ecological footprint of breakfast

Ecological Footprint of

Eating Breakfast

Erica Muller

The Richard Stockton College of New Jersey

Environmental Issues

March 4, 2011

Erica Muller Ecological Footprint of Breakfast

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Table of Contents

I. 4

II. Introduction 5

III. Eggs 6

i. Farm types 6

i. Resources required 7

ii. Emissions 7

i. Hen feed 9

iii. Production process 9

i. Workers 11

iv. U.S. Productions and consumption 11

IV. Orange Juice 12

i. U.S. Production and consumption 12

ii. Farms 13

i. Supplements 13

i. Fertilizers and Pesticides 13

ii. Insecticides 14

iii. Production 15

i. Packaging 16

ii. Workers 16

iv. Environmental Impacts 17

i. Water 17


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ii. Waste 18

iii. Transportation 19

IV. Conclusion 19

V. Bibliography 20

VI. A 23

i. Figure 1 23

ii. Figure 2 24

iii. Figure 3 .25

iv. Figure 4 ..26


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Abstract

This paper discusses the ecological footprint and overall environmental impacts eating

breakfast has on the environment. More specifically, it discusses the production processes of

both eggs and orange juice. Within the egg production, there are many different methods used in

regards to caged and non-cage systems and the environmental impacts of those methods are

shown. The description orange juice production focuses mainly on Florida groves and the types

of environmental problems associated with them as well. Within the description of both

production process of these objects, the amount of energy required, the amount of waste

produced, and the production rates within the United States is explained.


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Introduction

hearty breakfast to fuel themselves for the tasks they have ahead of them. Perhaps it is because

few waking hours, but it is

more than likely that you are not thinking about the abundant effects your morning eggs and

orange juice have on the planet. This is the case with most of the objects we utilize throughout

our day but in the case of something as simple as two eggs paired with orange juice, the amount

of energy and resources needed to produce these things is immense. The amount of natural

resources it takes to produce something and the transportation involved throughout the whole

process is considered an ecological footprint. By calculating the ecological footprint of an object

we can see what types of environmental impacts it has and what can be done to reduce that

impact. The most important result of the footprint is the amount of carbon that is produced,

which subsequently is emitted into the atmosphere.

The two objects of consumption being discussed in this paper, eggs and orange juice,

both involve long processes of production that require land, chemicals, and intensive labor to

ensure the product you buy from the supermarket is high quality, therefore, these products have a

very large carbon footprint. This is the case for most food products due to the strict regulations

the USDA enforces, which usually means many chemicals must be applied at some point during

grown or produced, therefore, it must be shipped from other parts of the country, as well as other

parts of the world. All these factors contribute to the ecological footprint of our favorite morning

ritual; breakfast.


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Eggs

Farm Types

In poultry farming, more specifically egg production, the farms that contain the chickens

e typically two types of

facilities; inline and offline. In an inline facility or a self-contained facility, the eggs are

transported to the production line directly from the hen house and the end result is packaged eggs

that are to be shipped off to be sold in supermarkets. All parts of an inline facility, including the

feed mill, hen house (and the hens in them), production building, and the trucks used for

transporting the product are owned by a company. Offline facilities are very similar to inline

facilities but instead of packaging the eggs produced by the hens, the eggs are sent to a storing

room where they stay for two to three days until they are picked up to be transported to factories

that produce products that contain eggs. Inline facilities are typically the commercial farms,

whereas offline facilities are smaller, local farms run by non-commercial farmers (Munier 1998).

There are four types of egg production that take place within these inline and offline

farms. These include the modern production housing system or cage system, cage-free barns,

free-range, and organic systems (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2011). In the U.S.,

roughly 98% of all commercial egg production utilizes the cage system and within the cage

system it is split into manure belt systems, which dries either naturally or forced- dry via belt

below the cages, or high-rise systems, where manure is directly dropped into a storage area. The

latter of the two is more labor intensive but is only done once or twice a year so less maintenance

is required. The high-rise system is more commonly used in the US, comprising of about 70% of

the caged systems, while manure belt systems take up 30% of caged systems (H. Xin, 2010). In


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the cage free barns, the chickens are contained in pens within a facility as compared to free-

range, which are contained in pens outdoors. Organic systems are very similar to free-range

systems with the only difference being the feed that is given to them, which is completely

organic.

