effective policy formulation and … · industrial and urban development and lack of management and...

ITTO PRE-PROJECT PPD 108/04 REV. 1. (F): Sustainable Community Management, Utilization and Conservation of Mangrove

Ecosystems in Ghana

i

EFFECTIVE POLICY FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION

FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION OF

MANGROVES IN GHANA

CONSULTANCY REPORT FOR

ITTO PRE-PROJECT PPD 108/04 REV. 1. (F): Sustainable

Community Management, Utilization and Conservation of Mangrove

Ecosystems in Ghana

Consultant: Mercy A. A. Derkyi (Mrs)

September, 2007


Ecosystems in Ghana

ii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In Ghana, mangrove forests are important ecosystems found along coastal areas and serve as

sources of livelihood for local communities, act as windbreaks and help to mitigate the impact

of coastal storm surges. They are also essential for plant and animal life and serve as breeding

grounds for many aquatic fauna. However, increase in human population, food production,

industrial and urban development and lack of management and policy strategies for mangroves

have resulted in their over-exploitation, pollution and conversion to other land uses leading to

dwindling of the mangrove resource base.

In November 2006, the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) approved a one-

year pre-project proposal on „Sustainable Community Management, Utilization and

Conservation of Mangrove Ecosystems in Ghana‟. The Faculty of Renewable Natural

Resources (FRNR) is the lead executing institution with Forestry Research Institute of Ghana

(FORIG) and the Forestry Commission (FC) as the collaborators.

This pre-project seeks to address issues concerning access, ownership rights and tenure,

impact of existing policies and legislation on mangroves for purposes of providing baseline

information for the development of community-based policies and strategies for sustainable

mangrove ecosystem management, utilization and conservation. Against this background, a

study was commissioned on the theme „effective policy formulation and implementation for

sustainable management and utilization of mangroves in Ghana‟.

The main approach used for the collection of data was through desk study, expert interviews

as well as field survey. The field survey covered 15 communities fringing the Amansure River

in the Nzema East District of the Western Region and Ama Emissa River in the Mfantseman

District of the Central Region.

The study shows that stakeholders have been involved in the formulation and implementation

of forest policies with a higher level of stakeholder participation in the processes leading to the

1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy than that of 1948. However, mangrove forests did not feature

in these forest policies and it appears there are no specific policies on mangroves in Ghana,

except what can be deduced from related wetland conservation documents such as the revised

national wetlands conservation strategy and action plan, prepared by the Ministry of Lands,

Forestry and Mines (MLFM, 2007). The traditional means of conserving natural resources

have also not been effective for mangrove management, principally due to the wrong notion

that mangroves are “waste lands” and their perceived relatively low value. There appears to be

limited understanding of the values and functions of mangrove and wetland ecosystems in

Ghana. As a result, mangrove forests are often regarded as degraded and worthless areas that

need to be utilized for productive uses. However, the intrinsic value of the mangrove

ecosystem is enormous and is only recognized when large investments have to be poured into

constructing coastal protection structures when the mangrove vegetation is gone.

There are no documented or active strategies and structures for mangrove management at the

community level, nevertheless the communities were able to propose key strategies for


Ecosystems in Ghana

iii

effective management of the mangrove ecosystem. Key stakeholders to ensure successful

management of the resources were also identified.

It was realized that a well planned intertwines of institutional needs, accurate scientific

information and active community involvement in policy planning and implementation will be

central to any scheme for protecting mangroves and preventing excessive exploitation and

abuse of the resource.

In view of the key findings, recommendations such as public awareness and education,

formulation of mangrove policy and strategies, national inventory to ascertain the actual size

of mangroves and creation of database of mangrove information have been made for effective

management of mangrove ecosystems in Ghana.


Ecosystems in Ghana

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study gathered information through desk study, expert interviews as well as field survey

on effective policy formulation and implementation for sustainable management and

utilization of mangroves in Ghana.

The study has been successful through the support of a number of individual, institutions and

communities.

I am especially grateful to the ITTO for providing the financial support towards this pre-

project and to the FRNR team in Ghana who made it possible for me to execute this

assignment.

I am also indebted to the communities fringing Amansure River (Eikwe, Azuleloanu, Ampain,

Old Bakanta, New Bakanta, Sanzule, Kristan, Ala Bokazo, Aloakpoke,) and Ama Emissa

River (Narkwa, Asaafa, Edumafa, Suprudu, Emissano, Kuntu) in the Western and Central

Regions of Ghana respectively for their time and contributions. To the District Assemblies,

Assemblymen and chiefs within the study communities I say thank you for the numerous

supports provided.

Regarding expert interviews, officials from the following institutions are very much

appreciated:

Wildlife Manager, Dangbe-East District,

Wetlands Conservation issues in the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission,

Project Coordinator,

Project Coordinator Amanzure Conservation Integrated Development ( ACID) and;

Some staff of Resource Management Support Centre (RMSC) and Tropenbos

international –Ghana.

I also wish to acknowledge the inputs of all those who proof read this report. Finally, I thank

all those who contributed in diverse ways towards the beginning and completion of this study.


Ecosystems in Ghana

v

TABLE OF CONTENT

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... II

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................. IV

TABLE OF CONTENT ........................................................................................................................ V

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURE AND BOX ......................................................................................... VII

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ......................................................................................... VIII

SECTION 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 TERMS OF REFERENCE (TOR) .......................................................................................................... 3 1.4 ORGANIZATION OF REPORT ............................................................................................................. 3 1.5 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................................ 4

SECTION 2: STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT IN FOREST POLICY FORMULATION

AND IMPLEMENTATION IN GHANA ............................................................................................. 5

2.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 5

2.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF GHANA’S FOREST POLICY AND

STAKEHOLDERS INFLUENCE IN ITS FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION. .......... 6

2.2.1. THE 1948 FOREST POLICY .............................................................................................................. 7 2.2.2 THE FOREST AND WILDLIFE POLICY, 1994. .................................................................................... 8 AIMS OF THE POLICY .............................................................................................................................. 9 POLICY OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................... 9 2.3 CRITIQUE OF STAKEHOLDERS’ PARTICIPATION IN FOREST POLICY FORMULATION AND ITS

IMPLICATIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 11 2.3.1 STAKEHOLDERS‟ PARTICIPATION IN THE 1948 FOREST POLICY.................................................... 11 2.3.2 STAKEHOLDERS‟ PARTICIPATION IN THE 1994 FOREST AND WILDLIFE ........................................ 12

SECTION THREE: EXISTING POLICIES, LEGISLATION AND STRATEGIC PLANS ON

WETLANDS/MANGROVES AND THEIR IMPACTS ON MANGROVE CONSERVATION IN

GHANA ................................................................................................................................................. 13

3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 13 3.2 INITIATIVES TOWARD WETLANDS AND MANGROVE MANAGEMENT .......................................... 13 3.2.1 STATE-LED INITIATIVES ................................................................................................................. 14 3.2.2 OTHER MANGROVE RESTORATION INITIATIVES ........................................................................... 15


Ecosystems in Ghana

vi

3.3 RELEVANT AGENCIES (PLAYERS) FOR COASTAL CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT ........... 17 3.4 EXISTING POLICIES AND LEGISLATIONS ON WETLANDS ............................................................. 18 3.5 CRITIQUE OF EXISTING POLICIES, LEGISLATIONS AND MANAGEMENT PLANS ON WETLANDS .. 19 3.5.2 LOCAL COMMUNITY CONSERVATION, EDUCATION AND PUBLIC PARTICIPATION ................. 20 3.5.3 WEAKNESSES OF THE LEGISLATIONS AND IMPLEMENTING AGENCIES ................................... 21

SECTION FOUR: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LACK OF APPROPRIATE NATIONAL

POLICY ON MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS .................................................................................... 22

4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 22 4.2 EXTENT OF MANGROVE COVER AND ITS PERCEIVED LOW VALUE ............................................ 22 4.3 CONVENTIONAL VIEW OF MANGROVES ........................................................................................ 23

SECTION FIVE: POLICY STRATEGIES TO PROTECT MANGROVE FOREST RIGHTS

AND PREVENTION OF ABUSE OF TRADITIONAL AND INSTITUTIONAL PROCEDURES

WHICH MAKE MANGROVES AN OPEN ACCESS. .................................................................... 24

5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 24 5.2 INSTITUTIONAL NEEDS ................................................................................................................... 24 5.3 SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION ............................................................................................................. 25 5.4 COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT .......................................................................................................... 26

SECTION SIX: COMMUNITY LEVEL STRATEGIES FOR EQUITY IN MANGROVE

MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION ............................................................................................ 27

6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 27

SECTION 7: KEY FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION ......................... 32

7.1 KEY FINDINGS ................................................................................................................................. 32 7.2 CONCLUSION.................................................................................................................................... 33 7.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................................................................................... 34

REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 36


Ecosystems in Ghana

vii

LIST OF TABLES, FIGURE AND BOX

Box 1: Factors which guided the Formulation of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy………10

Fig 1: An example of mangrove action plan developed using simple questions by the

communities‟ representative during a pre-validation workshop in Nzema East

District…………………………………………………………………………………...…………….28

Table 1 Interventions for wetland and mangrove resource degradation…………...……....…16

Table 2: Wetland related projects and management plans in Ghana…………………….…...16

Table 3: Agencies supporting protection of coastal ecosystems…………………………..…17

Table 4: Wetland related policies legislations in Ghana…………………………………..….18

Table 5: Nzema East District: Conservation Strategies using Simple questions (4W &…..…29

Table 6: Mfantseman District: Conservation Strategies using Simple questions (4W &H)…….30


Ecosystems in Ghana

viii

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ACID Amansure Conservation Integrated Development

CAW Centre for African Wetlands

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

FC Forestry Commission

FC Forestry Commission

FoE Friends of the Earth

FORIG Forestry Research Institute of Ghana

FSD Forest Services Division

GIS Global Information system

GPS Global Positioning System

GWS Ghana Wildlife Society

ITTO International Tropical Timber Organization

MLF Ministry of Lands and Forestry

MLFM Ministry of Lands, Forestry and Mines

NEAP National Environmental Action Plan

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NWS National Wetlands Committee

RMSC Resource Management Support Centre

RSSI Remote Sensing and Satellite Imagery

TOR Terms of Reference

WD Wildlife Division


Ecosystems in Ghana

1

SECTION 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction

Ghana is a West African country with a land area of 23.95 million hectares and a population of

about 20.9 million people (UN 2003), about 66% of which are rural. Its population growth rate

is about 2.6% (UNDP Ghana-Country Profile). Ghana‟s greatest strength lies in her natural

resources and about 50% of the economically active population works in the agricultural and

forestry sectors.

