ecosystem services and urban resilience case of · pdf filekaczorowska, anna ecosystem...

Kaczorowska, Anna Ecosystem Services and Urban Resilience 50th ISOCARP Congress 2014

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Ecosystem Services and Urban Resilience – Case of Stockholm.

Anna KACZOROWSKA; Chalmers University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture;

Sweden.

1. Abstract In the current context of urban densification and climate change the role of adaptive management of space in cities becomes crucial. This has significant consequences for the resilience of urban environments, and our understanding and framing the role of open space and vegetation in cities. Urban ecosystem services (ES) are currently promoted in Sweden in the planning for more dense and sustainable cities. Despite the vital importance of ES, the methodology for planning of ES has not been developed. Of particular concern to scientists, environmentalists and planners are tools and methods addressing ES in urban planning and construction in Stockholm. Thus, the findings are particularly interesting as Stockholm city and region are often used as the best practice examples in the literature on the management of ES. This article identifies some of the challenges and opportunities in Stockholm involved in the process of integrating the concept of ES into planning for urban resilience. 2. Introduction The notion of urban resilience is gaining an increasing attention within the literature and contemporary discourses on the climate change and risk of natural hazard events. The concept of resilience has been transferred from physics to social sciences via ecology (Provitolo, 2013). Resilience is perceived as a key concept for analyzing ecosystems and was for a long time a domain of ecology sciences. It can be defined as the capacity of an ecosystem to integrate a disturbance without modifying its qualitative structure (Provitolo, 2013; after Holling, 1973). There is a broad consensus among researchers that in order to be prepared for climate change, firstly cities must become resilient to a wider range of stresses, and secondly the efforts to foster climate change resilience should be connected with efforts to promote urban development and sustainability (Leichenko, 2011). Urban areas contribute to climate change the most and it has been estimated that up to 80 per cent of the global fossil fuel CO2 emissions originate in urban areas (Simonis, 2011). In Europe they account for 70 per cent of energy use and for the most greenhouse gas emissions. Until recently cities have not been considered a focus of climate change research and climate policy. A strong need to ensure the sustainability of cities and produce resilient, adaptive urban areas results in changing the perspectives on urban green and blue spaces. They are often perceived as key sides for building urban resilience and locations providing wildlife habitat; mitigating air pollution and heat island effects, flooding. They offer economic benefits via for example increased property values, reduced damages associated with flooding, etc. Moreover green areas are part of social-ecological systems where linkages between natural and human systems are evident. Urban ES are currently promoted in Sweden in planning for more dense and sustainable cities. ES can be easily described as the benefits people obtain from the ecosystems (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) for example food, water, regulating hazard events, carbon sequestration, urban cooling, and recreation. Green areas like parks, allotment gardens, wetlands, urban forests provide shade and space for recreation, filtering aerosols and absorbing CO2 emissions, but also support biodiversity and the ability to maintain biological functions (Ernstson et al., 2010; after Andersson et al., 2007). Complex systems involving living societies are adaptive, and based on the research on ES it is now


