

Manual and mechanical guidance are very similar and can be grouped together.

The physical support allows the performer to produce the required movement when they may not have been able to do it by themselves.

Physically guiding the performer, for example the coach moving the learner’s arm through the correct motion of a cricket bowling action

Supporting the performer for safety, so that the required movement takes place, e.g. supporting a gymnast whilst trying to do a vault.

MECHANICAL GUIDANCE

Mechanical guidance involves using a mechanical aid.

Manual and mechanical guidance are very similar and can be grouped together.

The physical support allows the performer to produce the required movement when they may not have been able to do it by themselves.

Trampoline harness for somersault Arm bands/ floats in swimming

Beginner or Elite

For the exam you need to be able to choose and justify which types of guidance are appropriate for beginners and/or elite level performers.

Complete the table to decide whether you think each type of guidance is better for elite performers or beginners. Explain why?

Elite or beginner

Why?

Visual Both Beginner – needs to see what they are learning looks like. Can be easiest way to understand.Elite – visual is a very clear, quick way to learn for ALL abilities. Can watch themselves.

Verbal Both Beginner – goes well with visual. Reinforces what they have seen. Must be simple.Elite – best method – must come from a knowledgeable coach.

Manual Beginner Can make a movement clearer than visual or verbal. Elite don’t need this.

Mechanical Beginner Can break down a skill into parts for a beginner e.g. a float legs only during breast stroke

Mental Preparation for performance

Arousal

Deep sleep Intense Excitement

Low level of arousal High level of arousal

Arousal can affect both the physical and mental state of a performer.

If the arousal levels are not controlled performance may suffer as a result.

The Inverted U-Theory of Arousal

Yerkes and Dobson (1908) developed a theory called the inverted U theory which visually shows how a performer can be under or over aroused, or at the correct (optimal) level.

KEY TERM: Arousal is a physical and mental (physiological and psychological) state of alertness/excitement varying from deep sleep to intense excitement

Fine/precise movements involving accuracy require a low optimal level of arousal

Gross/skills requiring power, strength and/or large muscle movements require a high level of arousal.

Differing optimal levels of arousal for different activities

High or low arousal

What are the consequences of being over- aroused?

• Too aggressive – e.g. yellow cards/ red cards in football for fouls• dissent (saying the wrong thing)

Left hand curve is a FINE skill such as darts. Relies on accuracy so lower arousal needed.

Right hand curve is a GROSS skill such as rugby. Relies on power and strength so higher arousal is needed.

• setting a bad image on TV - sponsors not happy - club has a bad image• mistakes and errors e.g. false start in 100m or dropping a catch in cricket• Arguments with team mates

What are the consequences of being under-aroused?

• Low motivation – low effort level• Mistakes / poor concentration

Controlling Arousal Levels

As we have seen from the Inverted U theory, if performers do not control their arousal it can affect their performance. Mistakes can be made as a result of being under or over aroused.

There are three methods used to control arousal in the mind (mental/cognitive) or through the body (physical/somatic), these are;

• Deep breathing (physical/Somatic)• Mental rehearsal, visualisation or imagery (mental/cognitive)• Positive self-talk (mental/cognitive)

1. Deep breathing

Key Term

Deep breathing is a physical /somatic technique which involves the performer exaggerating their breaths in and out.

The top half of the body should be relaxed and slow, deep breaths should be used to allow the performer to control arousal and focus their thoughts on the task in hand. It can be used before performance to calm nerves and control arousal or it can be used during performance to focus the mind on the task.

2. Mental rehearsal, visualisation or imagery (mental/cognitive)

Key Term

Mental Rehearsal: A cognitive relaxation technique involving the control of mental thoughts and imagining positive outcomes.

Mental rehearsal involves the performer picturing themselves performing the skill perfectly before attempting it. It can also be classed as imagery but imagery could be the performer imagining themselves in a calm, relaxing place to reduce stress levels. Both methods aim to relax and focus the mind on the task in hand and can be used before or during the performance to control arousal levels.

3. Positive self-talk (mental/cognitive)

Key Term

Self-talk: A mental/cognitive technique whereby the performer talks to him/herself in their head to reassure themselves.This technique is usually positive and can reassure the performers that they are doing well or are well prepared and can relax their body and mind, controlling their arousal.

Aggression

KEY TERM: Direct Aggression This is where there is actual physical contact between performers.

This is where the ‘aggressor’ uses physical contact to directly and deliberately inflict harm upon their opponent.

E.g. tackle from behind in football, high tackle in rugby, push in netball.

KEY TERM: Indirect Aggression This type of aggression does not involve any physical contact between performers

This is where the aggressive act is taken out on an object to gain advantage over an opponent.

They do not physically harm or injure and this act may be within the rules of the sport.

This can cause mental harm to the opposition as it could make them feel less confident or worried.