In Ghana, mangrove forests are important ecosystems found along coastal areas and serve as

sources of livelihood for local communities, act as windbreaks and help to mitigate the impact

of coastal storm surges. They are also essential for plant and animal life and serve as breeding

grounds for many aquatic fauna. However, increase in human population, food production,

industrial and urban development and lack of management and policy strategies for mangroves

have resulted in their over-exploitation, pollution and conversion to other land uses leading to

dwindling of the mangrove resource base.

Poverty and environmental degradation are often characterized as being part of a vicious

cycle. Poverty is believed to have stimulated increased non-sustainable practices for local

resources such as mangroves and wetlands (World Bank, 2007). In Ghana, the degradation of

the coastal environment is linked to the persistence of poverty and the pervasiveness of

income disparities in much of the coastal areas.

In the face of the unprecedented natural resources degradation and depletion at both global and

national levels, Ghana has ratified many conventions. At the international level, the country

ratified for example, the Ramsar Convention which focuses on the conservation of wetlands of

international importance, since 1988. A major obligation under the Convention is the

implementation of the principle of „wise use‟ of the wetlands resources. The conventions have

inspired many relevant policies and legislations on natural resources in the country within the

context of sustainable development. These policies include; National Environment Policy,

National Wetland Policy, Tourism Development Policy, 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy and

National Wetlands Conservation Strategy and Action Plan among others. The main thrust and

focus of the policies and legislations are on the protection, management and development of

the natural resources.

At the national level, environmental degradation of the coastal areas was identified as a key

issue in the country‟s Environmental Action Plan and in 1995, with the assistance of the

World Bank the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) initiative was commenced

aimed at identifying economic, social and environmental interventions and projects in the

coastal zone. Within the context of coastal environment, the government and also non-

governmental agencies have shown commitment towards the protection and management of

the natural resources as indicated by the drafting of the coastal zone management indicative

plan, integrated coastal zone plan, coastal zone profile of Ghana and initiated projects.


Ecosystems in Ghana

2

Wetlands form part of the coastal zone natural resources endowment and the policies and

legislations on this ecosystem have impacts on mangrove resources, which form part of the

mosaic of wetland vegetation. The mangrove catchments are mostly found in the tidal river

estuaries and lagoons along the coast. They form narrow vegetation in these areas and broken

in places by the topography. They offer important environmental services and meet socio-

economic needs of the fringe communities.

As an integral part of the natural resource endowment of the country, their conservation and

protection are needed to sustain them and to ensure their continuous delivering of important

socio-economic and environmental services. As a result, the country has evolved many

important environmental strategies and policies to ensure the sustainability of these natural

resources.

1.1 Background of Pre-project.

The sustainable community management, utilization and conservation of mangrove

ecosystems in Ghana, is a pre-project being carried out by the Government of Ghana and

funded by International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) for a period of a year.

The project seeks to address issues related to access, ownership rights and tenure and to

provide baseline information to develop community-based policies and strategies to ensure

sustainability of the mangrove ecosystems in the country. The project aims at gathering

sufficient information on the degradation of mangrove forests on the livelihood and economy

of local communities for the planning, formulation and implementation of project(s) to

manage mangrove resources in Ghana on sustainable basis. It will therefore address the

following issues:

The influence of current forest and land policies on mangroves.

Distribution, degree of exploitation and the extent of degradation of mangrove

resources.

Land tenure systems in mangrove communities.

Social infrastructure, social and economic profiles of the people living close to

mangroves.

Issues on mangrove management and utilization which are not clear.

The developmental objective of this pre-project is to ensure the sustainable management and

utilization of Ghana‟s mangrove forest resources. The specific objective is to provide

sufficient baseline information on the extent, contribution of mangrove resources, policy and

other governance strategies to aid in preparing a project for the sustainable community

management, utilization and conservation of mangroves in Ghana. In addition, the pre-project

seeks to develop the skills and abilities of local communities to be involved in the project

proposal planning and formulation.


Ecosystems in Ghana

3

1.2 Terms of Reference (ToR)

Against this background, the Faculty of Renewable Natural Resources (FRNR) and its

collaborating institutions (FORIG and FC) with funding from ITTO commissioned a

consultant to conduct an exploratory study on the theme „effective policy formulation and

implementation for sustainable management and utilization of mangroves in Ghana‟ with the

following terms of reference.

Review literature on stakeholder involvement in forest policy formulation and

implementation in Ghana.

Review existing policies, legislation and strategic plans on wetlands/mangroves and

their impacts on mangrove conservation in Ghana.

Identify factors influencing the lack of appropriate national policy on mangrove

ecosystem.

Recommend policy strategies to protect mangrove forest rights and prevention of

abuse of traditional and institutional procedures which make mangroves an open

access.

Recommend community level strategies for equity in mangrove management and

utilization

Present a report to cover the above.

1.4 Organization of Report

The first section of the report is the introduction, which focuses on the background

information, objective, terms of reference as well as the methodology and approach of the

study. The study findings are described in the rest of the sections. Section two is a literature

review on stakeholder involvement in forest policy formulation and implementation in Ghana.

The existing policies, legislation and strategic plans on wetlands/mangroves and their impacts

on mangrove conservation in Ghana are covered under section three. Factors influencing the

lack of appropriate national policy on mangrove ecosystem as well as policy strategies to

protect mangrove forest rights and prevention of abuse are discussed under sections four and

five respectively. Section six is devoted to community level strategies for equity in mangrove

management and utilization. The last section consists of summary of findings, conclusions and

recommendations.


Ecosystems in Ghana

4

1.5 Methodology

The main approach used for the collection of data was through desk study, expert interviews

as well as field survey. For the desk study, relevant mangrove literature was gathered from the

internet. In addition the following principal documents relating to forest policies, wetlands and

mangroves studies in Ghana were reviewed.

The two forest and wildlife policies of Ghana

Falling into Place. Policy that works for forests and people series no. 4. International

Institute for Environment and Development, London.

The 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Ghana

Wetlands Management in Ghana, Friends of the Earth (FoE)

Preliminary Inventory Assessment of Mangroves in Ghana Report, ITTO-Pre-project

(unpublished)

Survey of land and forest tenure systems affecting mangrove conservation and

management in Ghana. Report, ITTO-Pre-project (unpublished)

Policy that works for forests and people –Real prospects for governance and

livelihoods

Regarding expert interviews, officials from the following institutions were actively involved:

Wildlife Manager, Dangbe-East District,

Wetlands Conservation issues in the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission,

Project Coordinator,

Project Coordinator Amanzure Conservation Integrated Development ( ACID) and;

Some staff of Resource Management Support Centre (RMSC) and Tropenbos

International-Ghana were actively involved in this study.

The field study was carried out in two mangrove rich districts in Ghana namely; the Nzema

East and Mfantseman Districts in the Western and Central Regions of Ghana respectively (see

Annex for map of the study area). A total of 15 communities were involved in the study. The

approaches used for the field survey to gather relevant data included community durbar using

structured checklist and pre-validation workshops.

The data analysis has been made essentially using content analysis. The information gathered

from literature and the field surveys were primarily the views and opinions of people, hence

they were not subjected to rigorous statistical analysis.


Ecosystems in Ghana

5

SECTION 2: STAKEHOLDER INVOLVEMENT IN FOREST POLICY

FORMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION IN GHANA

2.1 Introduction

In their study on forest policies, Kotey et al., (1998) described policy as involving content and

process and both are deemed equally important; the process by which a policy is developed is

as important as the substance (content) of the policy. Policy processes include the elements of

policy making, policy implementation, monitoring and evaluation and policy review. Policy is

also more than just official pronouncement. It includes what people are actually committed to

and what they try to do.

Forest policies attempt to provide a framework of objectives, strategies and programmes

regarding:

• Aims - what benefits are to be aimed at from the forest resources and how to integrate or

choose between different objectives, time scales and stakeholders

• Roles - what are the main policy tasks involved in formulation, implementation, monitoring,

evaluating and revision of policy?

• Means - which methodologies can achieve the aims and manage conflicts between

stakeholders?

• Actors - what institutions and stakeholders will play the identified roles - farmers, forest

dwellers, fringe communities, landholding authorities, local government, voluntary

organizations, timber industry and central government; who exercises what rights, who bears

what responsibilities and how would they be held accountable? What linkages, supporting

legislation, financial arrangements and other forms of support are required?

Kotey et al., (1998) noted that forest policy is a product of its time, of prevailing conditions

and of the results of past action. The forest resource changes in quantity and quality;

perceptions of value change; actors change and with those changes, the goods and services

obtained by society will change and the strategies for their attainment will change. There are

many contextual factors which need to be weighed up in thinking about forest policy-making

and implementation. Issues may arise, and activities may be carried out, at local (even

household), national or international levels.

A review by Trevallion (1994) cited in Anderson (Undated), commissioned by the

Government of Ghana, examined how integrated policy had been designed and implemented

within the national development plans. Trevallion (1994) identified the need to integrate

economic, social, environmental and political concerns into development planning and policy.

In a similar vein, Kotey et al., (1998) observed that policy decisions may be influenced by

economic, social, political, environmental and ecological factors. Important contextual factors

involve not only the present and the immediate future, but also the past and the long-term


Ecosystems in Ghana

6

future. Ghana‟s current Forest and Wildlife policy has metamorphosed from previous policies

that have been shaped over the years by the same economic, social, political, environmental

and ecological factors indicated earlier. One cannot elaborate on Ghana‟s forestry without

touching on stakeholders. The nation‟s forest policies have really been shaped and built with

active support of stakeholders, who have diverse interests. These interests have both positive

and negative implications. This section of the report focuses on historical development of

Ghana‟s forest policy and stakeholders influence in its formulation and implementation.

Analysis of the findings centered on stakeholders‟ level of involvement and contributions to

the formulation and implementation of the policies

2.2 Historical developments of Ghana’s forest policy and stakeholders influence in its

formulation and implementation.