Resources Required

Out of the four options, the one that is most controversial among animal activists is also

the system with the smallest ecological footprint, which is the cage system (Elkin, 2010).

Because the process of cage systems is so fine-tuned and closely monitored by computerized

systems, it is much easier to regulate the ammonia emissions, which tends to be the biggest

environmental problem with hen keeping. In caged systems, people can control the temperature

of the room, the amount of water being distributed, as well as the amount of food being

distributed. When it comes to cage free systems, especially free-range, the hen must put more

energy into warming itself, getting to food and water, as well as taking up much more land in the

process (Rastogi, 2010). Cage systems can contain 37 to 52 hens/m2of land, while indoor cage

free systems hold 6 to 9 hens/m2 of land (H. Xin, 2010). According to data from European

poultry farms, indoor cage-free chickens require 14% more food then caged systems, free-range

chickens need 18% more food, and organically raised chickens require 20% more food than

those in caged systems. Due to these factors, the cage-free hens require more natural resources to

upkeep, therefore, the ecological footprint is larger compared to cage systems (Rastogi, 2010).

Emissions

Ammonia emission is a big issue in poultry farming and can have many adverse effects

on the environment. The ammonia measured from poultry farms comes from everywhere manure


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is present, which includes hen facilities and where the manure is transported or stored (EPA,

2004). The United Egg Producers recommend ammonia at a level of 25ppm (H. Xin, 2010).

Ammonia emissions should be regulated by the EPA because significantly contribute to acid

rain, which is a growing issue in the US (H. Xin, 2010).Out of the two cage systems (manure belt

and high-rise), the high-rise system contributes more to ammonia emissions. Manure belt

systems have a smaller amount of storage because this manure is being readily applied to the

land instead of sitting in storage containers for extended periods of time like in the high-rise

systems (H. Xin, 2010).

The manure produced by the hens can be used for crop fertilizer, which is what the

majority of American farms do. The amount of ammonia farms produce varies greatly among

different locations due to the different processes and feed applications being used, therefore it is

composition and conversion efficiencies, manure handling practices, and environmental

(H. Xin, 2010). According to the EPA, manure storage and distribution are not

covered under the Clean Water Act (CWA) or the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination

System (NPDES) sector for Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs), meaning that

while most farmers are recycling the manure to be used on crops, the effects of the application of

the manure is not being controlled. In one study, it was discovered that the amount of waste

produced daily by chickens is equivalent to the amount of food that is used. In an example given

by this study, a farm containing one million hens produces 125 tons of wet manure daily (United

Poultry Concerns). Hen manure, along with other livestock manure in the U.S., accounts for the

largest contributor to ammonia emissions (US Environmental Protection Agency, 2004). Poultry

farming alone in 2010, produced 664 238 tons of the ammonia gas and is predicted to increase


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significantly each year with the rising demand in poultry farming, which can be seen in Figure 1

(US Environmental Protection Agency, 2004).

Hen Feed

There is also concern expressed towards the feed that is given to the hens and eventually

used as manure on the land. The food, for the most part, contains antibiotics and other chemicals

to make the hens more productive longer. Some natural components of the feed includes ground

corn, soybean meal, and limestone (Morning Fresh Farms). One of the unnatural additives

includes roxarsone, which is used to prevent the chickens from parasitic diseases. This additive is

arsenic based and once it has been converted to manure form by the chickens, it turns into the

inorganic form of roxarsone, which is not good for surrounding waterways (World Poultry,

2007). Subsequently, these additives become part of the manure that is applied to the land and

can eventually leach into the groundwater or surrounding waterways. Phosphorus, which is a

large component of hen manure, is also becoming a problem once applied to the land. Hen

manure has more phosphorus then it does nitrogen so when it is used as fertilizer, it often results

in an abundance of phosphorus in the soil, which can result in phosphorus run-off (H. Xin,

2010). Both arsenic and phosphorus can wreak havoc in waterways, which is why there should

be stricter regulations, not to mention the effects phosphorus has on speeding the process of

eutrification (H. Xin, 2010).