E.g. Volleying a tennis ball at an opponent, hitting a racket into the floor.

Introvert vs extrovert Personality Types

• Everyone is different but certain types of personality can be grouped into categories. • Two commonly used personality types are introvert and extrovert.• These are classified by how much arousal they need for optimal performance and whether

they need others around them to stimulate them.

Introvert Extrovert

Low arousal level High arousal level

Can be shy Lack concentration

Quiet Enjoy interaction with others

Thoughtful Fast paced skills

Solitary Seek exciting situations

Don’t need others to motivate them Aroused by others

Play individual sports Prone to boredom if isolated

Play sports which need precision/ concentration (fine skills)

Play team sports

Sociable

Talkative

Sports which include gross skills

Enthusiastic

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

What is motivation?

Key Term: Motivation is: the drive to succeed or the desire (want) to achieve something.

What motivates you can be divided into two main categories;

Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation

Key term : Intrinsic Motivation : The drive that comes from within the performer.

• This type of motivation comes from within, that feeling of pride, self-satisfaction or general achievement.

• The performer is driven to achieve something because of the feeling it gives them.

Key term: Extrinsic Motivation : The drive experienced by a performer when striving to achieve a reward (tangible or intangible).

• This type of motivation is when the performer strives to achieve a reward. • The external reward is provided by an outside source or person and there are two types:

• Tangible rewards – such as certificates, trophies, medals, money etc

• Intangible rewards – such as praise or feedback from others, applause from the crowd

Evaluating the merits of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport

Advantages and disadvantages of both types of motivation?What is good/what is bad?

• Intrinsic motivation can’t be given – some have it - some don’t• Intrinsic lasts • Extrinsic is easy to give• Not always possible to keep giving extrinsic• With extrinsic – doing things for the wrong reasons

What would happen if this type of motivation was taken away?• When extrinsic is removed – become de-motivated

Could you become reliant on a specific type of motivation?• Can become reliant on extrinsic

Which one would be more likely to lead to continued effort and participation?• Intrinsic• Virtually every single successful person has a degree of intrinsic motivation

Socio-cultural Influences

3.2.2.1. Engagement patterns of different social groups in physical activity and sport.

KEY TERM: Engagement patterns

The term used to describe how levels of participation vary across different social groups is called engagement patterns

Key term: Social groupsPeople who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and have a sense of unity/togetherness

Examples of social groups:

• GENDER • RACE/RELIGION/CULTURE • AGE • FAMILY/FRIENDS/PEERS • DISABILITY

Key term: Stereotype: Widely held but fixed and oversimplified idea of a particular type of person.

A barrier to participation is an obstacle that prevents a group within society from participating in sport or physical recreation and therefore reduces overall levels of participation.

Barriers to a social group – e.g. females playing rugby – could be lack of clubs, role models or media coverage.

Factors relevant to engagement patterns;

• ATTITUDES• ROLES MODELS• ACCESSIBILITY (to facilities/clubs/activities)• MEDIA COVERAGE• SEXISM/STEREOTYPING• CULTURE/RELIGION/RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS• FAMILY COMMITMENTS• AVAILABLE LEISURE TIME• FAMILIARITY• EDUCATION• SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS/DISPOSABLE INCOME• ADAPATABILITY/INCLUSIVENESS

1. ATTITUDES

• An attitude is an opinion about something and means that people have a tendency to respond in a certain way towards something.

• These attitudes are generally learned from family and friends. • Attitudes can be positive or negative. A person may have a negative attitude about exercise and

therefore does not participate; whereas another person may have a positive attitude about exercise and does take part.

• Attitudes are long lasting, but they can be changed. • If we want more people to participate in sport and physical activity we may need to change their

negative attitude to a positive one. • Attitudes can be changed by convincing the performer of all the good things about an activity, such as

explaining the health benefits of exercise. They may also be changed by getting the performer to take part in the activity and finding out that they actually enjoy it, rather than hating it as they expected.

• “Rugby is a boys sport”• “Dance is for girls”• “Girls who use the gym look like men”• Attitudes to participation do change. • The idea of women playing rugby or cricket attracted negative attitudes from most people 30 years

ago, but now that general idea has changed; • After the England women's success in winning the bronze medal at the 2015 World Cup, attitudes

towards women's football have become much more positive.

2. ROLES MODELS

Have a great influence on attitudes and participation in general. Role models can be from a sport, from family, or from a peer group. Role models tend to encourage participation in sport.

3. ACCESSIBILITY (to facilities/clubs/activities)

• Many physical activities require a certain type of facility in order to participate. • For example, skiing needs snow or an artificial surface; disabled swimmers may need a hoist to enter

and leave the water. • If that facility is not easily available, then participation becomes difficult. • Some activities are only available in certain locations. White water canoeing needs access to the type

of water found in fast-flowing rivers usually found in rural areas. • There are very few Olympic-size swimming pools in this country.• Many elite sportspeople have to go and live near a facility to make access to the facility easier.