Ghana‟s history of forest management dates as far back as 1874 when the British Colonial

Office began to develop a universal forest conservation policy to avert a perceived worldwide

threat to the economic base of colonial rule from deforestation (Smith, 1996 cited in Kotey et

al, 1998). In 1909, there was the establishment of the Forestry Department (FD), to spearhead

the reservation effort and regulate the emerging timber industry. Forest reserves were

established between 1920 and 1935. The local people and more importantly chiefs were

viewed as clients by the government. The FD‟s role was thus to provide professional advice to

the forest owners. In part, the forester‟s task was to ensure that the owners benefited from the

forest reservation. In fact, forest management in Ghana started on a note of collaboration

between traditional leaders (representing the local people) and the government (represented by

the FD).

In 1927, Native Authorities Ordinance No. 18 of 1927 (Cap 111) established a system of local

government which revolved around a paramount chief and his traditional council of elders,

referred to as “native authority”. These authorities had the power to constitute forest reserves

under their by-laws. In that same year, Forest Ordinance, 1927 (Cap. 157) vested in central

government the power to constitute reserves on all lands. This ordinance gave the Forestry

Department (FD) the power to compulsorily constitute any selected reserve which was not

constituted by a Native Authority. When it became apparent that the administration of forest

reserves by the Native Authority was poorly done, the ordinance permitted the FD to take

over. Notwithstanding this take over, the ownership of the land in the reserves did not change

since the FD directly administered those reserves on behalf of the owners (Agyenim-Boateng

et al, 2002).

Since this time, there have been two formal government forest policy statements in the

country: one formulated in 1946 and approved by the Governor in Council in 1948; and the

second announced in 1994 as the Forest and Wildlife Policy (Kotey et al, 1998). The call for a

formal forest policy was precipitated by factors such as increased local demands for forest

products, post war national demands for reconstruction in Europe, improved access to the

hinterland, timber exploitation and the relentless expansion of cocoa frontiers.


Ecosystems in Ghana

7

2.2.1. The 1948 Forest Policy

The first formal forest policy approved in 1948, usually referred to as the 1948 Forest Policy,

provided conservation and protection of the forest environment, management of the permanent

forest estate and the ultimate liquidation of the off-reserve forest. The 1948 policy had

pronounced effects on the forests and the people. It sought to capture the developing paradigm

in forest management and the accumulated colonial experience in forest management. The

policy has eight clauses. Its main thrust was on maintaining the protective purposes of the

reserves, and the concept of productive potential and value on the basis of a sustained timber

yield was introduced. From there, the preoccupation with developing scientific systems of

management to increase the timber productivity of the forest was, but, a short step (Kotey et

al, 1998).

The main objectives of the 1948 Forest Policy were:

• Conservation and protection of the forest environment i.e. protection of major water

catchment areas, maintenance of a micro-climate for production of major agricultural crops

• Management of the permanent forest estate on a sustained yield basis

• Promotion of research in all aspects of scientific forestry

Emphasis was thus on protection and management of the reserves, with the implicit

expectation that all forest outside the permanent forest reserves would, ultimately, be

converted to agricultural land. CFMU (1999) cited in Agyenim-Boateng et al, (2002)

remarked that emphasis was shifted from protective functions of forests to the promotion of

timber and its values. The elements of collaboration were seemingly neglected in the policy, as

the development of local administration became difficult; even though the forest policy under

clause 4 encouraged the development of native administration forestry and the education of

native authorities and the people to a better understanding of forest functions and value.

After independence, the interest of the state took precedence over the owners of the forests.

Though the customary rights of the people were recognized and elaborated in Management

Plans for the various reserves, little attention was paid to how the people could access those

rights. Several other legislations – such as the Forest Ordinance (1927), Trees and Timber

Ordinance (1950), Concessions Act (1962), Forest Protection Decree (1974) amended by the

Forest Protection (Amendment) Law (1986) – denied local communities and villagers any

meaningful rights within reserves in spite of the fact that the reserves may be subject to

“Admitted rights” and to be managed “for the benefit of the owner or owners”. Local

communities and villagers were therefore generally prevented from engaging in any act within

the reserve without the prior written authority of the Forestry Department. These actions

included the following: felling, uprooting, tapping or injuring any tree or timber; making a

farm or erecting a building; obstructing any river, stream, canal or creek; hunting or shooting

any game or wildlife; fishing, poisoning water or setting traps or snares; or collecting,

processing, conveying or removing any forest produce. The penalty upon conviction of any of

these offences was a fine or imprisonment. Local communities and inhabitants therefore saw

the reserves as usurpation of their rights and benefits, and an expropriation of their land and

forests.


Ecosystems in Ghana

8

Since the adoption of the forest policy, the wood industry grew steadily up to the 1970s, but

like other sectors of the economy, it declined drastically until the introduction of the Economic

Recovery Programme in 1983. About that time, the country suffered from the severe effects

of a prolonged drought, followed by devastating wildfires, which forcibly awakened the entire

population to the environmental consequences of deforestation. During the past decade, the

government attempted to stimulate wood processing and exports through a range of initiatives

which, hindered by inadequate institutional capability, yielded varied results

(www.fcghana.com).

The Game and Wildlife conservation also commenced in the early years of the 20th

century,

the Department of Game and Wildlife was formed in 1965. Wildlife reserves and

conservation policy was published in 1974. Rooted in the general culture and traditions of the

country, this policy recognized the economic importance of wildlife resources to the

livelihood of people, the role of protected areas in meeting the demand for bush meat and the

importance of engaging local communities in protected area development. However, certain

shortcomings became evident in particular, the need to obtain the acceptance of local

communities directly affected by conservation measures and to modify the emphasis placed on

preservation of useful animals. Unfortunately, services in the sub-sector also declined along

with the worsened conditions of the national economy.

Over time, there was general dissatisfaction with the 1948 forest policy especially between

1980 and 1990. With increasing demand for forest land for agricultural purposes due to

population pressure, advances in science and technology, growing ecological importance of

the forest in terms of genetic biodiversity and wildlife, institutional changes, and the

increasing need for popular participation in resource management, the underlying justification

for the earlier policy no longer appeared applicable. It became obvious that most of the

provisions in the old policy could not adequately deal with the totality of the emerging issues.

Consequently, the government introduced remedial measures to strengthen forestry sector

institutions and to reform policies.

The need for a revision of the 1948 Forest Policy was heightened by the outcome of studies

made by the World Bank preparatory missions for the Forest Resource Management Project

(FRMP). The mission noted that the policy was inadequate for dealing with the problems of a

dwindling forest resource, inadequate revenue and weak institutions in the closing decades of

the century. Their concerns also led to the revision process being taken out of the hands of the

Forestry Department, initially into a secretariat in the Ministry of Lands and Natural

Resources as it then was, and later to the Forestry Commission.

2.2.2 The Forest and Wildlife Policy, 1994.

In 1994, the second and present formal policy called 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy came

into force. The policy presents specific principles on rights of local access to basic natural

resources, local democracy, participatory management and protection of forest and wildlife

resources. Also notable is a total shift from the 1948 policy‟s expectation of progressive


Ecosystems in Ghana

9

utilization without replacement of unreserved forest resources to one of “sustainable

management of unreserved forests” (Kotey, et al, 1998).

Aims of the policy

The Forest and Wildlife Policy of Ghana aims at conservation and sustainable development of

the nation's forest and wildlife resources for maintenance of environmental quality and

perpetual flow of optimum benefits to all segments of society (MLF, 1996).

Policy objectives Specifically, the objectives of the policy are to:

1. manage and enhance Ghana's permanent estate of forest and wildlife resource for

preservation of vital soil and water resources, conservation of biological diversity and the

environment and sustainable production of domestic and commercial produce;

2. promote the development of viable and efficient forest-based industries, particularly in

secondary and tertiary processing, so as to fully utilize timber and other products from

forests and wildlife resources and satisfy domestic and international demand for

competitively-priced quality products;

3. promote public awareness and involvement of rural people in forestry and wildlife

conservation so as to maintain life-sustaining systems, preserve scenic areas, enhance the

potential of recreation, tourism and income-generating opportunities;

4. promote research-based and technology-led forestry and wildlife management, utilization

and development to ensure resource sustainability, socio-economic growth and

environmental stability;

5. develop effective capability at national, regional and district levels for sustainable

management of forest and wildlife resources.

Guiding Principles of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy

The guiding principles for this policy are based on both national convictions and international

guidelines and conventions. From the national standpoint, such principles are embodied in the

Constitution of the Fourth Republic, the Environment policies of the new parliamentary

government, the Environmental Action Plan, as well as agreements emanating from existing

projects, particularly the Forest Resource Management Project and its various studies. Ghana

has also endorsed certain international principles including those contained in the Guidelines

for Tropical Forest Management published by the International Tropical Timber Organization,

the Rio Declaration and Forest Principles, the African Convention on Wildlife Conservation,

the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species and others.

Factors which guided the Formulation of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy

In enunciation the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy governing the country's forest and wildlife

resources, the Government of Ghana recognized and confirmed the values presented in Box 1.


Ecosystems in Ghana

10

Box 1: Factors which guided the Formulation of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife

Policy

1. The rights of people to have access to natural resources for maintaining a basic standard of

living and their concomitant responsibility to ensure the sustainable use of such resources;

2. the forest and wildlife resources as part of an integrated land use policy, because of their

contribution to the economy in maintaining vital ecology and life-sustaining processes and

conserving pools of genetic material for scientific, cultural and educational advancement;

3. The success of sustainable resource management is directly related to continued political

support at the highest levels, as well as provision of strong incentives to encourage responsible

use, e.g. long-term concessions, equitable access, appropriate fees;

4. The need for economic and development incentives to stimulate private enterprise and

encourage respect for regulations, thus offsetting real and perceived costs imposed by loss of

access or restriction on use;

5. The importance of national accounting for the costs of resource depletion and impact on the

environment;

6. The need to incorporate traditional methods of resource management in national strategies

where appropriate;

7. The need for support by appropriate legislation in harmony with laws concerning related sectors

and for policy revision in the light of changing circumstances and updated information;

8. A share of financial benefits from resource utilization should be retained to fund the

maintenance of resource production capacity and the benefit of local communities;

9. Forest and wildlife fees and taxes are considered as incentives to encourage more rational and

less wasteful utilization and should be revised according to market forces, and particularly to

increase production of value-added wood products for export;

10. The timber industry should be transformed from a high volume, low value business to a low

volume, high value trade based on sustainable forest management;

11. The maintenance of economic reforms which recognize the private sector as the engine of

growth;

12. The need to improve the state of the environment;

13. The importance of appropriate and efficient land use and security of land tenure for sustainable

development of forest and wildlife resources;

14. The need to encourage competitive industries based on local raw materials and to pay close

attention to international trade;

15. The need to develop a decentralized participatory democracy by involving local people in

matters concerned with their welfare;

16. The urgent need for addressing unemployment and supporting the role of women in

development.