Production Process

There are many steps and processes involved in the production of eggs, from the hatching

of egg-laying hens, to the moment it reaches the shelves of your local supermarket. Discussed


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production.

If not hatched on-site, the company will purchase chicks from a hatchery. The type of

chicken most commonly used is the white leghorn chicken. After purchase, these chicks are

loaded up with vaccinations across the span of 12 weeks to prevent the spread of diseases such as

infectious bursal, bronchitis, or fowl pox (Ryan A. Meunier, 1998). The chicks are put into cages

within the layer facility, which are around 500 feet long. Throughout the hens life in the cage the

amount of light it receives varies based on its age, which affects the amount of eggs the hen lays.

The amount of feed and water distributed is controlled by a computerized chain system set on a

time schedule determined by the farmer. Supplemental proteins and nutrients are also

administered during these feeding types and also vary based on the age of the hen. The mesh area

and the floors of the facility are angled to allow the eggs being laid to be put on a conveyor belt,

which are then sent to the processing facility (H. Xin, 2010).

At this point, due to USDA regulations, the eggs must be washed to ensure safety of the

product (Ryan A. Meunier, 1998). A detergent, which can only use potable water that has an iron

level less then 2ppm, is applied to the eggs. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states that

the components of the detergent (The

Poultry Site, 2009). This detergent is required to be changed every four hours and must be kept

at 89 degrees Fahrenheit or higher and must have a pH of 11 (Wilson G. Pond, 2005). Based on

the global average, one egg requires 200 liters of water and 3300 m3 of water per ton, although

the majority of this water use is put into the feeding process (Water Footprint, 2011).


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After being washed and visually checked by workers within the factory, they are graded

and packaged and kept in refrigerated rooms, which are kept at around 45 degrees Fahrenheit

(Ryan A. Meunier, 1998). The packaging material can be pulp paper cartons, plastic, or

polystyrene foam packaging. Polystyrene foam may provide the eggs with better protection, but

the components of the foam make this product non-biodegradable, therefore, it has a large impact

on the environment. This product, though, can also be recycled for many uses if your local town

recycles this material. The plastic egg-cartons are made from recycled soda bottles and can be

recycled after use (Eggland's Best, 2011).

Once the eggs are packaged, they must be kept at 60 degrees Fahrenheit or less between

the time it leaves the factory to the time it is purchased. Large refrigerated trucks owned by the

company then distribute the eggs to supermarkets across the country.

Workers

Because the egg production is mostly mechanical, there is not much manual labor

involved except for when the manure must be transported in a high-rise cage system. Most of the

farms, surprisingly enough, are family owned, passed down from generation to generation, with

only two farms who are part of a traded stock (United Egg Producers, 2004). Morning fresh

U. S. Production and Consumption

The United States is the second-largest egg producer, with China being the largest

producer (data, 2008). Over 90 billion eggs are produced annually and 95% of those farms are


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owned by United Egg Producers (The United States Department of Agriculture, 2011). Figure 2

illustrates the U.S. egg production for the 2009 to 2010 period. A very small amount of eggs are

exported out of the United States but the majority of it goes to Canada and Mexico (The United

States Department of Agriculture, 2011). The top five producing states are Iowa, Ohio,

Pennsylvania, Indiana, and California (United Egg Producers, 2004). Of all the companies, 56 of

them contain over one million layers and 12 companies contain over 5 million layers (U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency, 2011). The average rate of eggs laid per day was 74.9eggs per

100 layers, as reported by the United Egg producers.