4. MEDIA COVERAGE

Usually has a positive effect on participation in that it often generates role models or simply general interest that encourages participation.

A lack of media coverage, or bad media coverage, however, can have a negative effect on participation.

Positive and negative affects of media upon participation in sport??

Positive Negative

Attendances may rise as people want to see the best players/role models

Attendances may fall as more people watch from home

Supporters become better informed Only few sports on TV; minor sports not shownEasier to attract sponsorship Sports personalities lose privacy

Encourages participation Events can be sensationalised to promote the media rather than the sport

Develops personalities and role models Changes to playing season, e.g. summer rugby league

Multiple cameras give viewers a close up view of the action

Changes to event timings, e.g. Premier League matches on Friday and Monday nights

Changes to the rules, e.g. new scoring system for badminton

5. SEXISM/STEREOTYPING

Is the belief that one sex (usually the male) is naturally superior to the other. It involves and leads to prejudice, stereotyping or discrimination, typically against women, on the basis of gender.

Elite sport is sexist in that it separates men and women. The men's decathlon has been an Olympic event since 1912 but there is no place for the women's event.

While men play five sets at tennis Grand Slam events, women can only compete over three sets. In terms of participation, 1.9 million fewer women than men participate in sport at least once a

month. Women make up only 18 per cent of qualified coaches and 9 per cent of senior coaches. Less than 1 per cent of sports sponsorship in the UK goes to women's sport and men generally get

more prize money than women. Finally, only 7 per cent of all sports media coverage in the UK is dedicated to women's events. There are certain groups of women affected by these issues more than others; for example, teenage

girls (15-19) participate less as they grow older. The major reasons for the decline in participation by teenage girls are based on the lack of interest in physical activity from their friends and family, concerns over their weight and appearance and associated feelings of lack of confidence.

Muslim women participate less than women from other social or cultural groups. Not only does this cultural group face the same inequalities as other women, but they also have the additional cultural difficulties of needing to follow a strict dress code and the need to only mix with other women.

6. CULTURE/RELIGION/RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS

Culture and/or religion may affect participation. Other influences on the participation of ethnic minority groups include the effects of discrimination

as a result of prejudice, which may lead to reduced opportunities either through limited access or by individuals choosing not to participate.

Another reason for lower participation rates is that a higher percentage of ethnic minority communities are in economically deprived areas and have lower disposable incomes, and therefore cannot afford to participate.

There may be a need for a cultural group to observe their religious festivals, which may limit participation at certain times of the year.

7. FAMILY COMMITMENTS

Individuals may need to look after other members of their family and this may limit opportunities to participate in sport and physical activities.

Illness in the family or a single parent family situation may have an affect.

8. AVAILABLE LEISURE TIME

Leisure time is the time people have when they are not working, 'taking care of themselves or completing their family and home duties.

In general, the amount of leisure time has increased in recent years for most people because they tend to now have shorter working days and shorter working careers. Linked to this is the fact that people now tend to live longer.

People also have better/easier working conditions; work tends to be less arduous and the number of paid holidays has increased. More and more people are job-sharing and involved in part-time rather than full-time work. There are also many inventions that make life easier, which means that housework takes less time.

More leisure time should mean more time for sport and physical activity, but there are still many people who through choice or through necessity still have limited leisure time due to work or other commitments.

9. FAMILIARITY

Most people would rather be involved with something they already know about and understand. Some of the more common ways to have familiarity with an activity is through parental influence, where children become involved in the same activity as their parents.

Participating in the same activity as a role model is another example of the use of familiarity as a deciding factor.

10. EDUCATION

The activities chosen for participation are not always a person's own, quite often the choice is made for you.

Compulsory physical education lessons give every child an introduction to activities that they to participate in after leaving school.

Many factors affect a school's PE programme. Some schools simply have better and/or newer facilities than others. Many schools have PE teachers who have interests in certain sports that they emphasise in

their PE lessons, but this in turn may actually limit a child s experience to certain activities. In much the same way, a school may have a tradition in a certain area — a 'rugby-playing

school', for example. In many schools the timetable can be a problem, as there may be a greater emphasis, and

more lessons, given to academic subjects, and so there is insufficient time allocated to PE. Facilities and/or finance can also affect PE provision. For example, without a pool, a school

may find it very expensive to provide swimming lessons for its pupils.

11. SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS/DISPOSABLE INCOME

lower socio-economic groups are less likely to participate in physical activity.

The main reason for this lower level of participation by certain socio-economic groups is because of the lower disposable income available to spend on leisure activities.

people from lower socio-economic groups may have limited leisure time because of the need to work long hours.

Some activities require expensive equipment – such as golf For example, there is a need to own a pony, which is expensive, in order to participate in

polo.