Ecosystems in Ghana

11

2.3 Critique of Stakeholders’ Participation in Forest Policy Formulation and its

Implications

Stakeholders in natural resource management are individuals, groups or organizations that

have a significant interest in a resource or its management (Petheram et al, 2002). Myers and

Bass (2004) consider entities that have certain rights or interests in a system, as a result of

their knowledge and valuable skills in the functioning of such systems as part of the

stakeholder group. Petheram et al (2002) categorized stakeholders into three levels namely:

Primary stakeholders-those that are ultimately affected either positively (beneficiaries)

or negatively.

Secondary stakeholders: those with an intermediary role and who can influence the

outcome.

External stakeholders: people and groups not formally involved, but who may impact

on or be impacted on.

However, in their analyses of forest policies, Myers and Bass (2004) categorized stakeholders

into two namely:

Forest stakeholders – these are individuals or groups with objectives and

legitimate interest in the goods or services of a specific forest environment or

forest resources such as forest fringe communities, forestry officials, timber

companies, environmentalists, politicians, forest workers and national citizens

among others.

Policy stakeholders – these devise policies which profoundly influences forests.

They barely have any real stake in forestry issues; nevertheless they form a

significant sub-set of forest stakeholders.

2.3.1 Stakeholders‟ Participation in the 1948 Forest Policy

The need for a new forest policy in 1994 was an indication that the 1948 policy was not

producing the required results. A major reason that has been constantly cited for the 46 years

of forest policy implementation (with reference to the 1948 forest policy) with no clear

headway to success is the exclusion of local communities in the formulation and

implementation of the policy. Tuffour (1996) observed that the lack of provisions for peoples‟

participation was one of the major defects of the 1948 Forest Policy. Other writers have stated

that policy implementation has not been very successful due to lack of wider participation of,

and commitment from rural communities at the formulation stage (Asare, 2000; Kotey et al.,

1998). Even though the Forestry Department (representing government) occasionally

collaborated with Traditional Heads and Traditional Authorities, the extent of participation

was not satisfactory to the local people, most of whom, depended on the resource for their

livelihood. Local communities were literally relegated to the background in the formulation

and implementation of the policy and the priceless skills and indigenous knowledge they

possessed were not tapped into.


Ecosystems in Ghana

12

The result was that the 1948 policy, which had good intentions, was not working. In most

cases, members of fringe communities overly exploited the resources of the off-reserve forests

for sustenance, collaborated with illegal operation of reserved forests and/or withheld their

needed efforts when they were needed most in times of wildfire outbreak and illegal

operations. The policy only became a generalized statement of intent, or as described by

Marfo (2002), a policy of bones without meat.

2.3.2 Stakeholders‟ Participation in the 1994 Forest and Wildlife

In the elocution of a new policy in 1994, the government of Ghana acknowledged the rights of

people to have access to natural resources for maintaining a basic standard of living and the

need to develop a decentralized participatory democracy by involving local people in its

implementation. The global call for the recognition of people‟s rights and the promotion of

participation formed an important influencing pressure of the policy. Tuffour (1996) and

Kotey et al. (1998) have lengthily elaborated the evolution of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife

Policy. Consultative symposium was held leading to the drafting of the first draft of the policy,

which was subsequently distributed to key stakeholders for local and international response

and comments. Final draft of proposals was subjected to another national symposium for

further deliberations. A series of meetings and informal consultations were later held for

additional inputs.

Tuffour (1996) noted that great efforts were made to reach out to diverse interest groups for

their reactions to the initial policy paper and there were wide discussion of draft policy among

traditional chiefs. He added that various interest groups at the grassroots, including Traditional

Chiefs and District Assemblies, participated fully at the national symposia. However, Kotey et

al. (1998) holds a contrary view stating that the traditional rulers ∕ landowners were under-

represented in the second symposium, adding that only one of them attended. However, it is

understood that more than one was invited to the seminar.

The prospects of the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy meeting its target are higher because of

the increased stakeholders‟ participation and collaboration as a pivotal aspect of the policy

implementation. Significant inroads are already being made in efforts aimed at institutional

restructuring, research programmes and projects such as wildfire management, etc. An

important motivation for stakeholder commitment has been identified as equitable distribution

of forest benefits to stakeholders including rural communities. In acknowledging the rights of

local people to have access to the resources, the government has set on course the theoretical

framework for a successful policy implementation.


Ecosystems in Ghana

13

SECTION THREE: EXISTING POLICIES, LEGISLATION AND STRATEGIC

PLANS ON WETLANDS/MANGROVES AND THEIR IMPACTS

ON MANGROVE CONSERVATION IN GHANA

3.1 Introduction

Ghana‟s forests are found in two main zones - the savannah woodlands in the north, and the

tropical high forest in the south. Tropical high forest zone covers about a third of Ghana‟s land

area. The Forestry Development Master Plan (FDMP), prepared to give a sound basis for the

attainment of the aims of the Forest and Wildlife Policy and its successful implementation

does not exclusively cater for mangroves as it does to other plant resources. The FDMP makes

provisions for timber species, non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and plants that serve the

wood energy needs of the country; found in the 266 forest reserves and off-reserve areas in the

high forest zone. Hall and Swaine (1981) describe seven (7) main forest types making up the

high forest zone found in southern Ghana. Surely, mangroves and other coastal plants are not

included in the over 2,100 plant species found in the high forest zone; 23 of which are

endemic (Hall and Swaine, 1981).

Three ratings – Scarlet, Red and Pink – are made for species based on their depletion levels in

the FDMP. In spite of the ever-depletion population trends of mangroves that have been

identified by some studies, mangroves are not included in any of the three (3) ratings for the

depletion levels of the 64 timber species provided in the Forestry Development Master Plan.

One characteristic of the rated timber species is their economic value (MLF, 1996).

Some coastal wetlands included in Ghana‟s wildlife estate appears to be limited only to the

five (5) Ramsar sites – now six (6) according to MLFM (2007) – that we have in the country.

This precludes all wetlands and their resources not yet established as Ramsar sites, including

mangroves. In effect, the 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy does not make provisions for the

needs of mangroves; any apparent provision can only be inferred from statements. This section

focuses on a review of state-driven and other restoration initiatives in terms of policies,

legislations and plans towards mangrove management in Ghana.

3.2 Initiatives toward Wetlands and Mangrove Management

In Ghana, the degradation of the coastal environment is linked to the persistence of poverty

and the pervasiveness of income disparities in much of the coastal zone. This has stimulated

increased non-sustainable practices for local resources such as mangroves and wetlands

(World Bank, 1998). The cost of such coastal environmental degradation (including all types)

is estimated at US $54 billion (MES, 2002). The degradation of the coastal environment is

very pronounced and easily catches the attention of government agencies, traditional

authorities and environmental NGOs consequently some modest attempts at restoration and

sustainable management of this environment have been made.


Ecosystems in Ghana

14

The initiatives towards wetlands and mangrove management can be grouped into two broad

categories namely: state-led initiatives and other restoration initiatives.

3.2.1 State-led Initiatives

Since Ghana‟s ratification of the Ramsar Convention in 1988, there have been some attempts

to manage wetlands in general and restore mangroves in areas where they have been degraded

at Ramsar sites. The Government of Ghana now recognizes the importance of mangroves, and

other wetland resources as habitat for fishes and wildlife, the maintenance of the water table,

mitigation of flood conditions and water purification; and the socio-economic roles they play

in providing poles for construction, fuel-wood, timber for furniture and craft work (MLFM,

2007).

There have been some strategies to ensure the judicious use of the nation‟s land and all its

natural resources, including mangroves. In June 1999, the then Ministry of Lands and Forestry

launched the National Land Policy which recognizes wetlands as environmental conservation

areas and precludes the following practices:

physical draining of wetland water;

draining of streams and water courses feeding the wetlands;

human settlements and their related infrastructural developments in wetlands;

disposal of solid waste and effluents in wetlands;

mining in wetlands

The policy also seeks to promote the use of wetlands for farming, grazing, fishing, timber

production and salt-winning, provided that such uses also serve to conserve the ecosystem,

biodiversity and sustainable productivity of the wetlands.

The Government of Ghana, through the implementation of the Global Environment Facility

funded the Coastal Wetlands Management Project from 1993 to 1999; carried out public

education and awareness-creation programmes to enlighten the general public on the values,

benefits and functions of wetlands and the need for their conservation and sustainable use. To

integrate wetlands issues into national land-use planning and decision-making, the then

Ministry of Lands and Forestry, in consultation with key stakeholders, prepared a document –

Managing Ghana’s Wetlands: A National Wetlands Conservation Strategy in 1999 to promote

participation of the local communities and other stakeholders in the sound management and

sustainable utilization of Ghana‟s wetlands and their resources.

The strategy was developed to provide opportunity for a more detailed expression of relevant

actions for effective implementation. Six years on (1999-2006), the strategy has been revised,

in the light of new and emerging challenges, new government policy directions, lessons learnt

and experiences gained over the period (MLFM, 2007).


Ecosystems in Ghana

15

3.2.2 Other Mangrove Restoration Initiatives

1. Between 1993 and 1999, the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission implemented

an ecological restoration programme in the Songor Ramsar Site. In the Songor Ramsar

site, there was a threat to mangroves emanating from the alternative uses to which

mangroves were put and conversion of mangrove areas to other land uses, such as rice and

sugarcane farming. The project sought to restore degraded mangrove areas in collaboration

with landowners and the entire communities of Obane and Kwalakpoyom, all in the

Dangbe-East district of Greater Accra Region. The initiative was successful and the once

degraded areas were restored to a natural ecosystem, capable of supporting other life

forms. Communities have left the restored mangroves intact, without unduly exploiting

them. The success can be attributed to the support landowners gave in releasing land for

the restoration and the collaborative roles played by the communities (Agyemang, Pers.

Comm. 2007).

2. This initiative was replicated at Tekpekope community in the same area, with funding

from the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) between 2000 and 2001

with similar success.