Orange Juice

U.S Production and Consumption

Orange juice typically comes in three forms; frozen, liquid form from concentration or

dilution, and liquid that is not from concentrate. The latter of the two are conside

dri (enotes, 2011)

nutritional value and therefore, is in very high demand. The United States is actually considered

orange-

of Agriculture and Applied Economics (Florida Citrus Mutual, 2010). Out of all the orange juice

companies, the leading company is Tropicana, which is based out of Florida (Natnews, ). There

are about 70 packing houses and processing plants in Florida alone. 76% of the countries oranges

produced come out of Florida, which equals out to roughly 279 million boxes a year

(Lakeokee.org, ). Other states, such as California, also produce oranges, but mostly for the sale

of the actual fruit, not the products made from the fruit (Clay, 2011). Figure 2 illustrates the pure


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numbers produced by each state throughout the 2010-2011 period. Throughout this paper,

though, the focus will be on Florida based production.

Farms

The soil that orange trees grow best on is Lakeland fine sand but they are grown

throughout much of central and southern Florida. The farms are considered large groves (enotes,

2011). The seedlings are bought from nurseries and are planted in the fall. The types of oranges

grown include Hamlins, Parson browns, Pineapple orange, and Valencia oranges. Laborers plant

where different techniques of grafting are used, they are transported to orchards to be used for

production purposes. During the early years of their growth, a lot of labor is put into tending the

trees, which involves the application of many soil supplements, pesticides, and insecticides.

Supplements

Fertilizer and Pesticides

Nutrients that are added to the soil include nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, which

are the three macronutrients necessary for plant growth. Because the first few years of the orange

trees life is critical to production, much more things are added to prevent weeds, pests and

diseases (Purdue University, 2011). The majority of the fertilizer used on orange groves in

inorganic nitrogen fertilizer. This fertilizer requires a lot of natural gas to power the process that

produces

goes towards agriculture (Walsh, 2010). In 2002, the United States was among the top five

producers of nitrogen. By using fossil fuel to create a fertilizer, this increases the carbon

ootprint,


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they discovered the majority of their carbon footprint, at a whopping 35%, came from the

application of the fertilizers used by their farms (Walsh, 2010). The outline of their carbon

footprint can be seen in Figure 3. In attempts to reduce this part of their carbon footprint,

Tropicana farms are experimenting with two types of low-carbon fertilizers, which could reduce

their carbon footprint by 20% (Walsh, 2010). The components of the experimental fertilizers are

still the same but they are produced from sustainable sources, which lowers the overall footprint

(Outlook, 2007)

The use of fertilizers is essential for the growth of any mass produced crop. Some

fertilizers used on orange groves include ammonia, urea, ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulfate,

and nitrogen solutions. Most of these fertilizers are nitrogen based, further contributing to the

amount of greenhouse gases emitted by production (The Fertilizer Institute, 2011)Phosphorus is

found in fossils and in magma of volcanoes. Some phosphorus based fertilizers include triple

superphosphate, monoammonium phosphate and diammonium phosphate. Potassium used for

fertilizer is mined, which involves a very in depth process due to the area that it comes from. The

majority of potassium mined comes from the United States, Canada, Russia and Germany (The

Fertilizer Institute, 2011).

Insecticides

of the insecticides that stood out was ambectin, which has a very restricted use because it is


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highly toxic to honeybees and should only be applied three times within a season (M.E. Rogers,

2011)

There are many insects that prey on citrus trees, therefore the use of insecticides is

inevitable among commercial orange growers. Fortunately, some of these pests can be controlled

by other insects that are their natural enemies. For example, the cottony cushion scale is an insect

that infects young orange trees but Vedalia lady beetles have shown positive results in

controlling this pest (Purdue University, 2011).

Production

Once the oranges have been tested for maturity by using a titration process to determine

the sugar to acid ratio, which is set by the state Department of Agriculture, workers are sent out

to collect the fruit (Florida Citrus Mutual, 2010). Through improvements in collecting methods, a

worker can collect 9.1 boxes per hour (Purdue University, 2011). The fruit is collected in canvas

collecting the fruit from the plastic tubs and dumping it into an even larger tractor trailer, which

can hold up to 45 000 pounds of oranges (Florida Citrus Mutual, 2010). The collected fruit is

then taken by a truck to be transported to a processing plant, which is then put into storage bins

at the factory (enotes, 2011).