12. ADAPATABILITY/INCLUSIVENESS

Finally, one way that people with limited access to an activity, such as those with a disability or with limited disposable income are able to participate in sport is by either adapting a mainstream version of the sport or by designing a new sport.

This makes many activities inclusive to all. For example, the sport of basketball can be adapted to wheelchair basketball for disabled

users. The sport of polo can be adapted to bicycle polo for people with limited disposable income. Adapting an activity to enable more people to participate is making an activity inclusive.

Commercialisation of physical activity and sport

Key Term : Commercialisation: the process by which a new product or service is introduced into the general market for profit.

Every aspect of sport has now become a commodity that can be bought and sold. Teams can buy and sell players

sports can sell competitions media can buy and sell sports businesses can buy and sell sports Businesses can buy and sell competitions, grounds, teams and players. Sports, grounds, competitions, teams and players can advertise businesses.

Sponsorship and the Media

Key Term: Media: the main ways that people communicate collectively

Key Term: Sponsorship: Where a company pays money to a team or individual in return for advertising their goods.

various types of media? TV/ radio/ social/ newspapers

What types of sponsorships are there? Clothing, equipment, footwear

Key Term: Golden Triangle: the financial relationship between sport, sponsorship and media.

Media - Television, radio, the press, the internet, social media Spectators – live or TV Sponsorship – company providing resources in return for some business related favour/ advantage. It

is a form of advertising to increase sales of a product or make a company's name more well known.

In this relationship – the sport is sold to business as a means of advertising. The sport is shown on the media – which promotes the product – spectators see the sport and buy the product.

Commercialised sport needs to make a profit to be successful. Performers are forced to promote the sport and products.

Sports and teams are run and organised by people with a background in business. To attract sponsorship – a sport needs good media coverage.

Sponsorship

Business sponsor sport as a means to advertise their product. If the sport is in the media it will show the product to more spectators and lead to increased sales of

the product. Sponsors like to associate with a successful or popular team or individual. Intended message is “this team/ individual is quality – our product is quality” Some sponsorship is philanthropic – aim to benefit local community – local businesses will sponsor

local teams. Almost charitable.

Key Term : Spectators: People who watch sport; can be at the event or watch/ listening/ reading – ‘armchair spectating’.

Key Term : Philanthropic: trying to benefit others; generous

Sponsorship – benefit to sponsor

The sponsor gains because sponsorship money is tax deductible – so the business gets a lower tax bill NOT ALWAYS MONEY – can be equipment, clothing, footwear Sponsor can sponsor a team, individual, competition, stadium or a stand Sponsorship can be negative for the sponsor – if team is performing badly, or a sport is involved in

cheating, violence, racism etc can reflect badly on a sponsor

Sport and the media

Fairly ‘cheap’ form of entertainment for TV companies – costs less than making a drama production or a soap

Sport has lots of excitement – like a good programme In order to be attractive to the media – sports have changed to be more attractive for the spectator ‘Good to watch’ sports have short bursts of maximum excitement e.g. 100m or a goal in football T20 (20/20) Cricket is a new form of cricket aimed at being more attractive for a TV audience

TV

TV kick off times have changed to suit TV. The biggest TV audience for football is Europe so major finals are usually played when it is 8pm in

Europe to maximise a TV audience TV is thought as the best media because it can provide live images.

Satellite and cable (SKY and BT) compete with traditional terrestrial (BBC & ITV). Football has the highest viewing figures.

Sport can be left for a few minutes without a viewer losing the plot. Technological developments such as replays, pausing live TV etc have benefitted TV coverage

The ideal sport for TV must:

1. Demonstrate skill, strength and fitness2. Competitive and spectacular with detail available3. Simple rules4. Reasonable timescale5. Clear personalities6. Easy to televise – cameras keep up with play – reasonable sized playing area

Radio

Can be more detailed than TV Can provide live commentary Can do in-depth interview with performers & experts

Newspapers

Broadsheet or Tabloid Need to sell large numbers to make a profit Broadsheet tend to have less of the paper devoted to sport Tend to be more critical analysis / cover issues Tabloid – sensationalise – focus on personality Narrow range of popular sport – football, horse racing Larger percentage of total content for sport Both have been massively influenced by social media

Social media

Web based technology NOT just receiving information Allows discussion and opinion Facebook, twitter etc allow interaction with teams, personalities, buisness etc INSTANT – much quicker than newspapers

Commercialised activity and effect on the performer…

Positive + Negative –

The high income and fame of top performers limits the performers opportunity to have a normal life – media intrusion into personal life – become public property

Performers need to entertain in order to increase marketability – may need to run a social media site

More sponsorship can lead to additional income which = better performances – more time to train, better venues, better equipment, = better skill and fitness.