3. Between 2003 and 2005, with funding from Global Environment Facility, attempts were

made at restoring degraded mangroves in four (4) communities, viz; Agbevue, Mutukunya,

Agbeve and Alikakekope, all in the Dangbe-East. The project acquired mangrove seeds

and other materials such as Wellington boots and knifes for communities to replant. The

project also provided alternative livelihood schemes to farmers whose activities were

massively degrading mangrove resources. These opted for other livelihood options such as

basketry and bee-keeping. Another success story was developing the areas into ecotourism

sites. It was observed that intact mangrove stands were habitats of some monkey species;

thus, the area was protected and developed into ecotourism in collaboration with the

communities.

4. Two others were earlier initiated with support from the Ramsar Small Grants. One was a

project dubbed „Rehabilitation and Community Management of Mangroves and Coastal

Wetlands in the Lower Volta Delta‟ implemented in 1996-1998 by Green Earth

Organization (GEO) in collaboration with eight communities in the Lower Volta Delta

area. The aim of the project was to support the rehabilitation and community management

of mangroves and coastal wetlands in the Lower Volta Delta (Ramsar site). Degraded

coastal wetlands were restored and managed by planting mangroves, fruit trees and

woodlots, and the local communities were involved in the protection and wise use of these

resources for the conservation of biodiversity and provision forest products.

5. Another project was dubbed „The Regeneration, Sustainable Use and Management of

Mangrove in the Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar Site‟ implemented in 1995. The project

was also based in a Ramsar site which has become degraded due to mangrove over-

harvesting, with subsequent negative impacts on fishing resources and turtles‟ breeding


Ecosystems in Ghana

16

grounds. There were two main components: awareness creation and capacity building

among local communities to enable mangrove restoration and sustainable use, and creation

of alternative income-generating activities. Mangrove plantations and woodlots were also

established and alternative livelihoods such as the rearing of goat, crab, fish and

grasscutter were introduced.

In addressing coastal degradation, interventions have been identified for five priority areas1

including wetlands and mangrove degradation. These interventions according to MLF (2007)

include; direct investments; economic or regulatory incentives; initiatives for increasing

knowledge and awareness of decision-makers or resource users, with a view to improving the

management of coastal resources; and institutional or policy reforms to correct existing

distortions or market failures that exacerbate environmental problems. Tables 1 and 2 below

show intervention category and projects on wetland and mangrove resources in the country.

This indicates government and other stakeholders‟ commitment to dealing with the

degradation of wetlands and mangrove resources in the country

Table 1 Interventions for wetland and mangrove resource degradation

Intervention Category Wetland and Mangrove Area

Direct Investment Mangrove Planting and sensitivity mapping, protected

area acquisition (H)

Incentives Regulatory reforms, biodiversity strategy, watershed

management Plans

Education Initiatives Awareness and curriculum development

Institutional Reforms Biodiversity research, NGO support for monitoring and

traditional regulations

Source: MLF, 2007

Table 2: Wetland related Projects and Management Plans in Ghana

Related Projects and Activities Plans/Management Plans

1. Protected Wetlands Ecosystems

2. Public education on sound coastal and

marine environmental practices

3. Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem

4. Ghana Environmental Resource

1. National Wetlands Conservation Strategy and

Action Plan

2. Coastal Zone Management Indicative Plan

3. National Action Plan

4. Draft Integrated Coastal Zone Plan

1 The five priority areas are; Domestic sanitation, fisheries degradation, wetland and mangrove degradation,

industrial water pollution and erosion (World Bank, 1998).


Ecosystems in Ghana

17

Management Projects in Coastal Wetlands

Management

5. Lower Volta Project, Ghana Coastal

Wetlands Management Project

6. Amansuri Conservation and Integrated

Development Project

7. Integrated Coastal Zone Management

(ICZM) initiative

8. Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Strategy for Ghana

9. Development of university course on

coastal zone management

10. Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem

11. The Korle Lagoon rehabilitation project

12. Chemu lagoon restoration project

5. Environmental Action Plan

6. Forestry Development Master Plan

Source: MLF, 1996

In the context of degradation of wetlands and associated vegetation and the recognition of

their importance, the government has drafted Ghana‟s Wetlands Conservation Strategy. The

purpose of this policy is to mainstream wetlands management, within the context of

environmental policies and management, into the day-to-day activities of Government,

organizations, traditional authorities, communities and individuals in accordance with the

guiding principles of Integrated Water Resources Management.

3.3 Relevant Agencies (Players) for Coastal Conservation and Management

There are governmental and non-governmental institutions identifiable with wetlands and

coastal environment protection and management. They play different roles in terms of

conservation and management of the coastal environment. Table 3 shows the different

agencies involved in the protection and management of coastal areas.

Table 3: Agencies Supporting Protection of Coastal Ecosystems

Governmental Institutions Non-governmental Institutions

1. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

2. Ministry of Environment, Science and

Technology,

1. Green Earth

2. Wildlife Society

3. Friends of the Earth


Ecosystems in Ghana

18

3. Ministry of Tourism and Diaspora Relations

4. Ministry of Ports and Harbours

5. District Assemblies

6. Ministry of Food and Agriculture

7. Hydrological Services Department

8. Ghana Tourist Board

9. Water Commission

10. Wildlife Division of Forestry Commission

11. Fisheries Commission

12. Ministry of Lands and Forestry

13. Ministry of Local Government and Rural

Dev.