After further inspection, the oranges are then washed with a detergent and transported to

a machine to be unpeeled. There are two types of unpeeling methods. In both methods of

extraction, the juice is collected separately from the oils of the orange peel. The only difference

between the two methods is the way the oil is removed. In the one method the oil is washed with

sprayers as the juice is being squeezed from the fruit and the oil is collected to be further used. In


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the second method, the orange peel is pricked prior to juice extraction and is washed away with

water. The juice from the oranges is then sent to be chilled or concentrated to eventually create

Eventually the pasteurized concentrate and pulp is combined depending on the type of product

desired. Pasteurization is required in order to give the orange juice its six to eight month shelf

life and can be done by indirect heat or by mixing previously heated juice and heating it again

with steam. Either way, the temperature of the juice must be 185 to 201.2 degrees Fahrenheit for

30 seconds. At this point, the concentrate is mixed with certain levels of water, sugar, and any

other additives the company may want the end product to comprise of. Some of the preservatives

include sulfur dioxide, sodium benzoate, and ascorbic acid. Other things often added include

corn syrup, citric acid, and supplemental vitamins and nutrients. The packages are sterilized and

filled and kept in refrigerated rooms to be shipped to supermarkets (enotes, 2011).

Packaging

The majority of orange juice is sold in cartons which are made of paperboard,

polyethylene, and aluminum. They contain about 80% paper and 20% polyethylene. These

containers can be recycled into pulp, which can then be used to make other things (Carton

Council, 2011)

Workers

Unlike egg production, a large part of the orange juice production, particularly the

farming, involves a lot of manual labor. Citrus productions in general produce almost 80 000

jobs and greatly effects the economy of Florida (Florida Citrus Mutual, 2010). Due to the high


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rates of immigration, especially into Florida, there is much attention paid to immigration rights in

this area. One company states they want legal workers but because illegal workers are so readily

available, they will hire them but only under certain conditions. The H-2A Temporary

Agriculture Program was recently introduced and this states that employers can employ illegal

workers for the temporary season labor is needed. The employer must supply free housing to

those who need it, free transportation, and wages must be the same among legal and non-legal

workers. Refer to Figure 6 for the minimum wages of Florida workers (Florida Citrus Mutual,

2010).

Environmental Impacts

Water

Water is utilized throughout many parts of the production of orange juice including

irrigation, frost control, pesticide and fertilizer application, rinsing oranges on the produce line,

and cleaning equipment. The water used for irrigation is something highly regulated in the state

of Florida due to the varying amounts of rainfall they receive (Purdue University, 2011). Due to

this fact, orange farms are required to use drip irrigation (Clay, 2011). Grown orange trees

require a moisture level of 42 to 48 inches per year (Florida Citrus Mutual, 2010). The World

Health Organization set regulations to follow when it comes to water usage, which state that the

water must be potable water that is either taken from a fresh water source or from water

treatment facilities (Florida Citrus Mutual, 2010). The global footprint of one glass of orange

juice shows that it takes 170 liters of water (Water Footprint, 2011).

In the case of Florida, most of the water is taken from the Okeechobee watershed, which

extends over 2.8 million hectares. The Officer of Inspector General of the Florida Department of


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in the country, it

biggest problem with this lake is the amount of phosphorus that is entering it due to run-off from

nearby agricultural lands, which covers 50% of Florida's 35 million acres agricultural land. The

abundance of phosphorus in the lake resulting in the lowering of the biodiversity of the lake, the

increase in exotic plants, and greatly effecting the drinking water of the area (Lake Okeechobee,

2011) . In Figure 4, the increasing amount of phosphorus in the water is shown from 1968 to

1998. Orange farms, as well as all other agricultural lands account for 90% of the phosphorus

levels in Lake Okeechobee (Lake Okeechobee, 2011)

Waste

Throughout the production process within the facilities that produce the orange juice, a

lot of waste is produced and fortunately, for the most part, the wastes are used for other things.