Sponsorship contract may demand time given to attend corporate events, talking to the media, interviews, shooting commercials, less free time, less privacy.

Reduced worry about finances as a performer may get paid to play and receive free equipment, clothing & footwear.

Sponsors product may not be ideal – maybe not healthy

May become dependent on the sponsor – then lose income if have a loss of formPressure on a performer to win may lead to cheating

Key Term: Marketability Able to be sold

Commercialised activity and effect on the sport…

Positive + Negative –

Increased income so the sport doesn’t have to rely on spectators as much

Sponsorship relies on the media – so only the big sports get media coverage and therefore the money.

Income brings in better players on better wages, better coaching, facilities, stadium etc

Sainsburys pay UK athletics £10M per year – which is less than each prem league team get per year - SKY paid £5B for the 3 year rights to televise the premiere league.Sponsors have more control on what is shown on TV, when, timings of events (PL games are now televised all over the weekend for a TV audience)Rugby league moved to play games in summer

Teams change strips to suit a sponsor – strips change every

Commercialised activity and effect on the officials…

Positive + Negative –

Some officials PAID to officiate – lots of elite sport officials are FULL TIME

Greater media coverage = more spotlight on mistakes & more analysis and criticism

Elite sport tends to be refereed by a few high calibre officials

Mistakes can lead to being ‘dropped’

Top football Referees earn over £100,000 PA & get to travel to referee

Severe criticism on social media from general public

Some officials are famous – earn a good living after their career in the media

Officals, like the players, need to be able to take accusations of being biased, cheating etc

Commercialised activity and effect on the spectators…

Positive + Negative –

More money results in a higher standard to watch Match kick off times aimed at TV audiences may not be so good for a travelling spectator e.g. Monday 8pm

Better facilities & stadiumsSpectators more involved through big screens – show replays, information, statisticsMore merchandise allows the spectator to feel ‘part of it’Armchair supporter can see much more sport – different camera angles, more sports channels, more games, dedicated sports radio / newspapers/ web sites

Commercialised activity and effect on the sponsors…

Positive + Negative –

Sponsor gets huge publicity Reputation of the sponsor may be affected by:Advertising to a very large audience crowd troubleMany people want to be associated with sporting success

Poor results

Increased sales CheatingDrug taking

Technological developments in sport

Know how improved technology has a positive and negative effect on performers, sport, officials, spectators and sponsors.

Be able to define key terms: Technology, Hawkeye, TMO, Hypoxic tents, Hyperbaric chambers.

Sport has changed and uses technology more and more. E.G. Instant replays /Third umpires/ Microphones between officials

Used by performers, coaches, officials to try and improve performance. Aimed to improve the experience for spectators and improve the sport. It can slow down speed of the game but can increase decision making accuracy E.g. Hawkeye and TMO

Positive impacts of technology on the performer

Key Terms

Technology: A method that is developed to try and improve performance

Hawkeye: An optical ball tracking device used as an aid to officiating in tennis and cricket

Television Match official (TMO) Used in rugby union and league to make decisions using replays of incidents

Ice-baths Used to reduce temperature in muscles after activity to speed up recovery

Oxygen (hypoxic) tents Tents that contain high oxygen concentrations to speed up recovery after injury

Hyperbaric chambers High pressure chambers that force oxygen into an injury to speed up recovery

Prosthetic Artificial aid; often replacing a limb

Match analysis Computer software that provides detailed statistical data about individual and/or team performances

Heart rate monitors, pedometers and body fat monitors aid health and well-being and injury treatment

Software programs can monitor and analyse athlete’s nutrition and fitness levels Calorie counters can monitor diet – enable peak nutrition Improved training meaning athletes are fitter than ever before Increased safety such as newer helmets and padding in hockey and cricket – safety equipment also

lighter Rehabilitation from injury is quicker through ice baths, oxygen (hypoxic) tents and hyperbaric

chambers. Sports equipment – clothing / footwear – stronger/ more flexible/ tougher/ resistant to moisture/

cost advantages Clothing – full body suits in cycling and swimming – more aerodynamic – winning or losing by

1/100ths second. Composite tennis racket – reduce potential overuse injuries to elbow – and hit ball harder Prosthetics for athletes with disabilities – sprinter with lower leg disabilities gaining a ‘spring’ DVD recordings of matches. Software match analysis such as ‘Prozone’. Software can tell a coach

when a player is losing fitness and needs substituting.

Negative impacts of technology on the performer

Cost. Latest technology makes a difference but is expensive. Technology can be used by the opposition to look for weaknesses and copy good aspects. Improved technology could lead to increased injuries and shorter careers as athletes are pushed

harder. More cheating – new performance enhancing drugs

Positive impact of technology on sport

Analysis of sport performance has allowed coached to greatly improve quality of feedback given to performers

Increased accuracy in time and distance measurements of performance Referees, umpires and other officials enabled to make better decisions on rule infringements (VAR?) Improved design of sports equipment, clothing and footwear. Spectators get better viewing of sport.