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clear that ecosystems in cities provide great opportunities and arenas for social and ecological change reaching for a sustainable, resilient urban future (Jansson, 2013). The TEEB-Report for Cities (TEEB, 2011) suggests that ecosystem services could be used by cities as a tool. Valuation of ES could help to save on municipal costs, strengthen local (green) economies, or improve quality of life. Stockholm is an interesting city for studying the planning and management of ES since there is a strong planning tradition for biodiversity management aimed at preserving valuable areas of species and ecosystems for nature conservation (Colding, 2013). The first UN Environment and Development Conference in 1972 was held in Stockholm, and Sweden was the first country in the EU to launch Agenda 21 activities (Gunnarsson-Ostling and Höjer, 2011). In 2010, Stockholm was also recognized for its achievements in the area of environmental protection and awarded the first European Green Capital for the city’s environmental activities. A number of projects and self-organized initiatives promote environmentally friendly living. Of particular concern to scientists, environmentalists and planners are the tools and methods addressing ES in urban planning and construction. Of note is development of the Royal Seaport and project C/O City qualifying ecological, economic and social values of ES as a part of the development and planning process (C/O City, 2013). Even though the ambition of politicians is to preserve the green structure in the region (OECD 2013), the diverse urban pressures increasingly reduce and fragment the green spaces (Colding, 2013). It is becoming very difficult to integrate environmental and urban resilience policy into physical planning. This article identifies some of the challenges and opportunities involved in the process of integrating the concept of ES into planning for urban resilience in Stockholm. 3. Notion of ecosystem services in Stockholm and planning for urban resilience The notion of ES started to emerge in Sweden in the early 2000s. ES were briefly mentioned in 2000 in a joint report by the Swedish National Board of Housing, Building and Planning (Boverket) and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) (Lewan, 2000). In 2010 Boverket’s report on urban green structures highlighted the importance of urban ES for climate change adaptation. For the last 20 years ES are present in many projects in Stockholm (Elmqvist et al., 2004; Ernstson et al., 2010) due to regional policy and high expectations regarding the role of urban nature and ES in urban development. The 26 municipalities of the Stockholm region have engaged in quite ambitious joint activities to develop regional strategic planning documents, such as the Regional Development Plan for the Stockholm Region (RUFS, 2010) and Vision 2030. In these policy documents ES are included but more attention is paid to environmental quality, growth combined with policies that reduce environmental impact (OECD, 2013). City of Stockholm has developed recently The Walkable City Plan as an addition to its comprehensive plan. Plan contains a strategy for the city’s parks and nature (Stadsbyggnadskontoret, 2012). New plan also outlines urban development strategies for more integrated and interconnected city. Urban areas will have to accommodate 200 000 new residents by 2030. The strategy is to increase density in the expanded city centre, as well as in the outer strategic nodes in the suburbs linking them with public transport and establishing more attractive parks and green spaces. Environmental criteria have played an important role in the city’s policy making which resulted in high environmental quality (OECD, 2013). It is acknowledged that CO2 emissions per capita in Stockholm are among the lowest in OECD metro areas. Water quality is excellent, organic waste is efficiently used for a production of biogas, and very little waste goes to landfills. Former brownfield sites are being increasingly redeveloped; parks and green spaces are strongly protected. Still Stockholm needs visions to identify more explicitly environmental and sustainable development initiatives. The big challenge is to identify and evaluate specific tools and strategies for the ecosystem management. Despite the vital importance of ES the methodology for planning of ES has not been developed (Chan et al., 2006).


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Sweden will be affected by climate change, regardless of the level of success in mitigation of climate change and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. In order to reduce the risk, adaptation must be integrated into the country’s urban planning and development. Yet Sweden has not developed an official national adaptation strategy. The report on climate strategy for the Swedish government, titled “Sweden Facing Climate Change: Threats ad Opportunities” released by Swedish Commission on Climate Vulnerability (2007) stressed the need for adaptation strategy commensurate with the increasing risk of floods, landslides, erosion in many regions and highlighted risk of “dramatic changes” in the ecosystems of Baltic Sea. In 2009 City of Stockholm published an act, titled “The City of Stockholm’s Climate Initiatives”. This report estimates that by the year 2100, the average annual temperature in Stockholm will have risen by 2.5 to 4.5oC. The report also expects more rain and other forms of precipitation, rising water levels from the ocean and the lakes. The sea level is expected to rise 1 meter until 2100 (global level) and 50 cm in Stockholm. There is a believe that green areas which include eight nature reserves and a National City Park, will help to moderate the flow of water, filter out contaminating substances in the soil, and will help to produce oxygen. Districts’ ability to deal with future climate change with increased rainfall, a warmer climate and rising sea water levels should be reflected in the areas’ physical design. Furthermore City of Stockholm promotes “Green area factor” (”grönytefaktor”) in urban development projects highlighting the benefits coming from “greening the urban spaces”. Green sites help to improve biological diversity, work as a part of storm water system, help to mitigate the impact of climate change effects and contribute to recreational quality of the urban environment (Fig.1). 4. Projects and initiatives promoting ecosystem services and urban resilience in

Stockholm

Policy makers, urban planners and other actors have to balance different types of chances, challenges, and development drivers. Stockholm has the opportunity to innovate technological and governance solutions to problematic challenge of building resilience (OECD, 2013). City continues to implement new projects in Royal Seaport and other locations in Stockholm but at the same time tries to encourage better co-ordination of regional policy.

