Chapter 4 Individuals in Schools: Motivation

Chapter 4

Individuals in Schools:Motivation Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 1

Individuals are motivated by their:

NeedsBeliefsGoals

Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 2I Maslows Theory of Needs

Assumptions:Individual needs are universal and arranged in a hierarchy.Unfilled needs lead individuals to focus on those needs.Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs become strong motivators.

Needs:Physiological Needs (Air, Food, Sleep, etc.)Safety and Security Needs (Protection against danger and threat)Belongingness Needs (Belonging to groups, having friends, etc.)Esteem Needs (Self-respect and the respect of others)Self-Actualization Needs (Being all you can be; finding potential)

Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 3Theories of Motivation: Needs Maslows Hierarchy of NeedsBasic set of human needs arranged in a hierarchical order

Level 1: Physiological Needs

Level 2: Safety and Security

Level 3: Belonging, Love, and Social Activities

Level 4: Esteem

Level 5: Self-actualization or self-fulfillment Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011

4Theories of Motivation: Needs II Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory:Two Types of Needs

Assumptions:

Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two separate factors, not opposites.Factors that produce satisfaction are different from those that promote dissatisfaction.Motivators are generally intrinsic factors such as achievement and the work itself.Hygiene factors are generally extrinsic factors such as salary and working conditions.Motivators are higher level needs and tend to promote satisfaction.Hygiene factors are lower level needs and tend to promote dissatisfaction Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011

5Theories of Motivation: Needs Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Hygienes Motivators Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011

Interpersonal relations (with subordinates)Interpersonal relations (with peers)Supervision (technical)Policy and administrationWorking conditionsPersonal life

AchievementRecognition Work itselfResponsibility Advancement

DissatisfactionSatisfaction6Theories of Motivation: NeedsIII McClellands Achievement-Need Theory

Assumptions:

The prospect of achievement motivates more than extrinsic rewards.Motives are learned and when people learn to value achievement, it becomes a strong motivator.

To instill motivation: Place people in situation where they can succeed. Emphasize setting reasonable and achievable goals. Get people to take responsibility for their actions. Provide clear and constructive feedback on performance.

3. When achievement motivation is high, then individuals set high, but achievable goals, value and use feedback, have a single-minded absorption with task accomplishment.

Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011

7Theories of Motivation: NeedsIV Need for Autonomy

Individuals have a need to have a choice in what they do and how they do it; they need to be in charge of their own lives.

The need for autonomy is a higher level need--likely above self-esteem and below self actualization in Maslows hierarchy. Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011

8Theories of Motivation: BeliefsV Weiners Attribution Theory: Beliefs about Cause

Assumptions:Individuals naturally seek understandings of why thing happen the way they do.Individuals make causal connections, i.e., they create knowledge.Once knowledge is created, they use it to manage their behavior.The basic causes of achievement are ability, effort, difficulty of the task, and luck.Key questions: Causal: What are causes of outcomes? Locus: Is the cause internal (ability & effort) or external (difficulty & luck)? Stability: Is the cause fixed or does it change? Responsibility (Controllable): Can I control the cause?6. Maximize motivation by knowing what causes outcomes, knowing the cause is internal and controllable, and knowing cause is amenable to change. Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011

9Theories of Motivation: BeliefsBeliefs continued

AbilityStable viewAbility is uncontrollable and unable to changeSet performance goals that protect their self-esteemIncremental viewAbility is unstable but controllableExpanding reservoir of knowledge and skillsHard work and persistence can pay offSet performance goals to gauge progress Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011

10Theories of Motivation: BeliefsVI Greenbergs Equity Theory: Beliefs about Fairness

Assumptions:Individuals care about being treated fairly.People make social comparisons regarding fair and equitable treatment.Perceived inequity tends to reduce motivation.Individuals attempt to reduce feelings of inequity by: They try to get increased benefits--get a raise. They try to leave--quit and find another job. They reduce their inputs--expend less effort on the job.

Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011

11Principles of Organizational Justice

Equity Principle --Rewards should be proportional to contributions.

Perception Principle --Individual perceptions of fairness define justice.

The Voice Principle --Participation in decision enhances fairness.

Interpersonal Justice Principle --Dignified and respectful treatment promotes fairness

Consistency Principle --Consistently fair behavior promotes a sense of justice

Egalitarian Principle --Self-interest should be subordinated to good of whole

Correction Principle --Faulty decisions should be quickly corrected.Accuracy Principle --Decisions should be anchored in accurate information

Representative Principle --Decisions should represent those concerned.

Ethical Principle --Existing moral & ethical standards should prevail.

Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 12Theories of Motivation: BeliefsVII Vrooms Expectancy Theory (Beliefs about Outcomes)

Assumptions:Individuals make conscious decisions about their behavior.People evaluate subjectively the expected value of outcomes.Forces in the individual and environment combine to determine individual values and attitudes.Motivation is a function of the interaction of expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.

Expectancy: Can I perform the task?Instrumentality: If I succeed what are the consequences?Valence: How strongly do I value the consequences?

Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 13Theories of Motivation: Beliefs Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 Expectancy

Belief that I canaccomplishthe taskInstrumentality

Belief that goodperformance willbe noticed andrewardedValence

An assessment ofthe attractivenessor value ofthe rewardsForce ofMotivationAccording to expectancy theory, workmotivation is strongly influenced by theinteraction of three factors: expectancy,instrumentality, and valence.

M = f (E x I x V)Expectancy Theory14Theories of Motivation: BeliefsVIII Banduras Self-Efficacy Theory: Beliefs about Capacity

Assumptions:Individuals make conscious decisions about their behavior.The extent to which people believe that they have the capacity to execute a course of action that is required to succeed is their self-efficacy, their self efficacy, motivates behavior.Self-efficacy affects individual choice: Choose activities in which you will succeed and avoid those in which you believe you will fail.4.Strong self-efficacy increases effort at the task.Strong self-efficacy increases persistence.Strong self-efficacy increases resilience.Sources of strong self-efficacy: Mastery Experiences Modeling (Vicarious experiences) Verbal Persuasion Physiological State

Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011

15 Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 Sources of Efficacy

Physiological CuesVerbal PersuasionVicarious Experience (Modeling)Mastery ExperienceCognitiveProcessingAnalysis of theTeaching Task

Assessment ofTeachingCompetenceTeacherEfficacyPerformanceConsequences ofTeacher Efficacy

EffortPersistenceSuccessA Model of Teacher Efficacy16Building Self-Efficacy in SchoolsAdministrators should try to orchestrate the following:

Secure instructional time and resources for teachers to plan, collaborate, and research, to build MASTERY EXPERIENCES.

Allow teachers to have access to models, in the form of conferences, workshops, visitations, etc., for cultivation of VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES.

Foster emphasis on professionalism and reflective teaching, and reward those who collaborate and share feedback, to increase SOCIAL PERSUASION.

Attend to teachers affective states and provide encouragement during times of frustration. Frame performance as a function of acquired skill rather than inherent capability.

Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 17Theories of Motivation: GoalsIX Lockes Goal Theory

Assumptions:

If goals are accepted by individuals, they are strong motivators.Why? Goals focus attention. Goals mobilize efforts. Goals enhance persistence. Goals promote the development of strategies for success.3.Specific goals are generally more effective than general goals.4.Difficult, but attainable goals are more effective than easy ones. 5.To be effective, goals must be embraced by individual. Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 18Theories of Motivation: Goal Setting Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 Characteristics ofEffective Goals

SpecificChallengingAttainableEmbraced

Goal Mechanisms

Focus attentionMobilize effortEnhance persistenceDevelop specific task strategies

PerformanceFeedbackActual versus Desired Behavior19 Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 Intrinsic motivation comes from such factors as interest and curiosity in the task itself.

Extrinsic motivation comes from incentives and disincentives to act, for example, rewards and punishments.

The key difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is the reason for acting--internal (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic).

The dichotomy between the two, however, is a bit too simple because what starts as extrinsic motivation (studying to get good grades) may become intrinsic as the individual becomes curious about the learning at hand. Theories of MotivationX Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation20Summary & Review Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011

Needs TheorySuggest that people work hard when:Lower-order needs are metphysiological, safety, and belongingness needs.Higher-order needs present the challengeesteem and self-actualization needs.

Motivation-Hygiene TheorySuggests that:Unmet lower-level needs produce dissatisfaction with the job.Gratified higher-level needs produce job satisfaction.

Goal-Setting TheorySuggests that people work hard when:They have realistic, specific, and challenging goals.They are committed to the goals.They receive feedback about progress toward the goals.

Attribution TheorySuggests that people work hard when they believe that causes for success are:Internaldue to ability and effort.Not fixedeffort, for example, can be varied from one situation to another.Controllablecauses can be controlled by hard work, using proper strategy, etc.

21Summary & Review Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 Equity TheorySuggests that people work hard when they have been fairly treated and:They have been given the rewards they deserve.The rewards have been allocated fairly.They have been treated with respect and courtesy.

Expectancy TheorySuggests that people work hard when:They believe extra effort will improve performance.Good performance will be noticed and rewarded.The rewards are valued.

Self-Efficacy TheorySuggests that people work hard when:They believe they have the capabilities to be successful.They believe that the task is not too difficult.They have had success at completing their tasks.They have good models of success.

22Practical Imperatives Hoy, 2003, 2008, 2011 Celebrate the successes of your faculty: Positive reinforcement is a strong motivator.Articulate clear, specific, and achievable goals: They provide focused targets for persistent effort.Nurture an incremental view of intelligence: It enhances achievement.Be fair in both deciding and distributing school resources: Participants expect to be treated fairly.Equip teachers with skills and resources needed to succeed: Teachers work smarter when they have the right tools.Develop a sense of efficacy in teachers and students: Both increase academic achievement.Provide teachers with constructive feedback in their quest for goal achievement; Verbal persuasion increases perseverance.Create teacher situations that lead to successful experiences: Mastery experiences are the most valuable source of teacher self-efficacy.Provide teachers with models of successful practice: Such models are strong determinants of self-efficacy.Encourage teachers to accept responsibility for achievement: Responsibility produces commitment, perseverance, and success.

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