Negative impact of technology on sport

Sport now not taken on an equal level; advantage with those who have best technology Time taken waiting for off-field decisions is frustrating for fans and slows a game down.

Positive impact of technology on officials

Officials able to communicate through microphones Hawkeye in tennis & cricket – goal line technology in football - more accurate decisions TMO – in rugby an official able to make a decision after watching a replay Some of the pressure & criticism on officials is reduced

Negative impact of technology on officials

Still get decisions wrong with technology Slows the game down COST

Positive impact of technology on spectators

Increased experience at home. More cameras. Wider range of sports available. RED BUTTON. Hawkeye. Player cams. Post/ stump cameras. Games easier to view – glass wall and reflective ball in squash. All-weather surfaces = improved skills & less matches called off. Better informed –on screen information e.g. statistics such as % possession or shots on target. Game

becomes more interactive.

Negative impact of technology on spectators

Waiting time - Slows the game down COST – SKY & BT are expensive Not everyone gets to watch certain sports

Positive impact of technology on sponsors

More cameras mean more chance of a sponsor’s logo being seen. Logos painted on the pitch or appear to be on the pitch. More sales, more profit. Moving advertising boards.

Negative impact of technology on sponsors

Injuries, cheating, poor behaviour and losing gets a higher exposure and can affect the sponsors image.

Ethical and Socio-Cultural Issues in Physical Activity and Sport

1. Etiquette

The unwritten rules concerning player behaviour.

Sport is governed by rules and regulations but there are unwritten rules which people try to abide by. These rules are about behaviour and are known as Etiquette The ‘manners’ of sport.

Can you think of a sporting example of Etiquette in sport?

E.g. in football, a player kicking a ball out of play to allow another player to get treatment for an injury. The team that kicked the ball out then receives the ball back when it comes back into play. E.g. in badminton & tennis – don’t walk across someone court to get your shuttle/ball during a rally

2. Sportsmanship

Appropriate, polite and fair behaviour while participating in a sporting event.

Sportsmanship is sometimes known as fair play. It is about playing fair, showing respect for the opposition, and gracious behaviour in winning or losing. Following the rules Poor sportsmanship could be classed as cheating.E.g. shaking hands with the opposition at the end of a match regardless of whether you won or lost. E.g. in golf, players are required to officiate themselves and even own up to breaking the rules. E.g. not arguing with referee decisions.E.g. not appealing for a thrown in E.g. returning the ball to the opposition for free kicks.

3. Gamesmanship

The use of dubious methods, that are not strictly illegal, to gain an advantage.

Gamesmanship is coming close to breaking the rules, without getting punished. Like bending the rules to gain advantage.

E.g. time wasting when you are winning is not against the rules but is not playing fair. E.g. In tennis, players sometimes try to break their opponent’s concentration by re-tying their shoe laces when an important serve is about to happen.E.g Historically, in swimming or sprinting, some athletes would do a false start to try to stop their opponents getting a good start in the second attempt. This was later changed so that you were disqualified for one false start.4. Contract to Compete

Agreeing to play by the rules, trying to win but also allowing your opponent to play.

This is linked closely to the idea of sportsmanship. It is an agreement – usually through a behaviour or action - that in sport players will try to win, play

within the rules and etiquette and allow the opposition a free and fair opportunity to win. It is not a written contract.

E.g. shaking hands before a football match.E.g. boxers facing each other at the start of the match alongside the referee.

Prohibited Substances - Performance Enhancing Drugs

There are a large number of products which may be used to help sports performance in some way.These are known as Ergogenic Aids or Performance Enhancing Drugs (PEDs)EDs are banned by national governing bodies and the International Olympic Committee.

Definition: Ergogenic aids A technique or substance used for the purpose of enhancing performance.

Stimulants

Stimulants are substances that speed up parts of the brain and body.

Definition: Stimulants make athletes more alert and mask effects of fatigue

Adrenaline is an example of a naturally occurring stimulant in the body.

Definition: Adrenaline - Naturally occurring hormone that prepares the body for ‘fight or flight’

Amphetamines and caffeine are other examples of stimulants.

Why use them?

Increase alertness Reduce reaction time

Reduce tiredness Increase aggressiveness Can be used to deaden pain

What are the side effects? Highly addictive High blood pressure Strokes Heart and liver problems Increase risk of injury as you become more tolerant of pain

Who would use them? Performers who are injured and want to return quicker who need to be more alert or need fast reactions Sprinters Speed swimmers

Narcotic Analgesics

What are they?

Definition: Narcotic Analgesics are pain killers that mask pain caused by injury or fatigue, which can make the injury worse.

Very strong pain killers. Examples include heroin and morphine.

Highly addictive and can cause withdrawal symptoms when you stop using them.