14. Ministry of Energy

15. Universities and Research Institutions etc..

3. Resource and Environmental

Development Organization

````(REDO)

5. Recerca e Cooperazione

6. Centre for African Wetlands

7. Traditional Authorities

Source: Amlalo, 2007

Generally, the responsibilities of these institutions have been in the form of protection,

rehabilitation, education and development of policies as well as enforcement of regulations

and laws. They also form the major stakeholders in the mangrove resources management and

protection arena.

3.4 Existing Policies and Legislations on Wetlands

Ghana has ratified many conventions and these have inspired the development of relevant

policies and legislations in the context of sustainable development. It is acknowledged that,

these national policies and legislation that affect wetlands and their usage are failing to address

adequately the problem of wetlands in their entirety; however, they provide a starting point for

the formulation of appropriate laws (MLF, 2007). Table 4 shows policies and legislations

affecting wetlands and impacting specifically on mangrove resources in the country.

Table 4 Wetland-related Policies and Legislations in Ghana

Policies Legislations (/regulations)

1. National Environment Policy

2. National Wetland Policy

3. Tourism Development Policy

4. Wildlife Conservation Policy

5. 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy

6. National Wetlands Conservation

Strategy and Action Plan

7. The National Land Policy (1999),

8. The Ghana Water Policy (draft, 2002)

1. Wetland Management (Ramsar Sites) Regulation,

(1999)

2. Wild Animals Preservation Act 1964 (Act 235)

3. Fisheries Act 2002, Act 625

4. Fisheries Law, 1991 (PNDC 256)

5. EPA Act, 1994 (Act 490)

6. Local Government Act, 1993 (Act 462)

7. Wildlife Conservation Regulations 1971(LI740)

8. Beaches Obstruction Ordinance Cap 240 (1897),

9. The Town and Country Planning Ordinance CAP

84 (1945),

10. The Volta River Development Act 46 (1961),


Ecosystems in Ghana

19

11. The Fisheries Decree (1972),

12.The Decentralisation Policy and Local

Government Act 462 (1993)

13. The National Environment Policy (1994)

14. The Water Resources Commission Act, 522

(1996),

15. Environmental Assessment Regulations 1999 L.I

(1652)

Source: MLF, 1996

The main orientation of the policies, legislations and projects is towards the protection,

rehabilitation, education and awareness creation, management and development of the

wetlands and coastal environments, which include mangrove resources.

3.5 Critique of existing policies, legislations and management plans on wetlands

A review of the relevant policies and legislations of the country indicates the major strategies

that have been targeted to achieve sustainable development of the coastal environmental

resources are biodiversity conservation, rehabilitation, education and public participation. The

review also identifies legislation weaknesses and non-enforcement of rules and regulations

associated with institutional weaknesses as major factors leading to environmental degradation

and depletion of natural resources.

3.5.1 Conservation and Sustainable Development of Mangrove Resources

The 1994 Forest and Wild Policy emphasizes the conservation and sustainable development of

natural resources in the country for the maintenance of environmental quality and perpetual

flow of optimum benefits to all segments of society‟ (MLF, 1994). This emphasis recognizes

the ecological and economic importance of the natural resources. It is estimated that the cost

of environmental degradation to the country is US $54 billion (MES, 2002).

The 1994 Forest and Wildlife Policy and the National Biodiversity Strategy make provisions

for sustainable management of unreserved forests, rehabilitation, and protection through

enforcement of regulations. These have stimulated many relevant projects and activities (see

Table 2 above). Generally the environmental and natural resource policies have had some

positive impacts on mangroves in the country as indicated by the various attempts made

through a number of development projects for saving the mangroves. For example, the Korle

Lagoon rehabilitation project and the proposed Chemu lagoon restoration project (MLF,

1999).

There is also the Forest Plantations Development Fund which aims at developing alternative

sources of fuel-wood to reduce pressure on the natural forests. This has potentially good

implications for the improvement of the mangrove ecosystems in the country as financial

support for rehabilitation can be readily available.


Ecosystems in Ghana

20

The policies also reiterate exploring the potential of the natural environment for tourism

(MLF, 1994). This has long-term conservation implications as tourism provides alternative

source of economic gains for the communities whose livelihoods depends on the mangroves,

reducing unsustainable practices and threats to the mangrove ecosystems.

The legislations could have positive impacts on mangrove conservation in terms of the many

prohibitions, sanctions and deterring implications associated with them. The general problem

has always been with the enforcement and weaknesses of the agencies responsible (MLF,

2007).

3.5.2 Local Community Conservation, Education and Public Participation

The policies promote strategies for including unreserved forests under sustainable forest

management regimes and encourage local community initiatives in protecting resources for

traditional purposes. They support the reservation of such lands to enable their legal

protection, management and sustainable development. The policies also promote public

awareness and local people‟s participation in resource conservation so as to maintain them as

life-sustaining systems (MLF, 1994, MLF, 1996 and MES, 2002).

These provisions have enhanced conservation of mangrove resources. Typically, Wildlife

Division has been instrumental in ensuring conservation of mangroves. A typical reference is

the Lower Volta Mangrove Project executed between 1996 and 1998. Also, under the

Integrated Coastal Zone Management Project, wetland and mangrove degradation were

identified as one of the problems in the coastal areas of Ghana (World Bank, 1998).

Consequentially, the intervention identified for this problem included initiative to increase

knowledge and awareness among policymakers and resource users to improve mangrove

management. The government is committed to using different means of communication to

educate the public and to raise awareness on the importance of wetlands, and to solicit

commitment for the conservation and wise use of these ecosystems, which the mangroves

form an integral part (MES, 2002).

The interventions also call for NGO support in the monitoring of these resources. Green Earth,

Friends of the Earth, Ghana Wildlife Society, Resource and Environmental Development

Organization (REDO)2, Recerca e Cooperazione and Centre for African Wetlands have been

instrumental in organizing and assisting various local coastal communities to conserve

mangroves. Many of these mangrove ecosystems have been rehabilitated and protected in

consultation with the communities to preserve cultural, ecological and economic uses. For

example, under the Coastal Wetlands Management Project, the Wildlife Division collaborated

with Green Earth Organization and local communities to carry out rehabilitation activities in

the Ramsar Sites including replanting of degraded mangrove areas within the Songor Ramsar

Site. Ricerca e Cooperazione has also been involved in wetlands rehabilitation in the Western

Region of Ghana (MLF, 1999).

2 REDO with the financial assistance of IUCN-The Netherlands Committee, assisted the people of Winneba to

conserve their mangrove ecosystem. Also, Green Earth assisted people of ADA area.


Ecosystems in Ghana

21

3.5.3 Weaknesses of the Legislations and Implementing Agencies

There are many legislations and institutions relevant to the protection and management of the

marine or coastal environment and resources. However, none is specific on mangrove

resources, making them weak in terms of the protection of mangroves. The weakness may also

arise from their conflicting, obsolete, deficient and non-enforceable nature (MSE, 1996).

However, the existence of these various formal institutions are starting points for curbing

overexploitation of mangroves and ensuring sustainable management. There are also informal

institutions which affect mangrove conservation however many of them are weak because of

strong market and economic forces and other religious belief systems different from the

traditional ones. Moreover, there are many agencies (see Table 3), responsible for the

enforcement of these legislations. However, the enforcement has not been effective as

indicated by the annual deforestation of 22,000 ha and many cases of river and water pollution

and poor sanitation. These have also affected the mangrove ecosystems which form part of the

degraded coastal resources in the country. Other constraints to the effectiveness of these

agencies are low capacities and capabilities as well as lack of coordination, collaboration and

networking between the policy-making and implementing agencies (MSE, 2002).

The lack policy on mangroves has to an extent resulted in limited attention and protection of

mangroves in the country, as a result of which mangrove resources in the country are being

exploited indiscriminately.


Ecosystems in Ghana

22

SECTION FOUR: FACTORS INFLUENCING THE LACK OF APPROPRIATE

NATIONAL POLICY ON MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS

4.1 Introduction

In countries such as Brazil and Indonesia where there are policies on mangrove management,

conservation and utilization, similar economic, social, political, environmental and ecological

factors; influence the formulation of those policies.

Taking Indonesia for example, it is reasoned that the current existing policy on mangroves has

been driven mainly by economic, social, environmental and ecological factors. Soegiarto

(2000) reports that mangrove ecosystem in Indonesia originally covering an area of 4.25

million hectares has now reduced to only about 2.5 million hectares. Factors accounting for

this include human pressure on mangrove resources. Soegiarto (2000) explained that for

centuries the Indonesian people have utilized mangroves for firewood, charcoal, tannin dyes,

timbers, construction of boat, etc. These traditional uses of mangrove resources go hand in

hand with larger scale exploitation using higher capital investment and technologies, such as

charcoal production, paper-mills and chipboards. In recent years, efforts in converting

mangrove land into other uses, such as fish-or shrimp-ponds, industrial and human settlement

sites, are ever increasing in many areas. This phenomenon has a detrimental effect on the rich

biological diversity of the Indonesian mangroves containing 189 species of plant species,

including 80 species of trees, 24 species of lianas, 41 species of ground covering plants, 41

species of epiphytes and 3 species of parasites; not to mention the habitat service mangrove

ecosystems provide for fishes, birds, insects, mammals, reptiles, molluscs, and crustaceans.

Continuous degradation of the mangrove resources will deprive the nation of many other

mangrove functions such as coastal stabilization and erosion prevention, and the foreign

exchange mangroves yield for the country when products are exported.

The Indonesian Government‟s intervention by way of developing mangrove policy is in order

to retain all the benefits currently accruing from the mangrove ecosystem. Strategies mooted

for managing mangroves include the establishment of coastal greenbelt, mangrove

conservation areas, national parks, reforestation programmes as well as integrated research. In

many other countries, such considerations influence mangrove policy formulation and

implementation.

Reasons for lack of a specific policy on sustainable management of mangrove forests in Ghana

may be one or more of the factors integrated into the following points:

4.2 Extent of Mangrove Cover and its Perceived Low Value

Mangrove coverage in Ghana is estimated at only 10,000 hectares (FAO, 1995) along the

coastal zone. This pales in comparison with other natural resources in the country such as the

high forest and wildlife estates. In 1992, IUCN estimated that there was about 15,000 km2, of

“intact closed forest” remaining in Ghana, covering about 7% of the country‟s land area (total

230,020 km2) (IUCN, 1992). The forest resources of Ghana are divided into two broad


Ecosystems in Ghana

23

ecological zones; the moist tropical high forests of southern Ghana and the savannah

woodlands of northern Ghana. The high forest zone alone covers about seven main forest

types found in southern Ghana. About 20-25 per cent of land in the “high forest zone” is under

reservation. The area permanently protected is 1.77 million hectares, of which 1.634 million

hectares is under the management and control of the Forestry Department, and 136,000

hectares under the Wildlife Department (Kotey et al., 1998).

Over 2,100 plant species have been found in the high forest zone, 23 of them endemic (Hall

and Swaine, 1981). In total 730 tree species have been recorded from the closed forests

(Hawthorne, 1989). The fauna of the forest zone includes over 200 species of mammals, many

of which are rare or endangered, including the bongo, (Tragelaphus euryceros), Ogilby‟s

duiker (Cephalophus ogilbyi), Golden cat (Felis aurata), chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), forest

elephant (Loxodonta Africana) cyclotis and the pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis)

(Mensah - Ntiamoa, 1989 cited in Kotey et al., 1998). The high forest zone also supports 74

species of bats, 37 species of rodents, variety of reptiles and over 200 species of birds (IUCN,

1992).