Figure 1: Example of climate adaptation design (source: City of Stockholm and Tema landskapsarkitekter, figure comes from the quality programme for

block Norra 2 in the Royal Seaport, http://bygg.stockholm.se)


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4.1. Co-operation on the adaptation planning around Lake Mälaren. Climate analyses in the Stockholm region released that the level of Lake Mälaren is likely to rise. The Lake Mälaren is a river basin for a large area of 22 650 km2. Today the level of the lake varies and must be regulated. Moreover the risk of flooding from the lake is extremely high. The climate change scenarios show that the sea level will rise. The level of a lake is today about 70 cm above the sea level. A big concern of adaptation planning policy in Stockholm region is to prepare new regulation and construct a new lock between the lake and the sea. In 2100 the level between the sea and the lake will be reduced. The recent example of co-operation initiative of five County Administrative Boards abutting the lake is the initiative to develop common strategies on adaptation planning regarding drinking water supply. Lake Mälaren provides drinking supplies for over 2 million Swedes and faces contamination through salt water from the rising Baltic Sea. The recent studies offer three solutions to this problem. First is to look for other water resources; second is to use barriers and keep the surface level of the lake above the level of Baltic Sea; or build three or more barriers in the Stockholm archipelago (OECD, 2013; after Renvall, 2011).

4.2. Development of Stockholm Royal Seaport

Stockholm region currently faces the challenge of considerable population growth. Densification of land use functions – housing in particular – is the dominant policy and planning goal. Stockholm Royal Seaport is planned to be a world-class sustainable city district promoting environmentally friendly development with high ecological, social and economic standards, as well as the environment free of fossil fuels and adapted to climate change (OECD, 2013). It is located on a former brownfield industrial area of 236 hectares that had been used previously for gas, oil depots and containers. Building on the experience of another developed district in Stockholm – Hammarby Sjöstad, the City Council decided to support high density development close to public transport, and green cluster innovation projects. One of the projects evaluating ecosystem services in Stockholm Royal Seaport is C/O City. Project aims to promote ecological, social and economic values of the nature and raise awareness of the potential of ecosystem services in urban environment to strengthen urban resilience. Research includes visualizing and quantifying urban ecosystem services, developing tools for planning and monitoring, analyzing the data and showing the relationship between ecosystem services and urban resilience.

Figure 2: Stockholm Royal Seaport – Visualisation (Source: City of Stockholm and BSK arkitekter; photo mantage of Hjorthagen in the Royal Seaport;

http://stockholmroyalseaport.com/sv/rd-projects/co-city)


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The project applies and develops tools such as the „Green area factor‟ (GAF)1 in order to control urban green cover (C/O City, 2014). The GAF expresses the ratio of ecologically effective surface area to the total land area.

GAF =

(BAF)

ecologically-effective

surface areas

total land area

In this calculation (Fig.3), the particular parts of the land (a plot or block) are weighted according to their "ecological value". In Järvakilen in Stockholm, where the Royal Seaport is located, is one of the three areas that are study cases. The parallel studies are undertaken in Pildammsstråket in Malmö, Sweden and Rio Coco in Frotaleza, Brazil. In these locations selected ES are evaluated: recreation, food production (urban farming), regulating storm water, connectivity (biodiversity, functional groups), regulating urban cooling, regulating air quality and noise reduction (in a biotic environment).

The results from the project will be presented in reports, seminars and workshops. One of the results is a Handbook for integrating the concept of ES into planning process.

4.3. URBES project - Urbanization, Biodiversity and ES

Research conducted by the European BiodivERsa project – Urban Biodriversity and Ecosystem Services (URBES) and the international group of experts from twelve world-leading research institutes 2 was created to help bridge the knowledge gap between

1 Green area factor (GAF) is an innovative development standard designed to increase the quantity and quality of

urban landscape by maintaining the current land use. GAF originates form Biotope Area Factor (BAF) developed by experts in Berlin as a scoring system to promote attractive and ecologically functional landscapes, including ecosystem elements such as green roofs and walls, permeable paving, tree preservation, and food cultivation. BAF and related factors were adopted by many cities including Stockholm.