Why use them? Allows performers to continue to train and perform when injured

What are the side effects? Highly addictive Constipation Low blood pressure Loss of concentration leading to possible coma

Who would use them? Any performer who may need to recover from an injury An athlete who may be suffering from overtraining An athlete who has a major competition but is suffering with an injury.

Anabolic Agents

What are they?

Definition: Drugs that help athletes to train harder and build muscle

A drug used to increase the rate and amount of muscle growth.

Most common types is the anabolic steroid.

Other examples include Nadrolone and Danazol

Why use them? Speeds up recovery so performers can train harder and more frequently Increase muscle mass and therefore power/speed/strength Increase body weight (weight category sports) Makes you more aggressive and competitive.

What are the side effects? Highly addictive

Shrink testicles in men High blood pressure Damage to liver, kidneys and heart Women may develop more body hair, smaller breasts and a deeper voice

Who would use them? Sprinters Weight lifters Shot putters Sports requiring power/strength/ speed

Peptide Hormones (EPO)

What are they?

Definition: Naturally occurring chemicals. EPO increases number of red blood cells and therefore improves oxygen delivery to muscles.

Naturally occurring substance that can improve muscle growth and increase production of red blood cells

One type is erythropoietin (EPO)

Why use them? Increased production of red blood cells means increased oxygen delivery to muscles. Increased energy production. Reduces fatigue due to increase in oxygen delivery to muscles.

What are the side effects? Thickening of blood Increased risk of heart attack or stroke because heart has to work harder to pump thicker blood.

Who would use them? Marathon runners Cyclists

Diuretics

What are they?

Definition: Diuretics – drugs that remove fluid from the body.

A drug used to remove excess water from the body.

They are not used to improve actual performance. One type is Frusemide

Why use them? Lose weight rapidly Dilute the presence of other illegal substances and aid their removal from the body in urine.

What are the side effects? Severe dehydration

Definition: Dehydration – A condition that occurs when the body lose more water than it takes in

Low blood pressure Muscles cramps

Who would use them? Boxers (to get into certain weight categories) Jockeys

Blood Doping

What are they?

Definition: Artifically increasing the number of red cells in the blood

A simple form of blood doping is removing about 2 pints of blood several weeks before a competition. The body then naturally increases the number of red blood cells in the body to replace what has been taken. The blood removed is frozen, thawed about 1-2 days before competition and the injected back into the athlete.

Why use them?It increases the production of red blood cells, which improves oxygen delivery to the muscles, therefore providing more energy.

What are the side effects? Increased thickening of blood (viscosity)

Definition: Viscosity – how ‘thick’ a liquid is.

Potential for heart attacks Risk of blood-borne diseases such as HIV and hepatitis Embolism (a blockage of a blood vessel)

Definition: Embolism – a blood clot

Who would use them? Most commonly used in endurance athletes Marathon runners, cyclists

Beta Blockers

What are they?

Definition: Beta Blockers - Drugs taken to calm down by reducing the effects of adrenaline

They reduce heart rate and reduce muscle tension and blood pressure.

Beta blockers are not banned in all sports but are restricted. They may only be taken if they have been prescribed by a medical professional.

Why use them? They improve a performer’s fine motor control and will increase precision when doing motor skills. Reduces the effects of nerves

What are the side effects? Nausea Poor circulation leading to heart problems Tiredness and weakness

Who would use them? Target sports/ Archery/ Snooker / Shooting

PED summary table

PED Examples Effect on performer Side affect Sport examples

Stimulants Adrenaline Amphetamines caffeine

Increase alertnessReduce reaction timeReduce tirednessIncrease aggressivenessCan be used to deaden pain

Highly addictiveHigh blood pressureStrokesHeart and liver problemsIncrease risk of injury

SprintersSpeed swimmers

Narcotic Analgesics

heroin and morphine.

Allows performers to continue to train and perform when injured

Highly addictiveConstipationLow blood pressureLoss of concentration leading to possible coma

Any performer who may need to recover from an injury /suffering from overtraining /has a major competition but is suffering with an injury.

Anabolic agents

anabolic steroid Nadrolone Danazol

Speeds up recovery so performers can train harder and more frequentlyIncrease muscle mass and therefore power/speed/ strengthIncrease body weight (weight category sports)Makes you more aggressive and competitive.

Highly addictiveShrink testicles in menHigh blood pressureDamage to liver, kidneys and heartWomen may develop more body hair, smaller breasts and a deeper voice

SprintersWeight liftersShot putters

Peptide hormones (EPO)

erythropoietin (EPO)

Increased production of red blood cells means increased oxygen delivery to muscles.Increased energy production.Reduces fatigue due to increase in oxygen delivery to muscles.

Thickening of bloodIncreased risk of heart attack or stroke because heart has to work harder to pump thicker blood.