A lot of Ghana‟s foreign exchange emanates from these forest and wildlife resources. There

are many other socio-economic, ecological and environmental functions that these resources

play. Therefore, Government has been very proactive in formulating and implementing

various policies concerning the utilization, conservation and management of these resources as

an earlier section on history of Ghana‟s forest policies shows. Research toward sustaining

these resources has equally been very extensive. Three major institutions, the Forest Services

Division, Wildlife Division and the Timber Industry Development Divisions, have been

established to manage Ghana‟s forest and wildlife resources.

Similar arrangements exist for the management of other natural resources such as water,

managed by the Water Resources Commission and having a national policy regulating its use.

Nevertheless, mangroves in Ghana have not benefited from such policies and rigorous

attention and importance due to their perceived relatively low value, emanating partly from the

extent of their coverage.

4.3 Conventional View of Mangroves

In many coastal areas of Ghana, mangroves and wetlands in general are virtually considered as

waste lands or areas that only serve for breeding mosquitoes. As such, wetlands are often

dredged to facilitate drainage of the water, reclaimed for other uses, or simply considered as

dumping grounds for all types of refuse. Wetland resources, such as fish, reeds, mangroves

and thatch materials have been harvested without any attempt to regulate their exploitation.

Traditional rulers seem to show interest in mangroves and other wetland resources only when

they are known to be of some cultural significance such as sacred groves. Other existing

authorities such as the District Assemblies have not had a different view of mangroves other

than what is conventionally held. This view has apparently influenced the attitude of state

agencies towards mangrove forests.


Ecosystems in Ghana

24

SECTION FIVE: POLICY STRATEGIES TO PROTECT MANGROVE FOREST

RIGHTS AND PREVENTION OF ABUSE OF TRADITIONAL

AND INSTITUTIONAL PROCEDURES WHICH MAKE

MANGROVES AN OPEN ACCESS.

5.1 Introduction

The diverse uses and benefits of mangroves and the high contribution they make to the

sustenance of local communities necessitate the need to devise policy strategies to protect

them. The use of the resource should be consistent with the global demand for resource

conservation for future generations and at the same time provide optimum benefits to all

segments of society. It is also important to maintain the ability of the resource to continually

provide the priceless ecological benefits it provides especially because the resource is

normally seen as a common property.

The World Bank (2005) has presented the reasons and the need for wetlands management and

not specifically for mangroves. Nevertheless, since mangroves are treated as wetland

resources, the issues are applicable here too. The needs shall be presented in three (3) sections

of institutional, scientific information and community involvement, none outweighing the

other in terms of importance.

5.2 Institutional Needs

Wetlands (also mangroves) conservation is a cross-sector activity that involves several

government departments and various stakeholders. These institutions independently plan and

execute their wetlands programs at various locations in the country. No effective coordination

amongst the various bodies or institutions currently exists. Over the years, the protection and

conservation of wetland resources has involved a number of activities including data

collection, monitoring, standard setting and execution of projects and programmes by some

government and non- governmental organizations and institutions.

Generally, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) coordinates the activities of all bodies

concerned with environmental matters and serves as a channel of communication with the

government. The Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission (WD) is the national

administrative authority for wetlands conservation programmes and manages the six coastal

Ramsar sites in collaboration with local communities. The District Assemblies (DAs) hold

administrative power at the local level and are responsible for mobilizing communities for

development projects including environmental conservation. In addition, the Ghana Wildlife

Society (GWS), the Centre for African Wetlands (CAW) and the National Wetlands

Committee (NWC) are also involved in wetlands research and conservation. The coordination

of these institutions is fundamental to effective wetlands conservation in Ghana. However, in

practice, coordination has been difficult, and has often been unable to enforce or integrate

legal provisions for wetlands protection into development decisions at the local level.

Currently, several sector policies encourage both exploitation and conservation of wetlands,


Ecosystems in Ghana

25

depending on the stakeholder involved: This is largely because no single overarching national

policy on wetland conservation takes into account all wetlands users, which would help to

coordinate and realign the many parties involved.

In order to implement the wetland management policies, the government must provide the

requisite programme funding. As envisaged in the National Wetlands Conservation Strategy, it

is recommended that a National Wetlands Trust is established to finance these operations-the

Wildlife Division needs boats and vehicles for its patrol officers, mangroves need to be

replanted along the lagoons, fishing gear compensation will be needed. Without an adequate

funding-source, these policies will not move forward (World Bank, 2005).

5.3 Scientific Information

To effectively manage and regulate wetlands in Ghana, the Wildlife Division of the Forestry

Commission and the District Assemblies need accurate data on the coastal wetlands. Without a

reliable information source, proper analysis cannot be conducted and the effects of various

policies will remain ambiguous. Thus, the Division needs to develop a wetland database that

includes inventories of identified wetland sites, their locations and boundaries, biodiversity

characteristics and socio-economic conditions. In addition, relevant education materials need

to be designed and produced for use by the formal and informal sectors, taking note of the

needs of illiterate local communities and other wetland users. Provision for regular

information on values, status and threats to wetland resources will foster effective education

and public awareness. The databases could be obtained, managed and disseminated using

Remote Sensing and Satellite Imagery (RSSI), Global Positioning System (GPS) and

Geographical Information System (GIS). The public awareness and education should be

handled by NGOs, the Ministries of Education, Communication, Environment and Science,

Mines, Lands and Forestry, Local Government and Rural Development as well as the Council

for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Universities, in collaboration with local

communities.

Once reliable data has been obtained, the criteria for determining the importance of wetland

resources can be accurately assessed based on the value of their biological diversity, the direct

benefits to local residents, indirect benefits to local residents which are of national and

international interests, direct benefits to the rural poor and their importance to cultural

heritage. A well established national wetland inventory should be in place to cater for the

needs of the identified local, national and international stakeholders. The existing database on

wetlands inventory (the size, location, flora, fauna, utilization and threats) needs to be

continuously updated. This could be done by the Forestry Commission, the District

Assemblies, and scientists from the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research and the

Universities, with the collaboration of local communities. It is recommended that all the sites

in Ghana which qualify, according to this data, as internationally important wetlands, become

established as RAMSAR sites.


Ecosystems in Ghana

26

5.4 Community Involvement

In tandem with national regulations, local communities should undertake alternative economic

activities and policies to reduce exploitative pressures on the wetlands. Such activities include

beekeeping, aquaculture, poultry, carpentry, masonry, and other vocational skills. It is

recommended that communities, and especially youth, be empowered to pursue these

alternative economic activities by providing technical assistance and vocational training,

compensation for starting new activities and provision of funds to purchase equipment, feed

and seed. The Fisheries and Forestry Commissions, Ministry of Local Government through

the' District Assemblies, the private sector and commercial banks should liaise with local

communities to make these alternative livelihoods strategies viable. The Ministry of Fisheries,

Ministry of Women and Children Affairs and the Ministry of Local Government (through the

District Assemblies) should also work together to establish polices and programmes that

would enable women to participate and contribute to the sustainable management of wetlands.

Because most wetlands, including RAMSAR sites, have not been formally acquired by the

government, land ownership and allocation rights continue to cause disputes. These wetlands,

which are controlled by traditional authorities in most local communities, have been

increasingly encroached upon, particularly near urban centers. In accordance with the current

government decentralization policy, the coastal District Assemblies should enact by-laws that

would provide the necessary legal support for traditional authorities to effectively manage

these resources.


Ecosystems in Ghana

27

SECTION SIX: COMMUNITY LEVEL STRATEGIES FOR EQUITY IN

MANGROVE MANAGEMENT AND UTILIZATION

6.1 Introduction

In order to maintain the integrity of the mangrove ecosystem and preserve it for sustained

benefits to current and future generations, management and utilization strategies of the

mangrove were dispassionately discussed during the field visits to the study communities. The

importance of conservation in natural resource management cannot be overemphasized, and

generally consensus on the need to conserve the mangrove resources was unilateral. This was

against the backdrop that a significant proportion of the working force in all the communities

depended on the mangrove for subsistence and or livelihood.

Data on local people‟s involvement in the planning and formulation of relevant policies and

strategies for effective management of mangroves were gathered in all the study communities

during the focus group discussions and community durbars. This information was synthesized

together and presented to the community representatives during the pre-validation for a

consensus to be taken on the involvement of each stakeholder for the successful management

of the mangrove resources.

The approach adopted during the discussions was centered on the 4W and 1H formula which

exploits the importance, level, time, participants and method of undertaking each conservation

strategy. The questions: why, where, when, who and how were asked in formulating suitable

conservation strategies in a participatory manner as depicted in Figure 1. The discussions

produced significant strategies among the communities from the two study districts.


Ecosystems in Ghana

28

Conservation strategy: Action plan on formulation of rules and regulation to govern

mangrove management

WHY

Protect existing mangroves

Control indiscriminate cutting

Future benefit WHERE

- National level

-District Assembly level

- Community level (chief)

WHAT

To formulate rules and

regulations on mangrove management

WHEN - Immediate

- After awareness creation on the

importance of mangroves

HOW

Stakeholder consultation

Public lectures to seek opinions WHO

-District Assembly

- Chief and elders

- Ghana Wildlife Society

-Unit Committee & Assembly

-NGOs,

-government research institutions

Fig 1: An example of mangrove action plan developed using simple questions by the communities

representative during a pre-validation workshop in Nzema East District. [Source: Field survey-2007]

3

2

1

6

5

4

ITTO PRE-PROJECT PPD 108/04 REV. 1. (F): Sustainable Community Management, Utilization and Conservation of Mangrove Ecosystems in Ghana

29

Table 5: Nzema East District: Conservation Strategies using Simple questions (4W &H)

What Why Where When Who How To Establish

livelihood

enterprises

Lessen the

pressure on

the mangrove

Provide work

especially for

the youth.

To reduce

rural –urban

drift

To reduce

poverty

For people living at the

fringes of the

Amansure River

(mangrove fringe

communities)

Near future when there is

external support from the

government or any donor

agency

NGOs /Donors

Government

/District

Assembly

Community

support in kind

There should be

livelihood needs

assessment

Formation of

livelihood groups

To Create

awareness

and

education

Currently

inadequate

information on

the importance

of mangrove

Sensitize

community

members to

ensure

effective

management.

At the community level Immediate after

the workshop

Community

members who

participated in

the pre-

validation

workshop and

training

Community

durbar

Education

through the

Local radio

stations within

the community

To

formulate

rules and

regulation to

govern

mangrove

management

Protect existing

mangroves

Control

indiscriminate

cutting

Future benefit

National level

District

Assembly level

Community

level (chief

palace

Immediate

After

awareness

creation on the

importance of

mangroves

District Assembly

Chief and elders

Ghana Wildlife

Society

Unit Committee&

Assembly

NGOs

government

research institutions

Stakeholder

consultation