2 Stockholm Resilience Centre (SRC), Humboldt-University (HU), Technical University of Munich

(TUM), University of Salzburg (US), Beijer Institute of Ecological Economics, Kiel Institute for the

Figure 3: GAF calculation

Figure 4: A model of the green wall, Malmö Testvägg, Malmö (http://stockholmroyalseaport.com/sv/rd-projects/co-city)


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Figure 5: Visualizations of Stockholm 2050, A- “Vibrant City”, B - “Utopian Green Capital”, 1- Brommaplan, 2 – Haninge, 3 – Hammerbyhöjden

(author: A. Kaczorowska)

urbanization and the demand, creation ad provisioning of ES in urban regions. The research builds on case studies in Europe and US: Stockholm, Rotterdam, Berlin, Lodz, Barcelona and New York City. The URBES project works to communicate research outcomes by engaging key stakeholders responsible for decision making in the city/ region in a series of participatory workshops and in-depth interviews. The research explores how urban planning and management can contribute to urban natural environments that meet the needs of people. In Stockholm two land use scenarios were developed by URBES scientists: “Utopian Green Capital” and “Vibrant City” (Fig.5) as a vision of resilient Stockholm 2050 demonstrating the potential and requirements of urban ES and linking long term strategies and land use planning to the demand and supply of ES. These scenarios are used to discuss a potential role of urban ecosystems in the future including opportunities and challenges for integration of ES into urban development. “Vibrant City” is a vision of an attractive node in Northern Europe for both businesses and living secured through large scale and sophisticated technical systems for energy, drinking water, sewage and waste. “Utopian Green Capital” is interesting vision to study in terms of how urban nature more efficiently could deliver a number of important urban functions and qualities as well as new standards for sustainable urban development. This scenario introduces more new innovative “green” solutions, urban design elements (green roofs, terraces, ponds and infiltration areas) and urban nature highly integrated into buildings and

World Economy (IfW), Mistra Urban Futures (MUF), Erasmus University Rotterdam, University of Helsinki (UH) University of Lódz, University of Barcelona and the New School New York.

A-1

A-2

A-3

B-1

B-2

B-3


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Figure 6: Supply of ES: Urban Cooling (cooling potential measured in the temperature change -

0C;

Source: URBES project, visualizations by Humboldt University, Berlin)

other structures. Creating reach opportunities for recreation and urban farming this scenario could contribute more to improved food security and socioeconomic cohesion.

The study of Stockholm as a cooperation in research of universities within URBES project evaluated provisioning of urban ecosystem services calculated from land use classes (Fig.6). Within the study a set of indicators were chosen representing eight important urban ecosystem goods and services: food supply, energy supply, air quality regulation, urban cooling, carbon sequestration, storm water retention, physical and mental recreation. For example for the climate regulation and air-quality regulation indicators like ‘surface emissivity,’ ‘f-evapotranspiration,’ ‘tree cooling potential’ and ‘carbon sequestration’ were selected. They were tested using spatial data along an urban–rural gradient including Corine Land Cover (CLC) raster data provided by the EEA. Land use classes for the future scenarios for Stockholm 2050: “Utopian Green Capital” and Vibrant City” were translated from developed scenario narratives and zoning rules. The results from the study confirm the land-use change has a vast impact on the supply of ecosystem services and their ability to contribute to human well-being (Larondelle and Haase, 2013; Lautenbach et al., 2011). Moreover core cities do not necessarily provide fewer ecosystem services

compared to their regions. In addition strategies of “greening urban development” create higher chances to provision from ES. Study of tested possible future scenarios

helped to illustrate the trade-offs or synergies between different ecosystem services. Study illustrates the spatial patterns of ecosystem services supply based on possible variables of land use classes or zoning. The results from a study can be effectively used in urban planning (Larondelle and Haase, 2013) and study provides an overview of what ecosystem services are supplied in the core cities and their surrounding regions. They may be helpful to initiate communication between


