elevating teaching, empowering teachers - nbpts ......3) teachers are responsible for managing and...

NBPTSAdolescence and Young AdulthoodScience

STANDARDS

for teachers of students ages 14–18+

Second Edition

T he National Board would like to express appreciation to

the U.S. Department of Education for its support for the cost

of developing and publishing this standards document.

T his project is funded in part with grants from the

U.S. Department of Education and the National Science

Foundation. Through September 2002, NBPTS has been appropri-

ated federal funds of $119.3 million, representing approximately 45

percent of the National Board Certification project. More than

$143.0 million (55 percent) of the project’s cost will be financed by

nongovernmental sources.

The contents of this document were developed, in part, under a grantfrom the Department of Education. However, the contents do notnecessarily represent the policy of the Department of Education, andthe reader should not assume endorsement by the federal government.

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards®, National Board Certification®,National Board Certified Teacher®, and the NBPTS logo® are registered marks of

the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards.

© 2003 National Board for Professional Teaching Standards.All rights reserved.

Table of Contents

Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science

STANDARDS(for teachers of students ages 14–18+)

Second Edition

Preface .............................................................................vIntroduction .....................................................................1Overview ..........................................................................7The Standards ................................................................ 9

Preparing the Way for Productive Student Learning

I. Understanding Students..........................................9II. Understanding Science .........................................13III. Understanding Science Teaching..........................21

Establishing a Favorable Context for Student Learning

IV. Engaging the Science Learner..............................27V. Sustaining a Learning Environment ......................31

VI. Promoting Diversity, Equity, and Fairness ............35

Advancing Student Learning

VII. Fostering Science Inquiry .....................................39VIII. Making Connections in Science............................43IX. Assessing for Results ...........................................47

Promoting Professional Development and Outreach

X. Reflecting on Teaching and Learning....................51XI. Developing Collegiality and Leadership................55XII. Connecting with Families and the Community......59

Epilogue ........................................................................63Standards Committees ................................................65Acknowledgments........................................................69

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Preface

The world-class schools the United States requires cannot exist without a world-classteaching force; the two go hand in hand. Many accomplished teachers already work

in the nation’s schools, but their knowledge and skills are often unacknowledged andunderutilized. Delineating outstanding practice and recognizing those who achieve it areimportant first steps in shaping the kind of teaching profession the nation needs. This isthe core challenge embraced by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards®

(NBPTS). Founded in 1987 with a broad base of support from governors, teacher unionand school board leaders, school administrators, college and university officials, businessexecutives, foundations, and concerned citizens, NBPTS is an independent, nonprofit,nonpartisan, and nongovernmental organization governed by a board of directors, themajority of whom are classroom teachers. Committed to basic reform in education,NBPTS recognizes that teaching is at the heart of education and, further, that the singlemost important action the nation can take to improve schools is to strengthen teaching.

The National Board’s mission is to advance the quality of teaching and learning by:

• maintaining high and rigorous standards for what accomplished teachers shouldknow and be able to do;

• providing a national voluntary system certifying teachers who meet these stan-dards; and

• advocating related education reforms to integrate National Board Certification®

in American education and to capitalize on the expertise of National Board Certified Teachers®.

Dedication to this mission is elevating the teaching profession, educating the publicabout the demands and complexity of accomplished teaching practice, and makingteaching a more attractive profession for talented college graduates with many otherpromising career options.

National Board Certification is more than a system for recognizing and rewardingaccomplished teachers. It offers an opportunity to guide the continuing growth and devel-opment of the teaching profession. Together with other reforms, National Board Certifi-cation is a catalyst for significant change in the teaching profession and in education.

The Philosophical Context

The standards presented here lay the foundation for the Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science certificate. They represent a professional consensus on the aspects ofpractice that distinguish accomplished teachers. Cast in terms of actions that teacherstake to advance student achievement, these standards also incorporate the essentialknowledge, skills, dispositions, and commitments that allow teachers to practice at a highlevel. Like all NBPTS Standards, this standards document is grounded philosophically inthe NBPTS policy statement What Teachers Should Know and Be Able to Do. That state-ment identifies five core propositions.

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Preface

1) Teachers are committed to students and their learning.

Accomplished teachers are dedicated to making knowledge accessible to all students.They act on the belief that all students can learn. They treat students equitably, recog-nizing the individual differences that distinguish their students from one another andtaking account of these differences in their practice. They adjust their practice, as appro-priate, on the basis of observation and knowledge of their students’ interests, abilities,skills, knowledge, family circumstances, and peer relationships.

Accomplished teachers understand how students develop and learn. They incorporatethe prevailing theories of cognition and intelligence in their practice. They are aware ofthe influence of context and culture on behavior. They develop students’ cognitive capac-ity and respect for learning. Equally important, they foster students’ self-esteem; moti-vation; character; sense of civic responsibility; and respect for individual, cultural,religious, and racial differences.

2) Teachers know the subjects they teach and how to teach thosesubjects to students.

Accomplished teachers have a rich understanding of the subject(s) they teach and appre-ciate how knowledge in their subjects is created, organized, linked to other disciplines,and applied to real-world settings. While faithfully representing the collective wisdomof our culture and upholding the value of disciplinary knowledge, they also develop thecritical and analytical capacities of their students.

Accomplished teachers command specialized knowledge of how to convey subjectmatter to students. They are aware of the preconceptions and background knowledge thatstudents typically bring to each subject and of strategies and instructional resources thatcan be of assistance. Their instructional repertoire allows them to create multiple pathsto learning the subjects they teach, and they are adept at teaching students how to poseand solve challenging problems.

3) Teachers are responsible for managing and monitoring student learning.

Accomplished teachers create, enrich, maintain, and alter instructional settings to captureand sustain the interest of their students. They make the most effective use of time in theirinstruction. They are adept at engaging students and adults to assist their teaching and atmaking use of their colleagues’ knowledge and expertise to complement their own.

Accomplished teachers command a range of instructional techniques and know whento employ them. They are devoted to high-quality practice and know how to offer eachstudent the opportunity to succeed.

Accomplished teachers know how to engage groups of students to ensure a disciplinedlearning environment and how to organize instruction so as to meet the schools’ goals forstudents. They are adept at setting norms of social interaction among students and betweenstudents and teachers. They understand how to motivate students to learn and how to main-tain their interest even in the face of temporary setbacks.

Accomplished teachers can assess the progress of individual students as well as theprogress of the class as a whole. They employ multiple methods for assessing studentgrowth and understanding and can clearly explain student performance to students, parents,and administrators.

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Preface

4) Teachers think systematically about their practice and learn fromexperience.

Accomplished teachers are models of educated persons, exemplifying the virtues theyseek to inspire in students—curiosity, tolerance, honesty, fairness, respect for diversity,and appreciation of cultural differences. They demonstrate capacities that are prereq-uisites for intellectual growth—the ability to reason, take multiple perspectives, becreative and take risks, and experiment and solve problems.

Accomplished teachers draw on their knowledge of human development, subjectmatter, and instruction, and their understanding of their students to make principledjudgments about sound practice. Their decisions are grounded not only in the litera-ture of their fields, but also in their experience. They engage in lifelong learning,which they seek to encourage in their students.

Striving to strengthen their teaching, accomplished teachers examine their practicecritically; expand their repertoire; deepen their knowledge; sharpen their judgment;and adapt their teaching to new findings, ideas, and theories.

5) Teachers are members of learning communities.

Accomplished teachers contribute to the effectiveness of the school by workingcollaboratively with other professionals on instructional policy, curriculum develop-ment, and staff development. They can evaluate school progress and the allocation ofschool resources in light of their understanding of state and local educational objec-tives. They are knowledgeable about specialized school and community resources thatcan be engaged for their students’ benefit and are skilled at employing such resourcesas needed.

Accomplished teachers find ways to work collaboratively and creatively withparents, engaging them productively in the work of the school.

The Certification Framework

Using the Five Core Propositions as a springboard, NBPTS sets standards and offersNational Board Certification in nearly 30 fields. These fields are defined by the develop-mental level of the students and the subject or subjects being taught. The first descriptorrepresents the four overlapping student developmental levels:

• Early Childhood, ages 3–8;• Middle Childhood, ages 7–12;• Early Adolescence, ages 11–15; and• Adolescence and Young Adulthood, ages 14–18+.

The second descriptor indicates the substantive focus of a teacher’s practice. Teachersmay select either a subject-specific or a generalist certificate at a particular developmen-tal level. Subject-specific certificates are designed for teachers who emphasize a singlesubject area in their teaching (e.g., Early Adolescence/English Language Arts,Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Mathematics); generalist certificates are designed forteachers who develop student skills and knowledge across the curriculum (e.g., Early

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Preface

Childhood/Generalist, Middle Childhood/Generalist). For some subject-specific certifi-cates, developmental levels are joined together to recognize the commonalities in teach-ing students at those developmental levels (e.g., Early and Middle Childhood/Art).