The leftover pulp has a very high protein content, therefore it is readily used as pellets for animal

feed. The pulp can also be used to make yeast, rubbing alcohol, and ascorbic acid (Purdue

University, 2011). The orange peel is very useful in terms of cleaning products and for scenting

soaps or perfumes. About one ton of oranges produces 8lbs. of orange oil. The components of

- . Other

components, such as terpenes, can be used for paints. The seed incorporates both high protein

levels and high oil levels, as well as fungicidal properties, so they can be used for a variety of

things, from cow feed to perfume (Purdue University, 2011).


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Transportation

and it runs from Florida to New Jersey. Due to the fuel efficiency of rail transportation, the

Environmental Protection Agency states that we could greatly reduce the amount of money spent

on fuel if just 10% of freight transportation was converted to rail (CSX, 2010).

Conclusion

Due to the large scale production of both eggs and orange juice, the level of impact they

have on the environment is very high. Both productions involve vast amounts of chemicals,

wastes, utilization of natural resources that make the carbon footprint of your breakfast a lot

more than one would think. Even the amount of carbon it takes for someone to get to the

supermarket to buy a carton eggs and a jug of orange juice greatly contributes to the ecological

footprint of these products. For example, for me to get from Brigantine, NJ to the closest

Shoprite, it takes roughly 0.016 tons of carbon to get there and back. The orange juice I bought,

which came from Florida, took 0.239 tons of carbon and the eggs purchased, probably from

Iowa, took 0.741 tons of carbon (Whitney, 2007). The transportation of these products from their

origins to my house alone took 0.996 tons of carbon. If more people had the opportunity to see

ews on the

types of products they consume would definitely change. The biggest things companies can do to

lower their carbon footprint include using sustainable resources for energy, as well using

sustainable materials throughout production processes. The biggest thing we as consumers can

do is pay attention to where the products is coming from and try to buy things that are locally

and sustainably produced.


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Whitney, M. T. (2007, March 20). Processed orange juice bad for the environment. Retrieved 2011, from Natural News: http://www.naturalnews.com/021721.html

Wilson G. Pond, A. W. (2005). Encyclopedia of Animal Science. Retrieved 2011, from Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=1SQl7Ao3mHoC&pg=PA317&lpg=PA317&dq=commercial+detergent+used+to+wash+eggs&source=bl&ots=B7UkHIpq9Y&sig=cDdZ0-‐Kze2gntgqfdCkcM8Pm12M&hl=en&ei=tS9wTeGwEYbGlQfwmsVV&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAw#v=onep

World Poultry. (2007, March 12). Roxarsone in chicken feed causes risks to human in runoff. Retrieved 2011, from World Poultry: http://www.worldpoultry.net/news/roxarsone-‐in-‐chicken-‐feed-‐causes-‐risks-‐to-‐human-‐in-‐runoff-‐id1164.html


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Appendices

Figure 1. US Environmental Protection Agency. (2004, January 30). National Emission InventoryAmmonia Emissions from Animal Husbandry Operations. Retrieved 2011, from US Environmental Protection Agency: http://www.epa.gov/ttnchie1/ap42/ch09/related/nh3inventorydraft_jan2004.pdf


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Figure 2. U.S. Department of Agriculture. (2011, February 9). 2010-‐11 SEASON USDA CITRUS CROP FORECAST. Retrieved 2011, from United States Department of Agriculture: http://www.flcitrusmutual.com/files/04132759-‐7cd9-‐45e6-‐a.pdf


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Figure 3. Walsh, B. (2010, March 11). Tropicana: Trying to Make a Greener Orange Juice. Retrieved 2011, from Time: http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1971379,00.html


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Figure 4. Lake Okeechobee. (2011). Nutrients. Retrieved 2011, from Lake Okeechobee: http://www.lakeokeechobee.org/content.php?section=threats&page=threats/excess_nutrients.html

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