Public lectures to

seek opinions


30

Table 6: Mfantseman District: Conservation strategies using Simple questions (4W &H) WHAT WHY WHERE WHEN WHO HOW

TO CREATE

AWARENESS AND

EDUCATE ON THE

IMPORTANCE AND

BENEFITS OF

MANGROVES

-PROTECT THE

REMAINING

MANGROVE

RESOURCES

-INVOLVE THE

PEOPLE IN THE

MANAGEMENT AND

CONSERVATION

-TRANSFER

KNOWLEDGE OF

MANGROVE

BENEFITS

-COMMUNITY

LEVEL (CHIEF

PALACE)

-DISTRICT

ASSEMBLY LEVEL

-NATIONAL LEVEL

-AFTER EFFECTIVE

COLLABORATION

WITH RELEVANT

STAKEHOLDERS

-DURING THE DRY

SEASON

AFTER TRAINING

THE TREE

GROWERS.

-COMMUNITY

MEMBERS -UNIT

COMMITTEE&

ASSEMBLYMAN

-TRADITIONAL

AUTHORITY

-YOUTH GROUPS

- FSD

-NCCE

- NGOS

-STAKEHOLDER

CONSULTATION

-PUBLIC LECTURES

TO SEEK OPINIONS

-FOCUS GROUP

MEETINGS

TO PLANT AND

MANAGE TREES FOR

WOODLOTS AND

OTHER MANGROVE

RESOURCES

TO PROTECT THE

LAND FROM

SAND/SALT WINING

AND THE SEA

INFLUX.

TO ENSURE

CONTINUOUS FLOW

OF BENEFITS TO

USERS.

TO PROTECT THE

WATER BODIES

FROM DRYING UP.

TO REPLENISH LOST

MANGROVE

RESOURCES (AND

INCREASE

BIOLOGICAL

DIVERSITY).

COMMUNITY LEVEL

DISTRICT LEVEL

NATIONAL LEVEL

IMMEDIATELY

(AFTER THE PRE-

VALIDATION

MEETING)

AFTER

CONSULTATION

WITH CHIEFS AND

ELDERS, AS WELL AS

OTHER

STAKEHOLDERS.

LOCAL

GOVERNMENT

AGENCIES

(DISTRICT

ASSEMBLY AND

UNIT COMMITTEES)

RELIGIOUS GROUPS

NGOS (E.G. PLAN

GHANA LTD,

WORLD VISION)

FOREST SERVICES

DIVISION

ACQUIRE PLANTING

MATERIALS FROM

THE APPROPRIATE

SOURCES (FSD) FOR

PLANTING

THROUGH

COMMUNAL LABOUR

EMPLOY FEW

PROFESSIONAL

PEOPLE TO PLANT

PERIODIC WEED

CONTROL BY

RESPONSIBLE

STAKEHOLDERS

ESTABLISH

COMMITTEES TO

MONITOR GROWTH

AND DEVELOPMENT

OF MANGROVE.


31

TO ESTABLISH

LIVELIHOOD

ENTERPRISES

LESSEN THE

PRESSURE ON THE

MANGROVE

PROVIDE WORK

ESPECIALLY FOR

THE YOUTH.

TO REDUCE RURAL –

URBAN DRIFT

TO REDUCE

POVERTY

FOR PEOPLE LIVING

AT THE FRINGES OF

THE AMA EMISSA

RIVER (MANGROVE

FRINGE

COMMUNITIES)

NEAR FUTURE WHEN

THERE IS EXTERNAL

SUPPORT FROM THE

GOVERNMENT OR

ANY DONOR AGENCY

NGOS /DONORS

GOVERNMENT

/DISTRICT

ASSEMBLY

COMMUNITY

SUPPORT IN KIND

THERE SHOULD BE

LIVELIHOOD NEEDS

ASSESSMENT

FORMATION OF

LIVELIHOOD GROUP

TO FORMULATE

AND ENFORCE BYE-

LAWS TO GOVERN

THE MANGROVE

ECOSYSTEM

-VERY IMPORTANT

TO SUPPORT ANY

ACTIVITIES BEING IT

EDUCATIONAL,

PLANTING OR

LIVELIHOOD

VENTURES

COMMUNITY LEVEL AFTER

CONSULTATION

WITH CHIEFS AND

ELDERS, AS WELL AS

OTHER

STAKEHOLDERS.

- MEMBERS WHO

PARTICIPATED IN

THE PRE-

VALIDATION

WORKSHOP AND

FOCUS GROUP

DISCUSSIONS,.

-MEETING WITH THE

CHIEF AND ELDERS

AS WELL AS

OPINION LEADERS

Sustainable community management, utilization and conservation of mangrove ecosystems project in Ghana

32

SECTION 7: KEY FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND

CONCLUSION

INTRODUCTION

The study reviewed literature on effective policy formulation and implementation for

sustainable management and utilization of mangroves in Ghana. Furthermore, focus group

discussions and pre-validation workshops were held with the communities in the two study

districts namely Nzema East and Mfantseman Districts of Ghana. The purpose of this section

is to provide a summary of the major findings of the study, recommendations as well as

conclusion of the study.

7.1 Key Findings

The major findings of the study are as follows:

A critical review of Ghana‟s Forest policies shows that stakeholders have been

involved in the formulation and implementation of the policies with the level of

stakeholders‟ participation in the processes leading to the 1994 Forest and Wildlife

Policy being an improvement over that of 1948. Implementation strategies spelt out in

the 1994 Forest and Wildlife is more of a participatory management and collaboration

rather that a solitary attempt by any one government institution. This confirms the

statement by Marfo (2002) that the efforts being made to harness stakeholder

collaboration to pursue forest policies is a positive development in the context of

modern development thinking and consistent with the spirit of global forest policy

dialogue initiatives.

There are many players who generally have responsibilities in the form of protection,

rehabilitation, education and development of mangroves and also mandated to

enforce relevant regulations and laws. They also form the major stakeholders for

influencing decisions and policies on the mangrove resources. However, they have

weaknesses in enforcing the legislations because of weak capacities and capabilities.

These weaknesses are indicated by the high level of degradation of mangrove

resources in the country.

There are several relevant policies and legislations which focus on some major

strategies such as conservation, rehabilitation, prohibition/restriction, education,

public, participation, sustainable development of the coastal resources (including

mangroves) as means of curbing the loss of coastal biodiversity. However, these are


33

also weak and in some cases non-enforceable. The weaknesses in the system have led

to degradation and depletion of the mangrove resources but create a wake-up call for

stakeholders to act quickly to strengthen the protection of the resources. The number

of community-based wetland conservation projects already executed along the coast

is a reflection of stakeholders concern and commitment in reversing the level of

degradation of mangroves in the country.

The evidence of consciously and carefully planned policies and legislations on

mangroves do not abound, probably indicating that not much has been done in these

areas. There are no specific policies on mangroves in Ghana, except what can be

deduced from related wetland conservation documents such as the revised national

wetlands conservation strategy and action plan, prepared by the Ministry of Lands

and Forestry (MLFM, 2007). Thus, strategies and plans mooted for wetlands

management in the document are reckoned also for mangroves. The other mangrove

restoration initiatives presented under section 3.2.2 may not be conclusive but it is a

good ground prior to future attempts at formulating and implementing specific

policies on mangrove.

Even though existing mangroves provide valuable ecological, environmental and

social functions, there are no policies on mangroves in Ghana, except what could be

inferred from wetland policies. Traditional means of conserving resources have also

not been useful for mangroves especially because of the conventional view of

mangroves as “waste lands and their perceived relatively low value.

A well planned intertwines of institutional needs, scientific information and

committed community involvement in policy formulation and implementation will be

a requirement for any scheme for protecting mangroves and preventing excessive

exploitation and abuse of the resource.

At present there are no well developed strategies and institutional structures for

managing mangrove forests at the community level, nevertheless the communities

were able to propose key strategies for effective management of the mangrove

ecosystem. Key stakeholders to ensure successful management of the resources were

also identified.

7.2 Conclusion

There appears to be limited understanding of the values and functions of mangrove and

wetland ecosystems in Ghana. As a result, mangrove forests are often regarded as degraded

and worthless areas that need to be utilized for productive uses. However, the intrinsic value

of the mangrove ecosystem is enormous and is only recognized when large investments have

to be poured into constructing coastal protection structures that attempt to play the natural

functions of mangrove forests.


34

The current Wildlife and Protected Areas Policy emphasizes wildlife resources, with little

regard for mangroves and wetlands as a whole. This policy seeks to establish and maintain the

sustainability of the marine and other protected areas, with the eventual aim of protecting a

minimum of 10% of Ghana‟s land surface and managing all protected areas according to

detailed management plans. The 1994 Forests and Wildlife Policy rather cover only those

wetlands designated as Ramsar sites. Its intention is to ensure that viable populations of all

indigenous wildlife species, including passage migrants, are adequately conserved and that

rare, endangered species of high conservation interest are especially protected. The wetlands

conservation strategy and action plan developed by the Ministry of Lands, Forestry and

Ministry seems to be implemented only in wetlands designated as Ramsar sites; at least no

mangrove restoration initiative implemented outside Ramsar sites is known. Having such a

skewed policy document rather endangers wetlands in non-Ramsar sites creating the

impression than they are of little significance to the state and the people.

7.3 Recommendations

Public Awareness and Education

An important cause of the gradual depletion of the mangrove resources in the study area is the

inadequate understanding of the importance of mangroves. There is therefore the need for

awareness and education programmes that will inform the public about mangroves, their

extrinsic and intrinsic values as well as Government plans in relation to management of these

resources.

Formulation of mangrove policy and strategies

The proper management of any natural resources for that matter mangrove resource needs a

policy framework that will ensure a systematic and holistic approach to the sustainable

utilization, management and conservation. The current forest and wildlife policy does not

consider mangrove forest management as a priority area. There is therefore an urgent call on

all stakeholders ranging from policy makers to resource owners to find a common platform

that will facilitate a workable policy and strategy guidelines for mangrove management in

Ghana. The FRNR team with financial support from Government of Ghana and ITTO could

serve as an independent body to facilitate the formulation of mangrove policy and strategies

for Ghana.


35

Detailed inventory to ascertain the actual size of mangroves in Ghana.

In reviewing the literature, it was realized that one of the factors influencing the lack of

national policy on mangrove in Ghana may be extent of mangrove cover and its perceived low

value as compared to forest resources. Even though the pre-project did a preliminary inventory

of mangrove in some parts of the country, the actual extent of mangrove cover and its size

could only be well determined through a national inventory. Knowing the true coverage in

terms of size and quality of the resource will enable Ghanaians really appreciate the

importance of mangrove as a valuable natural resource worthy of sustainable management to

improve the economy and the environment just like other forest types.

Documentation and creation of data base of mangrove information of Ghana.

For sustainable management of mangrove resources there is the need to document projects,

activities and studies being carried out in Ghana. This will aid easy access to information

during research as well as implementation of developmental projects in order to avoid

repetition of certain activities. Proper documentation will also improve initiatives as well as

exchange lessons with others.


36

REFERENCES

1992. Constitution of Republic of Ghana

Agyemang Dickson (Personal Communication.) 2007. Wildlife Manager, Dangbe-East

District.

Agyenim-Boateng J., Koomson F., Tenkorang E.Y., and Ntiri-Yeboah R. 2002. Effective

stakeholder collaboration in Forest Policy and Management

Anderson T. (Undated) Wetlands Management in Ghana. Friends of the Earth

Hall, J.B. and Swaine, M.D. 1981. Distribution and ecology of vascular plants in a tropical

rain forest. Forest Vegetation in Ghana. Geobotany I. The Hague.

FAO. 1995. Status and Trends in Mangrove Area Extent Worldwide

IUCN. 1992. The Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests: Africa. World Conservation

Union. Macmillan, UK.

Kotey, E.N.A., Francois, J., Owusu, J.G.K., Yeboah, R., Amanor, K.S. and Antwi, L.

1998. Falling into Place. Policy that works for forests and people

series no. 4. International Institute for Environment and

Development, London.

Marfo, E. 2002. Effective Planning, Policy Formulation and Implementation: Issues for

Research. An Explorative Study Requested by Tropenbos Int.-

Ghana

Mayers J. and Bass S (2004): Policy that works for forests and people- Real prospects for

governance and livelihoods. Pp.267-269.

MES, 2002. National Biodiversity Strategy for Ghana. Ministry of Lands and Forestry,

Accra.

MDA. 2007. Mfantseman District Profile

Ministry of Lands and Forestry. 1996. Forestry Development Master Plan

Ministry of Lands, Forestry and Mines. 2007. Managing Ghana‟s Wetlands: A national

wetlands conservation strategy and Action Plan (revised).

MLFM, Accra Ghana

Ministry of Lands and Forestry, 1994. Forest and Wildlife Policy. Republic of Ghana.

Ministry of Lands and Forestry, Accra.

Ministry of Lands and Forestry (2000). Forest Plantation Development Fund (Act 583).

Ministry of Lands and Forestry. Accra.

NEDA. 2006. Nzema-East District Profile

Parker J. 2007. Personal Communication. Project Coordinator, Amanzure Conservation

Integrated Development.

Petherem J., Stephen P., Gilmour D. (2002): Collaborative Forest Management –A

Review


37

Soegiarto A. 2000. Research and Conservation of Mangrove Ecosystem in Indonesia.

Indonesian Institute of Science LIPI

Tuffour K, 1996. National Report on Forestry Policy of Ghana. In: Forestry Policies of

selected countries in Africa. FAO forestry Paper 132, pp 283-

302.

World Bank, 1998. Integrated Coastal Zone Management Strategy for Ghana. African

Region, Number 113

World Bank 2005. Ghana: Natural Resources Management and Growth Sustainability

www.ramsar.org

www.fcghana.com

http://www.ramsar.org/

effective policy formulation and … · industrial and urban development and lack of management and...

Documents