Standards and Assessment Development

Following a nationwide search for outstanding educators, a standards committee isappointed for each field. The committees are generally made up of 15 members who arebroadly representative of accomplished professionals in their fields. A majority ofcommittee members are teachers regularly engaged in teaching students in the field inquestion; other members are typically professors, experts in child development, teachereducators, and other professionals in the relevant discipline. The standards committeesdevelop the specific standards for each field, which are then disseminated widely forpublic critique and comment and subsequently revised as necessary before adoption bythe NBPTS Board of Directors. Periodically, standards are updated so that they remaindynamic documents, responsive to changes in the field.

Determining whether or not candidates meet the standards requires performance-based assessment methods that are fair, valid, and reliable and that ask teachers todemonstrate principled, professional judgments in a variety of situations. A testingcontractor specializing in assessment development works with standards committeemembers, teacher assessment development teams, and members of the NBPTS staff todevelop assessment exercises and pilot test them with teachers active in each certificatefield. The assessment process involves two primary activities: (1) the compilation of aportfolio of teaching practice over a period of time and (2) the demonstration of contentknowledge through assessment center exercises. Teachers prepare their portfolios byvideotaping their teaching, gathering student learning products and other teaching arti-facts, and providing detailed analyses of their practice. At the assessment center, teach-ers answer questions that relate primarily to content knowledge specific to their fields.

The portfolio is designed to capture teaching in real-time, real-life settings, thusallowing trained assessors from the field in question to examine how teachers translateknowledge and theory into practice. It also yields the most valued evidence NBPTScollects—videotapes of practice and samples of student work. The videotapes andstudent work are accompanied by commentaries on the goals and purposes of instruction,the effectiveness of the practice, teachers’ reflections on what occurred, and their ratio-nales for the professional judgments they made. In addition, the portfolio allows candi-dates to document their accomplishments in contributing to the advancement of theprofession and the improvement of schooling—whether at the local, state, or nationallevel—and to document their ability to work constructively with their students’ families.

Teachers report that the portfolio is a professional development vehicle of consider-able power, in part because it challenges the historic isolation of teachers from theirpeers. It accomplishes this by actively encouraging candidates to seek the advice andcounsel of their professional colleagues—whether across the hall or across the country—as they build their portfolios. It also requires teachers to examine the underlying assump-tions of their practice and the results of their efforts in critical but healthy ways. Thisemphasis on reflection is highly valued by teachers who go through the process ofNational Board Certification.

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Preface

The assessment center exercises are designed to complement the portfolio. They vali-date that the knowledge and skills exhibited in the portfolio are, in fact, accurate reflec-tions of what candidates know and can do, and they give candidates an opportunity todemonstrate knowledge and skills not sampled in the portfolio because of the candidate’sspecific teaching assignment. For example, high school science teachers assigned toteach only physics in a given year might have difficulty demonstrating in their portfolioa broad knowledge of biology. Given that the NBPTS Standards for science teachersplace a high value on such capabilities, another strategy for data collection is necessary.The assessment center exercises fill this gap and otherwise augment the portfolio. Eachcandidate’s work is examined by trained assessors who teach in the certificate field.

The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards believes that a valid assess-ment of accomplished practice must allow for the variety of forms sound practice takes.It must also sample the range of content knowledge that teachers possess and mustprovide appropriate contexts for assessments of teaching knowledge and skill. Teachingis not just about knowing things; it is about the use of knowledge—knowledge of learn-ers and of learning, of schools and of subjects—in the service of helping students growand develop. Consequently, NBPTS believes that the most valid teacher assessmentprocesses engage candidates in the activities of teaching—activities that require thedisplay and use of teaching knowledge and skill and that allow teachers the opportunityto explain and justify their actions.

In its assessment development work, NBPTS uses technology for assessment whenappropriate; ensures broad representation of the diversity that exists within the profes-sion; engages pertinent disciplinary and specialty associations at key points in theprocess; collaborates closely with appropriate state agencies, academic institutions, andindependent research and education organizations; establishes procedures to detect andeliminate instances of external and internal bias with respect to age, gender, and racialand ethnic background of teacher-candidates; and selects the method exhibiting the leastadverse impact when given a choice among equally valid assessments.

Once an assessment has been thoroughly tested and found to meet NBPTS require-ments for validity, reliability, and fairness, eligible teachers may apply for NationalBoard Certification. To be eligible, a teacher must hold a baccalaureate degree from anaccredited institution; have a minimum of three years’ teaching experience at the earlychildhood, elementary school, middle school, or high school level; and have held a validstate teaching license for those three years or, where a license is not required, have taughtin schools recognized and approved to operate by the state.

Strengthening Teaching and Improving Learning

The National Board’s system of standards and certification is commanding the respect ofthe profession and the public, thereby making a difference in how communities and poli-cymakers view teachers, how teachers view themselves, and how teachers improve theirpractice throughout their careers. National Board Certification has yielded such results inpart because it has forged a national consensus on the characteristics of accomplishedteaching practice in each field. The traditional conversation about teacher competencehas focused on beginning teachers. The National Board for Professional TeachingStandards has helped broaden this conversation to span the entire career of teachers.

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Preface

Developing standards of accomplished practice helps to elevate the teaching profes-sion as the standards make public the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of accom-plished teachers. However, making such standards the basis for National BoardCertification promises much more. Because National Board Certification identifiesaccomplished teachers in a fair and trustworthy manner, it can offer career paths forteachers that will make use of their knowledge, wisdom, and expertise; give accom-plished practitioners the opportunity to achieve greater status, authority, and compensa-tion; and accelerate efforts to build more successful school organizations and structures.

By holding accomplished teachers to high and rigorous standards, National BoardCertification encourages change along several key fronts:

• changing what it means to have a career in teaching by recognizing and rewardingaccomplished teachers and by making it possible for teachers to advance in respon-sibility, status, and compensation without having to leave the classroom;

• changing the culture of teaching by accelerating growth in the knowledge base ofteaching, by placing real value on professional judgment and accomplished practicein all its various manifestations, and by encouraging teachers to search for newknowledge and better practice through a steady regimen of collaboration and reflec-tion with peers and others;

• changing the way schools are organized and managed by creating a vehicle thatfacilitates the establishment of unique teacher positions, providing accomplishedteachers with greater authority and autonomy in making instructional decisions andgreater responsibility for sharing their expertise to strengthen the practice of others;

• changing the nature of teacher preparation and ongoing professional developmentby laying a standards-based foundation for a fully articulated career developmentpath that begins with prospective teachers and leads to accomplished teachers; and

• changing the way school districts think about hiring and compensating teachers byencouraging administrators and school boards to reward excellence in teaching byseeking to hire accomplished teachers.

Although National Board Certification has been designed with the entire country inmind, each state and locality decides for itself how best to encourage teachers to achieveNational Board Certification and how best to take advantage of the expertise of theNational Board Certified Teachers in their midst. Across the country, legislation has beenenacted that supports National Board Certification, including allocations of funds to payfor the certification fee for teachers, release time for candidates to work on their portfo-lios and prepare for the assessment center exercises, and salary supplements for teacherswho achieve National Board Certification. Incentives for National Board Certificationexist at the state or local level in all 50 states and in the District of Columbia.

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Preface

As this support at the state and local levels suggests, National Board Certification isrecognized throughout the nation as a rich professional development experience.Because National Board Certification provides states and localities with a way to struc-ture teachers’ roles and responsibilities more effectively and to allow schools to benefitfrom the wisdom of their strongest teachers, National Board Certification is a strongcomponent of education reform in the United States.

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Introduction

At the daybreak of this new century and millennium...the future well-being of our nation and people depends not just on how well we educate our children generally, but on how well we educate them in mathematics and science specifically.... The most direct route to improving mathematics and science achievement for all students is better mathematics and science teaching.1

Science education is being reshaped in the United States. The changes have beenpartly fueled by a long-standing conviction shared by social planners and the

members of the Glenn Commission: This nation’s economic and political future dependsheavily on how well the nation’s youth learn science and technology. The nation and itschildren deserve and must have science teachers who know their students, know theirsubject, and are passionate about both. All teachers of science must rise to the same chal-lenge and meet the same goal: to provide a rich and robust science education so allstudents leave their classrooms—and formal education—knowledgeable and enthusias-tic about science and ready to take their places as productive citizens.

The Challenge Before the Science EducationCommunity

Research shows that children who receive quality science instruction in the elementaryyears enjoy and benefit from the experience. By the middle grades, however, too manyyoungsters display a negative attitude toward science. Science performances begin to lag,especially among many female and minority students. To be sure, a segment of highschool students receives a superb preparation in the sciences as measured against anystandard of excellence in the world. Far too many young people discover, however, thatby the time they reach high school—and without having made a conscious decision inthe matter—they effectively have been consigned to a minimal-science, low-opportunitylearning track.

This state of affairs is unacceptable for many reasons, not the least of which is singu-larly pragmatic. The U.S. Department of Commerce has forecast that women andmembers of minority groups will soon make up almost two-thirds of the new workforcein the United States. More jobs than ever before—and a higher proportion of the best-paying ones—will require a functional knowledge of science and mathematics. Clearly,then, looked at as a question of opening the doors of opportunity for every student or asa matter of national self-interest, schools must ensure that all students have the opportu-nity to become intellectually competent and confident in science.