Marathon runnersCyclists

Diuretics Frusemide Lose weight rapidlyDilute the presence of other illegal substances and aid their removal from the body in urine.

Severe dehydration Boxers (to get into certain weight categories)Jockeys

Blood doping

removing about 2 pints of blood several weeks before a competition.

It increases the production of red blood cells improves oxygen delivery to the muscles

Increased thickening of blood (viscosity)Potential for heart attacksRisk of blood-borne diseases such as HIV and hepatitisEmbolism (a blockage of a blood vessel)

Marathon runners, cyclists 

Beta blockers

reduce heart rate educe muscle tension and blood pressure.

NauseaPoor circulation leading to heart problemsTiredness and weakness

Target sports ArcherySnooker Shooting

SPECTATOR BEHAVIOUR

History….

As interest in sport grew people began to pay to watch

Sport became COMMERCIALISED as people paid to watch Clubs started to make a profit – started to develop sport Sports with more spectators able to pay for better performers which increased spectating Sports became professional – paying players to play Media becomes involved – increasing more spectators – especially TV TV enables a relatively large number of spectators to watch live or highlights at quite a cheap

cost. It also drastically increases the size of audience from thousands to millions.

Influence of spectators

Spectators can influence a performance – cheering or booing – this creates an ATMOSPHERE. It is generally agreed clapping/ cheering can positively influence a team or individual. When playing at home, the home team receives much more support from the crowd – known as HOME FIELD ADVANTAGE.

Definition: Home-field advantage: The psychological advantage that the home team has over the visiting team as a result of playing in familiar facilities and in front of supportive fans.

Most teams have better results at home than away. Spectators can also have a negative influence on performance. Atmosphere can be intimidating – especially if not used to it Playing away can be a disadvantage – playing ‘against’ the crowd Spectators can negatively affect the home team – increased expectation creates pressure

Hooliganism

When spectators become over-involved in the expectation of success this can lead to crowd trouble. Football has had a problem for 50 years: Hooliganism

Definition: Hooliganism: Rowdy, violent or destructive behaviour.

Can be serious but also often sensationalised by the media. Vast majority of football fans are not hooligans Controlling crowds and making football safe costs money and is a problem for clubs, police

and authorities. Potential crowd trouble is a problem for the reputation and image of football and can be

negative for younger spectators. Occurs in grounds and also in streets, local pubs, city centres and on public transport. Can involve chanting, fighting, public disorder, vandalism and theft.

Reasons for hooliganism

Rivalry – based on geography or history. Derby matches (teams from the same city or the nearest rival).

BUT other sports have derbies where fans sit mixed together and no disorder takes place?

Alcohol consumption. Argument is that alcohol and drugs can reduce inhibitions and make people more open to poor behaviour. Alcohol is banned at many football stadiums and you are not allowed to drink alcohol in view of the pitch.

BUT in other sports (cricket/ rugby…) you can drink alcohol and there is no crowd trouble Tribal behaviour/ gang culture. ‘Us and them’. City to city/ country to country/ religion to

religion Can lead to predetermined, organised violence against another group of fans (gang). Frustration…. from team performance, refereeing decisions, circumstances at a club,

relegation etc. Ritualised behaviour – opportunity to display ‘masculinity’ and be part of a group

Combating hooliganism

In the 1970’s and 1980’s hooliganism became prevalent.

The Hillsborough Stadium Disaster Inquiry report (Taylor report) is the report of an inquiry which was overseen by Lord Justice Taylor into the causes of the Hillsborough disaster was published in

January 1990. It sought to establish the causes of the tragedy and make recommendations regarding the provision of safety at sporting events in future.

such a problem for football authorities that the police, government and football governing bodies co-operated to put together strategies that have reduced football-related violence.

1. Banning orders. Prevention of known hooligans from attending matches. Requiring hooligans to report to police stations during matches. This involves lots of intelligence and organisation which costs money.

2. No Alcohol – within many grounds. Earlier kick offs arranged so less drinking can be done before a game. Local pubs may need to close early. This means a loss of income.

3. All seater stadiums for higher divisions. As a result of the Taylor report. Reduces ability of people to move within a ground and gives better control of tickets and attendances. Very costly.

4. Segregation of fans – both travelling to matches and inside the ground. High police and steward costs and home teams lose money with some seats kept empty.

5. Improved levels of policing and stewards – better training improves crowd control and lowers tension. Massive costs. Policing costs in the premiere league for one club alone can be over £1 Million.

6. CCTV – at grounds and around grounds. Creates better information, culprits likely to get caught, evidence at trials and so acts as a deterrent. Very costly.

7. Clubs can be banned or removed from competitions for poor fan behaviour. Clubs have had to play matched with no spectators allowed to attend ‘behind closed doors’.

8. High profile role-models involved in schemes like ‘kick racism out of football’