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urban and regional planning, reduced uncertainty and better quantitative knowledge that all in all will help to reduce the growing ecological footprint of cities. 5. Concluding remarks Stockholm has an opportunity to innovate technological and governance solutions to the difficult challenge of building urban resilience. Projects of eco-districts in Royal Seaport show that Stockholm can encourage climate change policy and integration of the concept of ES into land use planning. It can also play valuable role internationally to raise greater awareness of the need for adaptive strategies but also commercializing its own learning from eco-projects. The study on urban ES assessment in Stockholm contributes to better understanding of how urban ecosystem service provisioning is distributed in the city core and region today and in the possible future scenarios. Moreover, the study of Stockholm shows that city centre provides a range of ES and environmental issues should be prioritized and emphasized within urban planning and governance. The focus of the future research should be on identifying and evaluating the synergies and trade-offs between different urban ES. Presented studies revealed that the adaptation process to climate change needs to address long-standing challenge of dealing with inadequate regional administrative capacity (OECD, 2013). On the local level in Stockholm region municipalities have already started to expand the regional powers to deal with problems requiring broader focus. There is observed a big engagement of informal institutions in the local ecosystem management in Stockholm, where practices of civil society groups play meaningful and crucial role (Colding, 2013). Ernstson et al. (2010) suggested that developing ways of analyzing spatial social-ecological networks is the key factor in improving ES management in Stockholm. Co-operation on the adaptation and planning around Lake Mälaren is a good example of the governmental initiative of climate change adaptation addressing a fairly wide range of risk including: sea level rise, risk of storm surges, effects of extreme weather events, climate change-driven diseases, effects of climate change on energy use and water availability. Still the contribution of ES in the urban resilience and planning for chance events is not much discussed in Stockholm. The URBES workshop in April 2013 revealed a practical difficulty to embrace a complexity of urban ES in the context of climate change. Finally all studies respond to the growing need for data and information on the values of ES for urban citizens. This will require an interdisciplinary approach and integration of qualitative and quantitative information on ecological, social and economic factors, especially in the face of the predicted increase in urbanization in Stockholm. Acknowledgements The research project URBES “Urbanization, Biodiversity and ES” is a three-year research project (2012–2014) funded by BiodivERsA, in Sweden through the Swedish Research Council Formas (dnr 226-2011-1792). I thank Christina Wikberger from Stockholm Municipality for her useful comments. References Andersson, E., Barthel, S., Ahrne, K., 2007. Measuring Social-economic dynamics behind

the generation of ecosystem services. Ecological Applications 17(5), 1267–1278. Chan, K.M.A., Shaw, M.R., Cameron, D.R., Underwood, E.C., Daily, G.C., 2006.

Conservation planning for ecosystem services. PLoS Biology 4(11), e379.


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C/O City, 2013. URL: http://www.stockholmroyalseaport.com/sv/rd-projects/co-city/ Colding, J., 2013. Local Assessment of Stockholm: Revisiting the Stockholm Urban

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Elmqvist, T., Colding, J., Barthel, S., Borgström, S., Duit, A., Lundberg, J., Andersson, E., Ahrné, K., Ernstson, H., Folke, C., Bengtsson, J., 2004. The Dynamics of Social‐Ecological Systems in Urban Landscapes: Stockholm and the National Urban Park, Sweden. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1023, 308–322.

Ernstson, H., Barthel, S., Andersson, E., Borgström, S.T., 2010. Scale-crossing brokers and network governance of urban ecosystem services: the case of Stockholm. Ecology and Society 15(4), art. 28.

Gunnarsson-Ostling, U., Höjer, M., 2011. Scenario Planning for Sustainability in Stockholm, Sweden: Environmental Justice Considerations. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research 35(5), 1048–1067.

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http://www.boverket.se/Global/Webbokhandel/Dokument/2000/ekologiska_fotavtryck_och_biokapacitet.pdf

http://www.ekopolitan.com/news/climate-stockholm-preparing-

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