Beyond economic considerations are other compelling reasons for aspiring to thisinclusive goal. When taught by accomplished teachers, science stimulates curiosity aboutthe world. Science makes students aware of commonalities, while expanding their under-standing and appreciation of diversity. Students taught well in science develop a fasci-nation for life in all its forms, which contributes to their desire to learn about the worldand to respect its makeup as well as its inhabitants. Students who understand multiplemethods and philosophies of science develop a deeply satisfying approach to looking atthe world and helping shape it, one that will reward their efforts for the rest of their lives.They learn that the pursuit of science is enjoyable in its own right and that this pursuit

1ADOLESCENCE AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD/SCIENCE

1. The NationalCommission onMathematics andScience Teaching forthe 21st Century(Glenn Commission).Before It's Too Late(Washington, D.C.:The NationalCommission onMathematics andScience Teaching forthe 21st Century,2000).

Introduction

helps them develop invaluable cognitive processes of reasoning and analysis. They alsolearn that science belongs to everyone. The drive to understand the natural environmentand thereby gain a measure of control over it is universal and exhibited by peoples fromall ethnic backgrounds, eras, and civilizations through recorded time. Science contributesto students’ respect for their own culture as well as for a common heritage. Science canhelp students explore in their everyday environs the full measure of their own humanityand help them play a responsible part in society. In a time of increasingly complex debatesover public policy and the uses of technology, a knowledge of science and a commitmentto the enjoyment of science have become essential ingredients of good citizenship.

Moving Toward a New Vision of Science Education

Certainly, improving science education will require a great deal of work by all members ofthe education community. The curricular reforms in science that followed the launching ofSputnik I in 1957 were aimed, for the most part, at guaranteeing that the nation’s educa-tion system would produce a cadre of talented young scientists sufficient to meet thenation’s needs. Now, however, the consensus is that the commitment of schools to scienceeducation must be far more inclusive and ensure that all students reach the vital goal ofbecoming scientifically literate.

What might that science literacy entail? Two national science organizations—theAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science through its Project 2061 and theNational Research Council through its development of National Science EducationStandards2—continue to be engaged in major reform initiatives in science education toimprove the science literacy of all students. Both have adopted the same overriding goal:All students will be scientifically literate by the time they graduate from high school. Asdefined in their documents, a scientifically literate person is one who has a strong knowl-edge of (1) the nature of science, including a grasp of the various inquiry processes thatscientists use to discover new knowledge as well as of the attitudes and habits of mind—honesty, skepticism, openness to new ideas, and curiosity—essential to an objective inves-tigator; (2) the most important concepts from the body of scientific knowledge; and (3) thehuman contexts of science, including a familiarity with the history of its development andits reciprocal relationship with mathematics and technology, and their mutual economic,political, and cultural impacts on society. Most important, a scientifically literate personnot only knows about these various aspects of science but also uses them in ethical deci-sion making and participation in civic life.

Science literacy for all students is an attainable goal; reaching it, however, will requirecontinued progress. In particular, science education in the United States has been criticizedfor a tendency to overburden students with the mastery of facts and technical terminology atthe expense of having them actively doing science—observing phenomena, asking ques-tions, making predictions, devising tests of their ideas, recording data accurately, reachingconclusions, and clearly communicating results. The philosophy that underlies this documentis based on several assumptions about how children learn, all supported by a growing bodyof research. One is that students learn best when actively engaged, physically and mentally,through experience-based activities in science accompanied by regular opportunities to think

2 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD/SCIENCE

2. National ResearchCouncil. National ScienceEducation Standards(Washington, D.C.:National Academy Press, 1995).

Introduction

about the significance of what they have been seeing and doing and to develop deep under-standing of key scientific concepts. A second is that students benefit immensely when theyare helped to explore science concepts that derive from or connect with their everydayexperiences in the world. A third is that students’ insights are enriched when they haveopportunities to share and test their ideas with the larger team of investigators in the class-room and beyond.

Addressing Diversity

Accomplished science teachers accept the challenge of making science accessible to alltheir students, regardless of race, ethnicity, language, socioeconomic background, reli-gion, family background, gender, and all the other factors of culture and heritage thatgive each classroom vibrancy. They respect what their students bring into the classroomand use their knowledge of their students’ cultures to make science interesting. And theydo so while ensuring that all their students engage in sophisticated, in-depth learning andwhile holding their students to high standards. Fairness and equity are hallmarks of theirclassrooms.

While diversity brings rewards, it also brings challenges, one of which is literacy.Many students who arrive in the classrooms of accomplished teachers have limited skillsin English. Traditionally, these students were thought of as learners of English as a newlanguage. However, accomplished teachers are increasingly aware that even studentswhose first language is English may have language deficits that impede their ability tolearn well. The type of English that serves students well on the streets and in their homesis often insufficient for success in the classroom. Accomplished teachers recognize thatthey often must explicitly teach academic discourse—the syntactical rules and lexiconnecessary for learning in a school setting—as well as the language specific to the disci-pline of science.

Developing High and Rigorous Standards forAccomplished Teaching

In 1992, a committee of Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers and othereducators with expertise in this field began the process of developing advanced profes-sional standards for teachers of students ages 14 to 18+. The Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science Standards Committee was charged with translating the Five CorePropositions of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards into a standardsdocument that defines outstanding teaching in this field.

In 2002, a committee comprising original committee members and a new group ofeducators (including National Board Certified Teachers) was convened to examine andupdate as necessary the published Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards.This second edition of the standards is the result of the committee’s deliberations at meet-ings and their input into working drafts of the standards.


Introduction

This NBPTS Standards document describes in observable form what accomplishedteachers should know and be able to do. The standards are meant to reflect a professionalconsensus at this point about the essential aspects of accomplished practice. The delib-erations of the Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards Committee wereinformed by various national and state initiatives on student and teacher standards thathave been operating concurrently with the development of NBPTS Standards. As theunderstanding of teaching and learning continues to evolve, Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science Standards will be updated again.

An essential tension of describing accomplished practice concerns the differencebetween the analysis and the practice of teaching. The former tends to fragment theprofession into any number of discrete duties, such as designing learning activities,providing quality explanation, modeling, managing the classroom, and monitoringstudent progress. Teaching as it actually occurs, however, is a seamless activity.

Everything an accomplished teacher knows through study, research, and experience isbrought to bear daily in the classroom through innumerable decisions that shape learning.It frequently requires balancing the demands of several important educational goals. It depends on accurate observations of particular students and settings. And it is subject torevision on the basis of continuing developments in the classroom. The professional judg-ments that accomplished teachers make also reflect a certain improvisational artistry.

The paradox, then, is that any attempt to write standards that dissect what accom-plished teachers know and are able to do will, to a certain extent, misrepresent the holis-tic nature of how teaching actually takes place. Nevertheless, the fact remains: Certainidentifiable commonalities characterize the accomplished practice of teachers. The 12 standards that follow are designed to capture the craft, artistry, proficiencies, andunderstandings—both deep and broad—that contribute to the complex work that isaccomplished teaching.

The Standards Format

Accomplished teaching appears in many different forms, and it should be acknowledgedat the outset that these specific standards are not the only way that accomplished teach-ing could have been described. No linearity, atomization, or hierarchy is implied in thisvision of accomplished teaching, nor is each standard of equal weight. Rather, the stan-dards are presented as aspects of teaching that are analytically separable for the purposesof this standards document but that are not discrete when they appear in practice.

The report follows a two-part format for each of the 12 standards:

I. Standard Statement—This is a succinct statement of one vital aspect of the prac-tice of the accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teacher. Eachstandard is expressed in terms of observable teacher actions that have an impacton students.

II. Elaboration—This passage provides a context for the standard, along with anexplanation of what teachers need to know, value, and do if they are to fulfill thestandard. The elaboration includes descriptions of teacher dispositions towardstudents, their distinctive roles and responsibilities, and their stances on a rangeof ethical and intellectual issues that regularly confront them.

4 ADOLESCENCE AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD/SCIENCE

Introduction

The 12 standards have been organized around the nexus of education—student learn-ing. They are divided into four categories: (1) teacher actions that prepare the way forproductive student learning; (2) teacher actions that establish a favorable context forstudent learning; (3) teacher actions that directly advance student learning in the class-room; and (4) teacher actions that indirectly support student learning through long-rangeinitiatives conducted, for the most part, outside the classroom. Such a “roadmap” forreading the document should not be taken too literally, because, as noted above, accom-plished teaching is a holistic act in which the many facets of practice come together toadvance student learning.


The National Board for Professional TeachingStandards has developed the following 12 stan-

dards of accomplished practice for Adolescence andYoung Adulthood/Science teachers. The standards havebeen ordered as they have to facilitate understanding,

not to assign priorities. They each describe an importantfacet of accomplished teaching; they often occurconcurrently because of the seamless quality of teach-ing. The standards serve as the basis for National BoardCertification in this field.

Preparing the Way for ProductiveStudent Learning

I. Understanding Students (p. 9)Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers know howstudents learn, know their students as indi-viduals, and determine students’ under-standings of science as well as theirindividual learning backgrounds.

II. Understanding Science (p. 13)Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers have a broadand current knowledge of science andscience education, along with in-depth knowl-edge of one of the subfields of science, whichthey use to set important and appropriatelearning goals.

III. Understanding Science Teaching (p. 21)Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers employ a delib-erately sequenced variety of research-driveninstructional strategies and select, adapt, andcreate instructional resources to supportactive student exploration and understandingof science.

Establishing a Favorable Contextfor Student Learning

IV. Engaging the Science Learner (p. 27)Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers spark studentinterest in science and promote active andsustained learning, so all students achievemeaningful and demonstrable growth towardlearning goals.

V. Sustaining a Learning Environment (p. 31)Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers create safe,supportive, and stimulating learning environ-ments that foster high expectations for eachstudent’s successful science learning and inwhich students experience and incorporate thevalues inherent in the practice of science.

VI. Promoting Diversity, Equity, and Fairness (p. 35)Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers ensure that allstudents, including those from groups thathave historically not been encouraged toenter the world of science and that experi-ence ongoing barriers, succeed in the studyof science and understand the importanceand relevance of science.


Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science

STANDARDS(for teachers of students ages 14–18+)

Second Edition

OVERVIEW


VII. Fostering Science Inquiry (p. 39)Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers engage studentsin active exploration to develop the mentaloperations and habits of mind that are essen-tial to advancing strong content knowledgeand scientific literacy.

VIII. Making Connections in Science (p. 43)Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers create opportu-nities for students to examine the humancontexts of science, including its history,reciprocal relationship with technology, tiesto mathematics, and impacts on society, sothat students make connections across thedisciplines of science, among other subjectareas, and in their lives.

IX. Assessing for Results (p. 47)Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers employ multi-ple, ongoing methods that are fair and accu-rate to analyze the progress of individualstudents in light of well-defined learninggoals, and their students achieve meaningfuland demonstrable gains in the learning ofscience. Teachers clearly communicatethese gains to appropriate audiences.

Promoting ProfessionalDevelopment and Outreach

X. Reflecting on Teaching and Learning (p. 51) Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers continuallyanalyze, evaluate, and strengthen their prac-tice to improve the quality of their students’learning experiences.

XI. Developing Collegiality and Leadership(p. 55)Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers contribute tothe quality of the practice of their colleagues,to the instructional program of the school,and to the work of the larger professionalcommunity.

XII. Connecting with Families and the Community (p. 59)Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers proactivelywork with families and communities to servethe best interests of each student.

8

The pages that follow provide elaborations of each standard that discuss the knowledge, skills,dispositions, and habits of mind that describe accomplished teaching in the field.

ADOLESCENCE AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD/SCIENCE

Preparing the Way for Productive Student Learning

This first section of Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards describes the back-ground knowledge—about students, science itself, and science teaching—that accomplishedteachers bring with them to the classroom. As the elaborations of these three standards makeclear, such a description is necessarily incomplete because each of these aspects of accom-plished practice is also continually evolving and being reshaped by the ongoing circumstancesin the classroom. This section of the standards prepares the way for productive student learn-ing; the sensibilities underlying it are cultivated and deepened throughout a teaching career.

Standard I: Understanding Students

Accomplished science teachers believethat all students can learn science and

that scientific literacy is not only essential fortheir future well-being but also well withineach student’s capacity to attain. These teach-ers3 are passionate about science and relishtheir interaction with the young people withwhom they share this interest, frequentlycommunicating in word and deed their highexpectations for each student’s success.

Accomplished teachers are aware of thediffering ways and rates in which studentsprocess information on their path to under-standing science. They know how to effec-tively use current and emerging theories ofcognition and learning, such as multipleintelligences and schema theory, to imple-ment lessons that enable students to makemeaningful and demonstrable gains in thelearning of science. (See Standard III—Understanding Science Teaching andStandard IX—Assessing for Results.)Accomplished teachers know that learningbuilds on prior mental constructs and experi-ences. Teachers design tasks and introduceissues that align with students’ existingknowledge in order to move them forward.

They inquire about students’ prior experi-ences in science and their beliefs and atti-tudes about science. They use thisknowledge and their knowledge of scienceand science teaching to frame their practiceequitably to meet the needs of each student.

Teachers take measures to ensure thatthey know their students as individuals insideand outside the classroom. They know, forexample, who speaks English as a newlanguage, who has difficulty understandingacademic English, who has a special learningneed or a chronic medical condition, whotakes part in school activities, and who worksafter school. Accomplished teachers alsorecognize the broad array of students’ recre-ational choices and interests that shapeteenage culture. They understand how televi-sion, movies, music, and sports influenceteenage priorities, and they show a level ofcare and concern by becoming familiar withpopular trends.

Understanding each student entails gain-ing a sense of each student’s science literacy.Accomplished teachers know which studentshave a special aptitude for or interest inscience. They understand each student’s

9ADOLESCENCE AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD/SCIENCEADOLESCENCE AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD/SCIENCE

Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers know howstudents learn, know their students as individuals, and determine students’understandings of science as well as their individual learning backgrounds.

3. All references to teachers in thisdocument, whether stated explicitly or not,refer to accomplishedAdolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers.

confidence in using the inquiry processes;fluency in the language of science, mathe-matics, and technology; and backgroundknowledge that is brought to class concern-ing natural phenomena, the history ofscience, the relationship between science andtechnology, and the impact of science onsociety. They design their lessons by consid-ering how students with diverse abilities,interests, habits of mind, experiences,linguistic heritages, socioeconomic status,ethnicities, religious traditions, sexual orientations, body images, geographic references, and family backgrounds andconfigurations come to understand science.(See Standard VI—Promoting Diversity,Equity, and Fairness.)

Accomplished teachers’ appreciation ofeach student as an individual science learneris rooted in their extensive experience work-ing with students and a broader knowledge ofthe learning characteristics and developmen-tal tendencies of the adolescents and youngadults they teach. For example, accom-plished teachers know the misconceptionsthat students of a given age typically bring toschool and to the specific content areas;teachers use this information to frame activi-ties that lead students to question and recon-sider their thinking. (See StandardIII—Understanding Science Teaching.) Theyknow, for example, that many studentsnaively believe that light travels from the eyeto the object; that the Northern Hemisphereis hotter in the summer than the winterbecause the sun is closer to Earth at that timeof year; or that condensation comes fromcold water leaking through glass. Teachersanticipate the patterns of error that accom-pany a given topic and take steps to dispelthem through appropriate activities anddiscussion. At the same time, accomplishedteachers are sensitive to how the cultural,religious, and personal backgrounds of theirstudents shape students’ view of scientificdiscovery, such as the use of drugs for medic-inal purposes, or the use of energy and new

power forms in ways that may raise environ-mental concerns.

To gauge their students’ strengths, needs,and interests, accomplished teachers not onlymake learning about their students a priority,they also are resourceful in doing so. Theyconstantly read their students’ responses towhat happens in class to determine whetherlearning is progressing satisfactorily. In addi-tion, they use a variety of assessment prac-tices to inform their instructional decisionsand to assist students’ understandings. In theirclassrooms, assessment does not occur inisolation at the end of a teaching sequence butis an ongoing aspect of teaching practice. (SeeStandard IX—Assessing for Results.) Evenafter they have established a baseline knowl-edge of their students, teachers continue toexpand their understanding of their studentsthroughout the year by keen observation andlistening.

The degree of knowledge that any teachercan acquire about students may be partly afunction of class size and teaching load, butaccomplished teachers are resourceful andenergetic in learning about each student.Teachers make themselves available andapproachable both in their classes andoutside the classroom on an informal basis.

In the course of their high school years,adolescent and young adult students begin toconsider options for the future. Accomplishedteachers recognize that many factors influ-ence students’ decisions, but they know thatin all cases, students need a solid groundingin science to consider fully the academic andcareer paths open to them. This has alwaysbeen true, and it is more so today as the reachof science and technology extends to thegrowing percentage of careers that hold themost promise. For many students, choosingwhether to invest their time in the study ofscience is as much a decision about personalidentity as a reasoned, intellectual one.Accomplished teachers make students andtheir families more aware of both the short-and long-term benefits of science education,

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Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards


including the career paths that science educa-tion can open up to them.

Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers know how tomake valuable science experiences availableto all their students, whatever their post-secondary choices. Teachers understand thatstudents with differing social and culturalbackgrounds will often have different viewson the relevance of science experiences andon ways to apply science to their lives. Boththese facts lead accomplished teachers topose meaningful questions and to craft prob-lems that students will likely find worth-while. At the same time, they give theirstudents opportunities to actively designsome of their own paths for learning. Suchteachers know that students often relish the

chance to have a voice in selecting whatscientific questions to explore and determin-ing how they might be investigated. Anaccomplished science teacher knows thatstudents need opportunities to explore invig-orating questions, such as “Why does the sunappear larger in winter in the NorthernHemisphere?” These teachers use all theiraccumulated knowledge of students, ofscience, and of teaching science to interprettheir students’ behavior and to design mean-ingful experiences that ensure that allstudents are able to explore the wonders ofthe natural and engineered worlds.

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Understanding Students


Reflections on Standard I:

12



Standard II: Understanding Science

The ability to steer a purposeful, yet flex-ible and responsive, learning course

through the school day and year presumes,among other things, that the teacher hascommand of the subject matter. Indeed, allthe central acts of teaching science—choos-ing or designing worthwhile activities, guid-ing discussion, responding appropriately tostudent questions and initiatives, negotiatinginstructional goals—require it. But what,exactly, is the knowledge base that an accom-plished science teacher must command,given the extraordinary vastness of thedomain of science?

Accomplished Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science teachers must be scientif-ically literate. Such teachers must be wellversed in (1) the nature of science and scienceas inquiry, including habits of mind, attitudes,and dispositions; (2) the fundamentalconcepts, laws, and theories that demarcatethe content knowledge in the earth and spacesciences, life sciences, and physical sciences;and (3) the historical, social, cultural, andtechnological contexts out of which thescience enterprise has developed and inwhich it functions today. Accomplishedscience teachers supplement their broadknowledge of science with a deep andspecialized knowledge of earth and spacescience, life science, or physical science(chemistry and/or physics).4

Nature of Science andScience as Inquiry

Accomplished science teachers have a thor-ough comprehension of science as anapproach to building a consistent, testable setof understandings about how the worldworks. They recognize which kinds of ques-tions fall within the purview of science andwhich do not. They are aware and respectfulof other ways of interpreting the world;however, they also recognize and understandthat the processes of science have a rigor anda predictive power all their own to which allstudents deserve access. Science teachersknow what qualifies as authentic scientificinvestigation. They have a clear sense of thevarious strategies that scientists might use toframe an inquiry and open questions forfurther exploration; of the central importanceof basing conclusions on empirical evidence;of the values and habits of mind that charac-terize the scientific endeavor; and of theimportance of clearly communicating resultsto the scientific community.

Having a clear understanding of the natureof science is essential for the teaching ofadolescents and young adults. It is essentialbecause, as Henri Poincaré so eloquentlynoted, science may be made up of facts, “buta collection of facts is no more a science thana heap of stones is a house.”5 Teachers knowthat making connections among facts helpsstudents define systems of operation in thenatural and designed world, such as bodysystems, rock formations, and hydrostatic and


Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers have abroad and current knowledge of science and science education, along with in-depth knowledge of one of the subfields of science, which they use to set impor-tant and appropriate learning goals.

4. This standard providesan overview of the scienceteacher’s knowledge baseand draws directly fromthe consensus in thescience communityrepresented by theNational ResearchCouncil’s National ScienceEducation Standards(Washington, D.C.:National Academy Press,1995) and the documentsthat preceded it, includingthe American Associationfor the Advancement ofScience’s Science for AllAmericans (New York:Oxford University Press,1990) and Benchmarks for Science Literacy(New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 1993)and the National ScienceTeachers Association’sScope, Sequence, andCoordination of SecondarySchool Science:The Content Core(Washington, D.C.:National Science TeachersAssociation, 1993).

5. Poincaré, Jules Henri.Science and Hypotheses(Paris: Flammarion, 1902).

electrical systems. Students must experiencethe vitality of science in school before theycan see science as a creative way of looking atthe world and as a way of answering ques-tions that matter to them. Only teachers whounderstand how science works, who hold abroad understanding of the role of skepticismin science, who know how ideas change asnew evidence becomes available, who appre-ciate the fluidity of science, and who embodythe openness to fresh ideas characteristic offirst-rate scientists can model its processes,values, and habits of mind in the classroom. Itis this clear understanding of the nature ofscience that enables teachers to foster astudent understanding of science that distin-guishes between science, such as evolutionand astronomy, and non-science, such ascreationism and astrology. And only teacherswho understand the inquiry process caninvolve their students in doing their ownconsistent, strategic, logical, and legitimatelyscientific investigations.

The transformation of a classroom ofstudents from a group of passive individualsinto a community of actively engaged learnersis the hallmark of excellent science instruction.(See Standard V—Sustaining a LearningEnvironment.) For accomplished scienceteachers, a starting point for establishing sucha productive learning climate is a deeply struc-tured knowledge of the nature of science andthe inquiry process.

The FundamentalConcepts and ContentKnowledge

Accomplished science teachers possess abroad grasp of the fundamental concepts,laws, principles, theories, facts, and ideasthat constitute the body of scientific knowl-edge. Science is a collaborative social enter-prise that builds on the achievements ofprevious generations. Accomplished teachers

understand the major conceptual paradigmsthat researchers have developed over theyears in the core science disciplines and usethis knowledge to inform their practice. Theyunderstand the common misconceptions thattheir students may hold, including theresearch identifying these incorrect ideas.They also follow trends in the field to keeptheir knowledge and pedagogy current.

The content knowledge of accomplishedteachers is centered around the unifyingconcepts and processes of science.Accomplished teachers in all subfields ofscience thoroughly know about systems,order, and organization; evidence, models,and explanation; constancy, change, andmeasurement; evolution and equilibrium;form and function; and cycles, and theyapply their knowledge in their teaching prac-tice.6 The understandings that characterizethe knowledge base of the accomplishedscience teacher are notable for their inte-grated quality.

Accomplished science teachers shouldhave strong content knowledge—that is,college-level proficiency—in earth and spacescience, life science, and physical science.They should also have advanced proficiencyin at least one area and some research experi-ence that includes designing their own labo-ratory investigations and exploring researchof other scientists. Although all accomplishedscience teachers have a foundation of scien-tific knowledge that cuts across the disci-plines, science teachers of adolescents andyoung adults tend to specialize in a singlediscipline while recognizing the need forintegrated presentations of science. Suchteachers demonstrate a depth of knowledgeabout earth and space science, biology, chem-istry, or physics that permits them to holdtheir students’ interest and present an intel-lectually challenging curriculum. This in-depth level of knowledge means that teachershave engaged in focused study of thesesciences beyond the introductory collegelevel. Additionally, accomplished teachers

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6. These unifying conceptsand processes arereferenced in the NationalResearch Council'sNational ScienceEducation Standards(Washington, D.C.:National Academy Press, 1995).

recognize the importance of mathematics inscience teaching and are proficient in itsapplication, including the use of algebra,geometry, statistics and probability, anddiscrete mathematics in modeling and solvingscience problems. Knowledge of calculus isimportant to understanding many emergingand ongoing theories across all science disci-plines and is therefore recommended.

Earth and Space Sciences Accomplished teachers understand theorigin, composition, and structure of theuniverse. They understand that Earth andcelestial phenomena can be described byprinciples of relative motion and perspective,including the uniformity of materials andforces found everywhere in the universe, andthe motions of the Earth and the materialsand systems that compose it. They also knowthat many of the phenomena observed onEarth involve interactions among compo-nents of air, water, and land, driven by thetransfer of energy. Accomplished teachersunderstand that matter is composed of parti-cles whose properties determine the observ-able characteristics of matter and itsreactivity. They understand the cyclingprocesses that shape the Earth’s surface andthe relationship of these processes to theliving environment, for example, to theEarth’s atmosphere and oceans.

Life SciencesAccomplished teachers understand the diver-sity and unity that characterize life at theorganismic and molecular levels; the geneticbasis for the transfer of biological character-istics from one generation to the next and themolecular basis of genetic engineering; thestructure and function of cells and the impli-cations of their dysfunction; and the lifecycle, particularly in reference to the humanorganism. They understand the dependenceof all organisms on one another and on their

environment; the cycling of matter and theflow of energy (under the laws of thermody-namics) through the living environment andthe maintenance of a constant internal envi-ronment; the behavior of organisms; and thebasic concepts of evolution of species andthe consequences of the loss of species.

Physical SciencesAccomplished teachers understand the simi-larities and differences of basic properties ofmatter and the principles governing theirinteractions; the forms that energy takes, itstransformations from one form to another,and its relationship to matter; motion and theprinciples that explain it; the nature of atomsand molecules and the ways atoms and mole-cules can be transformed into differentarrangements of matter; and the forces thatexist between and within objects and atoms.They know how to use this knowledge ofenergy to interpret, explain, predict, andinfluence change in our natural world.

The science topics within earth and spacescience, life science, and physical sciencereflect the central goals of well-regardedK–12 school science curricula. The corre-spondence between the science curriculumand the breadth of science knowledgeexpected of an accomplished teacher is delib-erate. Science teachers at all levels know thefundamental facts and concepts of all areasof science that students have been chargedwith learning, in addition to their in-depthknowledge of one area.

Several examples will help to elucidatethe in-depth knowledge of accomplishedteachers in a single discipline of science.First, consider a brief illustration of thedifference between the knowledge base of allaccomplished science teachers and that of theaccomplished teacher who specializes inearth science. All teachers would know thatenergy enters the Earth system primarily assolar energy, that sources of internal energy

15

Understanding Science


are gravitational energy and the decay ofmatter, and that vertical ocean currentsimpact organisms. An accomplished teacherspecializing in earth science would not onlyknow that energy enters the Earth systemprimarily as solar radiation, but also wouldunderstand the connection of this energy toreflection, absorption, and photosynthesis;would not only know that convection withinthe atmosphere and oceans produces winds,but also could explain how differential heat-ing results in circulation patterns in theatmosphere and oceans that globally distrib-ute the heat; and would not only know thatthere are ocean currents, but also would beable to explain the properties of ocean waterto describe the layered structure of theoceans, the generation of horizontal and verti-cal ocean currents, and the geographic distri-bution of marine organisms. Furthermore, aspecialist in earth science would understandand convey to students how convectioncurrents within the aesthenosphere drive themovement of plates and can relate the move-ment of convection currents to changes indensities of fluids caused by the transfer of heat energy.

Second, consider an illustration of thedifference between the knowledge base ofall accomplished science teachers and thatof the accomplished teacher specializing inbiology. All science teachers would knowthat cells are the basic unit of living thingsand why this fact is important, that cellscarry out the important functions of life:growth, reproduction, excretion, digestion,movement, synthesis, and response; howthese functions occur; and how they varyacross different organisms. An accom-plished teacher specializing in biology orphysiology would not only know that thecell membrane controls which moleculescan enter and leave the cell, but also couldexplain the mechanics of the membrane’sselective permeability in terms of the fluid-mosaic model; would not only know that thecell nucleus contains the coded instructions

for building specialized proteins, but alsocould describe how double helix DNA mole-cules initiate this function in conjunctionwith various RNA molecules; and would notonly know that there are structures inside thecell that perform functions essential for thecell’s survival, but also would be able toidentify specific cytoplasmic organelles,such as mitochondria/chloroplasts andexplain their part in cell respiration/photo-synthesis.

Third, consider the difference between theknowledge base of all accomplished scienceteachers and that of the accomplished teacherspecializing in chemistry. All science teacherswould know that all matter is composed ofatoms; that atoms are made up of electrons,protons, and neutrons, and that the atoms ofan element all contain the same number ofprotons in the nucleus; that there are 90 natu-rally occurring elements; and that very fewelements are found in pure form because mostelements are found in compounds. An accom-plished teacher specializing in chemistrywould not only know that there are naturallyoccurring elements, but also could providedetail about cosmology and how the naturallyoccurring elements are said to be formed, aswell as detailed explanations on the isotopesof elements, the energetics of the decay ofisotopes and its various bi-products, and thedetermination of atomic and relative mass.The accomplished teacher specializing inchemistry would not only know that electronsare found in the region about the nucleus, butalso could describe the electron energy levelsand explain how electronic structure deter-mines the nature and type of bonds betweenatoms or groups of atoms by using basiccalculus and quantum theory; and would notonly know that there are electronic structuresthat influence the way atoms combine, butalso would be able to explain characteristicsand properties of various compounds andmolecules formed by elements and explainthe importance of the form and function ofthe periodic table.

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Fourth, consider the difference betweenthe knowledge base of all accomplishedscience teachers and that of the accom-plished teacher specializing in physics. Allscience teachers would know how to makeand use position-time and velocity-timegraphs to describe the position, velocity, andacceleration of a moving object; identifyforces on a static and moving body in twodimensions; and explain static and movingcharges in terms of an electron model. Anaccomplished teacher specializing inphysics would not only know how to useposition-time and velocity-time graphs, butalso would know how to use vector analysisand basic calculus to make predictions abouta moving object; would not only know howto identify forces on static and movingbodies, but also could predict and describethose forces in terms of a Newtonian forcemodel; would not only know how to explainstatic and moving charges in terms of anelectron model, but also would be able toexplain the relationships between electricityand magnetism using Maxwell’s equations.

This significantly more comprehensive,sophisticated, and embellished knowledge ofa particular discipline joins with a correspon-ding command of discipline-specific peda-gogy that permits the accomplishedAdolescence and Young Adulthood/Scienceteacher to practice at a high level. Suchteachers possess a repertoire of instructionalmaterials, experiments, demonstrations,analogies, and metaphors, along with anunderstanding of common misconceptions,puzzlements, and conceptual difficulties thatare likely to challenge students. The wisdomof their practice allows them to interpretstudent actions accurately and helps themjudge when and where to turn to variousaspects of their teaching repertoire. Togetherthese two vital aspects of professionalknowledge elevate teaching practice.Without regard to whether a teacher claims aparticular specialty or has an all-sciencelicensure, the answer to the depth question

must always be couched in terms of the func-tional usefulness of the teacher’s knowledgeas applied in classroom practice. In any areaof science, it is the overall depth of thescience teacher’s understanding of a topic,not fact recall, that is at a premium.

Historical, Social,Cultural, andTechnological Contexts

Accomplished science teachers understandscience as an expression of the deep humanimpulse to explore and learn ever moreabout the natural world. They are acquaintedwith the history of science, including the keyepisodes in the development of the scientificworld picture, and with the contributions ofmany cultures in both ancient and moderntimes. In addition to recognizing the differ-ence between scientific and non-scientificquestions, teachers understand what scienceand technology can or cannot reasonablycontribute to society. They comprehend theethical questions that science presents andbring such habits of mind as honesty, objec-tivity, and social responsibility to theirteaching.

Accomplished teachers can connectscience to personal and social perspectivesthat are meaningful to students. Theyconnect the unifying concepts and sciencecontent areas to personal and communityhealth; population growth; natural resources;environmental quality; natural and humaninduced hazards; and science and technologyin local, national, and global challenges. Toillustrate these connections, teachers knowclassic examples. For instance, teachersknow about the cholera epidemic in nine-teenth-century England whereby physicianand epidemiologist John Snow was able toprove that the disease spread through water,and they understand how this discoveryeventually led to the development of the

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vacuum pump to transport water safely.Teachers also know current examples thatcan help students make connections betweenwhat students learn in class and whathappens in the news.

Accomplished science teachers are awareof the interdependent and reciprocal relation-ships that have developed over the centuriesamong technology, mathematics, and scienceknowledge. They know how to use mathe-matics as a language to articulate scientificrelationships and thereby to extrapolate orpredict relationships from one context toanother. They understand that science andtechnology are pursued for different

purposes. While science as inquiry seeks tounderstand the natural world, technology isdriven by the desire to meet human needsand solve human problems. Accomplishedteachers understand that science and technol-ogy have exercised enormous influence overthe course of human affairs and are aware ofmany instances of technology-driven changeas well as the unforeseen consequences andsocial, political, and ethical dilemmas thatfrequently attend this change. (See StandardVIII—Making Connections in Science.)

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Reflections on Standard II:

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20




Standard III: Understanding Science Teaching


Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers employ adeliberately sequenced variety of research-driven instructional strategies andselect, adapt, and create instructional resources to support active student explo-ration and understanding of science.

Accomplished science teachers under-stand the social nature of scientific

learning and how peer investigators critiqueand build on one another’s cumulativeachievements. Accomplished teachers knowcontent, and they also know what content isdifficult to teach and what is difficult tolearn. They know that all students must haveaccess to the vast accumulation of scientificknowledge, its history and lore, its relationsto technology, and its impacts on society ifthey are to become scientifically literate inthe fullest sense of the term. Teachersconstantly balance two mutually comple-mentary responsibilities—that of encourag-ing students’ explorations in science and thatof guiding them toward an expanded under-standing of scientific knowledge. Teachersuse a wide variety of instructional resources,such as laboratory equipment and materials,technological tools, print resources, andresources from the local environment, asthey create memorable learning experiencesfor their students.

Planning and Sequencingof Science Curriculum andInstructionAccomplished science teachers recognizethat science is best taught within an articu-lated K–12 curricular structure developedaround the major conceptual ideas in

science, as identified by local, state, andnational standards. Such an organizingtemplate for curriculum and instructionreduces unnecessary repetition of materialfrom one year to the next and, instead,sequences K–12 science curriculum toensure a deepening of student understand-ings of particular concepts, appropriateintroduction of new concepts, and a richerappreciation for how the various sciencesreinforce one another. Accomplished scienceteachers in districts without such an articu-lated K–12 structure work to establish one.

In planning and sequencing curriculumand instruction, accomplished science teach-ers understand the need to give studentsaccess to the fundamental facts, concepts,laws, and theories of science without buryingthem under an avalanche of esoteric detail,and they thoughtfully organize curriculumand make pedagogical decisions with thisneed in mind. The problem with scientificfacts is the incredible rate at which they arediscovered and propagated. Just keepingtrack of the names of the various subspecial-ties in modern science is a daunting task; allthe more daunting would be knowing thedetails of each. In making curricular choices,accomplished science teachers focus espe-cially on fostering in their students deepunderstandings of topics. For example, theyorganize scientific information in the contextof larger unifying concepts (such as evolu-tion, the relationship of structure and func-tion, cause and effect, energy flow) that cut

across the various science disciplines andsuggest the larger patterns found in the natural world.

Goal setting in the accomplished scienceteacher’s classroom is an interactive process.In most cases, instructional goals are initiallydefined broadly at the local, state, and nationallevels. With these standards and guidelines asa foundation, teachers establish long-rangelearning goals that are rigorous, worthwhile,and sensible to students. Accomplished teach-ers then organize, structure, and sequencelearning activities that reflect these goals, andthey plan assessments that will measureprogress toward these goals. The actualexecuting of the activities is tailored to studentneeds and often includes a strong element ofstudent initiative and direction.

Accomplished teachers connect what theyare teaching today with what they taught theday before and lay the groundwork for whatthey will teach next week; that is, their teach-ing is most effective when it reflects a well-planned continuum. They understand thesignificance of when topics are introduced,how they are organized, and what level ofcognitive sophistication they require. Forexample, an accomplished teacher mightteach an ecology unit at the beginning of theschool year to take advantage of the changingseasons and to give students time to matureand acquire the higher-level skills that theywill need to deal with more abstract ideas,such as DNA.

Sequencing within a particular lesson isalso important. For example, accomplishedteachers make appropriate use of explicitintroductory or summative teaching on essen-tial science topics as part of a continuum ofstrategies. They recognize the importance ofdebriefing on activities for appropriateclosure. The debriefings pull together thepieces of a hands-on experience to find out ifstudents have met the intended learning goals,and if they have developed misconceptionsthat should be addressed in subsequentlessons.

Accomplished science teachers base theirprofessional judgments about sciencecurriculum and instruction on data collectedfrom multiple sources. Their familiarity withcontemporary research in science and scienceeducation enables them to evaluate a widevariety of instructional strategies and toolsand to weigh evidence from research whenmaking judgments that affect instruction intheir classroom. They also continually collectand analyze data about their students’ andschool’s performance to inform decisionsthey make about curriculum and instruction.They interpret data from students in multipleways, including disaggregating the data toanalyze students’ performances. (SeeStandard I—Understanding Students andStandard IX—Assessing for Results.) Theymay conduct their own research, includingclassroom-based research, to inform theirplanning and instruction and that of theircolleagues in the school and the communityat large. (See Standard X—Reflecting onTeaching and Learning and Standard XI—Developing Collegiality and Leadership.)

Implementation of ScienceCurriculum andInstructionTo introduce and deepen conceptual knowl-edge in science, accomplished teacherspurposefully design and implement a widevariety of science activities. Throughsubstantive laboratory experiments, fieldexperiences, the use of physical models,simulations, and other activities, they involvestudents in actively conducting their ownscientific investigations. Written assign-ments, such as laboratory reports, reflectionnotebooks, and research projects, promotestudent analysis of science concepts andadvance student literacy skills. Accomplishedteachers inform students through a variety ofscience-rich readings (both assigned to a

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whole class and chosen independently byeach student) that extend, contextualize, andenrich their hands-on science experiences.Accomplished teachers carry out demonstra-tions that dramatize underlying scientificprinciples and provide opportunities forgroup analyses. They introduce students toexcellent and scientifically pertinent multi-media resources. They lead discussions andset up opportunities for small-group talk tohelp students digest new ideas and to makepublic useful strategies for promoting inde-pendent science thinking and effectivescience communication skills. Accomplishedteachers develop a systematic approach to theteaching of concepts through research-basedinstructional strategies.

Accomplished teachers can effectivelybalance helping students become confident inthe practice of science and inculcating knowl-edge in them about the key organizing para-digms, terminology, and qualitative andquantitative concepts in the main scientificdomains. These two aspects of the sameunifying goal—scientific literacy—informthe daily instructional rhythm of their class-rooms. For example, in teaching a unit aboutchemical reactions to adolescents and youngadults, a teacher might arrange for students toparticipate in a variety of experiences in thelaboratories, such as timing reactions thathave a visible end point and comparing therate of reaction at different temperatures, atdifferent concentrations of reactants, and inthe presence or absence of catalysts. Theresults of these experiments, relating reactionrate to the frequency and energy of molecularcollisions, might then be translated visually interms of a molecular model showing thestructural rearrangements that occur during asimple chemical reaction. A look at somecommon industrial chemical practices (fromthe refining of petroleum to the functioning ofthe catalytic converter in the family car)might bring home to students the many practical applications of knowledge aboutfactors affecting reaction rates. Accomplished

teachers are deliberate in helping studentsbecome increasingly independent in linkingscience concepts to real-world experiences.

To assist students in understanding diffi-cult content, accomplished teachers translatecomplex ideas into terms more available totheir students. They know the best analogiesand demonstrations to use in presenting diffi-cult science concepts and constantly expandtheir repertoire of verbal and visual aids.When using an analogy (for example, thework of mitochondria in a cell is much likethat of a power generator in a building),teachers make sure that students understandnot only where the valid similarities exist(both provide usable energy to run activitieswithin a cell or a building), but also where the analogy breaks down (generally, a building has a power generator controlledby humans whereas mitochondrial activities are controlled by a series of biochemical reactions).

Overall, accomplished teachers operatewith a sense of purpose in the classroom andknow how to adjust their practice, as appro-priate, to student performance and feedback.They make midcourse corrections when anactivity falters and quickly improvise whenan unanticipated learning opportunity pres-ents itself. They are willing to allow studentlearning to steer the direction of a lesson, butdo so in ways that uphold the overarchingconceptual framework and that promoteaccurate understandings. As a result, studentshave a stake in what happens in science class,even though their every suggestion may notbe pursued. Teachers know their field andtheir students, including the fact adolescentsand young adults work most productively inscience when they have interest and owner-ship in the questions being investigated.Teachers act as facilitators of students’ intel-lectual explorations and initiatives and helpguide them toward scientifically valid mental constructs about how the naturalworld works.

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Understanding Science Teaching


Instructional Resources

No classroom is an island. A variety ofinstructional resources—from laboratorymaterials and the tools of technology to printtexts and resources from the local environ-ment—can help students make the connec-tions among the study of school science, theirlives, and the world of science. Accomplishedteachers select, adapt, create, and use an arrayof diverse instructional resources to engagestudents in meaningful learning. They contin-ually mine the wealth of materials availablefor lesson plans, laboratories, and activitiesfound on Web sites, in professional publica-tions, at conferences and workshops, and fromnetworking with other science teachers, andthey add these to their repertoire. They tapinto these instructional resources by choosingwisely among selections and by making opti-mum use of those that have been secured.They also recognize the rapid evolution ofresources in science and keep abreast of newmaterials, tools, and techniques that they canincorporate into their classroom.

Laboratory Resourcesand Technology Tools

Laboratory equipment and technology, usedproperly, extends and enhances the learningexperience for students. Anyone who has seena young student’s face light up with under-standing after studying a drop of pond waterunder a microscope knows the truth of thisstatement. Traditional types of equipment,such as test tubes, balances, and metersticks,have long had a prominent role in effectivescience programs. In addition, accomplishedteachers have in their instructional repertoireknowledge of modern laboratory tools andtechniques that sufficiently prepare studentsfor a wide range of post-secondary choicesrelated to science. Instructional technologydevices, such as graphing calculators, desktop

and handheld computers, probes, and Web-based resources, are becoming increasinglyavailable and useful, as more sophisticatedinteractive education software is developedfor them. Accomplished science teachersknow how to make full use of this array oftools, as well as other emerging technologies,in ways that contribute to students’ activescience explorations and accurate understand-ings. Teachers who do not have access toadvanced equipment use all available technol-ogy and tools, no matter how basic, and advo-cate for improved resources. They also teachabout advanced technology tools, to preparetheir students for access to these resources inthe future.

The tools of electronic technology canassist in collecting, analyzing, and reportinglaboratory data; serve as reference stations;and extend the range of experiences availableto the student. Experiments too dangerous,too costly, or only available at a distance canbe brought into the classroom for collabora-tive data analysis through the Internet. Forexample, students from different areas of thecountry can exchange information about thepH of local rainfall and gain insights intonational and global weather patterns, airpollution, and energy pathways, while enrich-ing their ability to make scientific connectionsusing original data. Video and digital camerasallow students and teachers to collect data onmany phenomena—for instance, document-ing the phases of the moon, analyzing color,or quantifying complex motions, as well asbringing their own science-related projectsand experiences into the classroom for discus-sion. Accomplished teachers also understandthe importance of communicating informa-tion in varied media that best convey theintended message or analysis, and they designinstruction so that students use such tools asmultimedia presentations. Teachers havestudents take advantage of these technologytools to aid the students’ thinking; they knowthat scientific knowledge results from makingsense of information, not from raw data itself.

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Accomplished teachers also take otherwisepassive uses of technology, such as the pres-entation of a video clip, and make them activeand student-centered through previewingactivities, discussion during viewing, andfollow-up activities. For example, teachersmight have students use an action sequence ofa film clip to calculate the velocity and accel-eration of moving bodies.

Teachers promote independent student useof resources for learning as much as possible.They provide hands-on experiences withmechanical, electrical, and optical tools. Theyhelp students develop a positive attitudetoward the use of tools and instruments as anextension of the five senses. Accomplishedteachers are well aware of the safety issuesrelevant to student use of some equipment andmaterials. They understand how to adapt toolsand procedures, so students can participatefully in scientific investigations withoutcompromising either safety or academic rigor.(See Standard V—Sustaining a LearningEnvironment.)

Print Resources

Accomplished teachers know that readingscan serve as important auxiliaries to theirstudents’ growth in science literacy. They usewritten texts to support carefully plannedcurricular goals, instructional strategies, andongoing assessments, not as a curricularformula to be blindly followed or as a substi-tute for the exercise of professional judgment.They have clear criteria for evaluating thequality of textual materials, including suchfactors as the accuracy and depth with whicha limited number of topics are treated; thethought-provoking and engaging quality ofthe prose; and the recognition of the contribu-tions of many cultures and diverse individualsto the development of science and technology.Teachers direct students to sources of relatedinformation—the library media center,science periodicals, monographs, Web sites,

or databases—so that the textbook is neverseen as the sole source of scientific knowl-edge. They know and can articulate theirreasons for having students use a particulartext. They teach students strategies that enablethem to comprehend expository texts andgraphics successfully. They also help studentsevaluate the credibility of sources and thevalidity of information.

Local Environment asResource

The local environment provides another richresource for science teachers to use to expandstudent science learning. For example, teach-ers might take students to local naturepreserves, wetlands, parks, deserts, zoos, orrivers to do research. Teachers might also askstudents to bring in rock and soil samplesfrom their own neighborhoods to study atschool or to map the school grounds for floraand fauna. Using the local environment notonly enriches science understanding but alsohelps students make connections among thescience disciplines. (See Standard IV—Engaging the Science Learner and StandardXII—Connecting with Families and theCommunity.)

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Understanding Science Teaching


Reflections on Standard III:

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Establishing a Favorable Context for Student Learning

This second section pertains to those aspects of professional practice—motivating effort, shap-ing the classroom culture, and engaging and holding high expectations for all students—thatenable Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers to create a positivelearning environment.

Standard IV: Engaging the Science Learner

Perhaps the clearest indication of accom-plished teaching in any discipline can be

found in the response of students. Thestudents of accomplished science teachersare constructively engaged in building deepand profound knowledge of the natural andengineered worlds. Students participatecreatively in solving problems, offer ideasand listen attentively to the hypotheses ofothers, and generally display their involve-ment in and enjoyment of the process ofdiscovery. Accomplished science teachersmove their students toward meaningful anddemonstrable learning gains in science byenlisting their students’ concerted effort andengaging them actively in learning.

Accomplished teachers are passionateabout science; they exhibit a contagiousenthusiasm in their teaching of the subject,its technological applications, and the natu-ral world around them. This excitement neednot be expressed ostentatiously; what is keyis that students see that the pursuit of scienceis a source of intellectual satisfaction andintrigue for their teachers. Teachers are life-long learners; for them, studying the naturalworld is like following the plot twists of anexciting thriller. They have a solid knowl-edge base in science, yet they are codiscov-erers alongside their students, demonstratingthat false starts, blind leads, mistakes, and

anomalous results are part of the inquiryprocess.

Whenever possible, teachers choose activi-ties and topics that relate to their students’interests, experiences, and cultures and thatsupport the curriculum they teach. They alsodraw on current events regarding science.Science is presented as a way of knowingconcepts that explain how and why thingshappen the way they do, in a way that buildson and enlivens the concepts. Accomplishedteachers know that focusing on the technolog-ical applications of a scientific principle canbe a particularly effective way of grounding adiscussion in the students’ reality.

Accomplished teachers do not simplypresent a topic; they introduce it in a captivat-ing way. For example, they may use thenovelty of a natural phenomenon (a fish thatcan change its gender) or the discrepancybetween what students expect to happen andwhat actually occurs (blowing air over the topof a piece of paper raises it) to pique theirstudents’ interest. In general, teachers intro-duce knowledge about science in the form ofquestions to be explored rather than answersto be learned. As teachers engage studentsactively in learning, they closely monitorstudents’ progress and make adjustments intheir instructional approaches as needed. (See Standard IX—Assessing for Results.)


Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers sparkstudent interest in science and promote active and sustained learning, so allstudents achieve meaningful and demonstrable growth toward learning goals.

Accomplished teachers also extend sciencelearning through student involvement beyondthe classroom. For example, accomplishedteachers may integrate science learning withpromotion of civic responsibility by makingstudents aware of nearby service organiza-tions that have a scientific component. Theymay also search out meaningful projects thatare feasible for students to undertake, rangingfrom engaging students in science fairs andother science competitions to developingcampaigns to encourage healthy nutritionalhabits or community recycling, or designing

water-conserving gardens in drought-suscep-tible communities. (See Standard III—Understanding Science Teaching andStandard XII—Connecting with Families andthe Community.)

Through innovative and effective methods,accomplished science teachers are able tocapture students’ interest and energy andchannel them toward meaningful learninggoals.

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Reflections on Standard IV:

29

Engaging the Science Learner


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Standard V: Sustaining aLearning Environment

Influencing the quality of human associa-tions—how students interact with one

another and with the teacher—is a significantaspect of creating a productive learning envi-ronment that favors both the academic andthe personal growth of students. Teachersknow that students from diverse back-grounds can learn from one another in thecontext of a positive class environment.Accomplished science teachers deliberatelyfoster settings in which students play activeroles as science investigators in a mutuallysupportive learning community.

Such teachers know that scientific work isbest carried out in a cooperative, internallyregulated, social context. Scientists cooper-ate on an international scale, subjecting oneanother’s findings to validation by a commu-nity of peers. Consequently, individual scien-tists have a strong incentive to be as accurate,objective, honest, open to new explanations,and skeptical of their own conclusions as possible.

Like adults, students need a healthy, stim-ulating, and supportive work environment,one that welcomes the open expression ofideas and encourages the search for greaterunderstanding and knowledge. Nonetheless,students sometimes find themselves insettings where abusive language, put-downs,sexual harassment, and bigotry are acceptedand where prejudice and disrespect exist.From the outset of the school year, accom-plished teachers actively combat such perni-cious behavior. They foster a sense ofcommunity by encouraging student interac-tions that show concern for others and by

dealing constructively with socially inappro-priate behavior. They create a communitythat ensures students’ physical safety and issecure socially and intellectually as well.(See Standard VI—Promoting Diversity,Equity, and Fairness.) When using materialthat may make some students uncomfort-able, accomplished teachers set such issuesin appropriate contexts. They accommodatetheir students’ sensibilities but do not elimi-nate important subjects for students. Withoutfail, teachers work to create instructionalsettings that promote learning for allstudents.

Central to creating such a learning envi-ronment is the personal example that teach-ers set with their own demeanor in theclassroom and beyond. Accomplishedscience teachers are friendly and curious,unabashedly enthusiastic about their interestin science, and receptive to each student’scontributions to the learning process. Theyare good listeners who are open to new ideas.They have a healthy sense of humor and agenuinely caring, respectful attitude towardstudents. Modeling supportive behavior andwelcoming all students is second nature toaccomplished teachers. They know theirpersonal strengths and abilities in workingwith students, and they develop them to theirmaximum capabilities. They also work hardat extending themselves to students, oftenbeyond the school day or at communityevents, recognizing that positive contact withstudents outside the classroom may wellaffect students’ disposition toward theteacher, the subject, and the class itself.


Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers create safe,supportive, and stimulating learning environments that foster high expectations foreach student’s successful science learning and in which students experience andincorporate the values inherent in the practice of science.

Teachers also create a productive learningenvironment as a result of their organiza-tional decisions. They are efficient classroommanagers who know the importance of usingscarce resources—including instructionaltime—well. They establish orderly andworkable learning routines that maximizestudent time on task. Students know what isexpected of them and are confident and will-ing to participate because they perceive thattheir explorations in science are serving theirown purposes. Teachers invite students to bea part of the learning community by assign-ing open-ended tasks that require students topay attention to the dynamics of their inter-actions with others.

Safety in the use of laboratory equipmentis a paramount concern of science teachers.They instruct their students in the use ofsafety equipment, such as eye-protectiondevices, and enforce standard practices. Theymake students aware of their responsibility tofollow proper laboratory procedures and, ingeneral, ensure that safety concerns are notused as a rationale for the elimination ofactivity-based science. They model safepractices and use only approved processeswhile preparing and cleaning their class-rooms. They ensure that all storage practices,materials, equipment, and experiments meetall safety guidelines.

Teachers understand that classroommanagement is, to a great extent, a function ofstudent engagement. When students areinvested in what they are doing in school, thelearning environment becomes self-governingin many respects. By organizing scienceclasses around issues and activities thatemerge from students’ experiences, teacherscreate a dynamic that favors learning. Theyuse these opportunities to introduce issuesthat appeal to students of diverse back-grounds. At the same time, they recognize thateven the best of students can have a bad day.When problems arise, teachers handle themfairly and respectfully. They are skilled at de-escalating confrontations and minimizing

disruptions to the learning process. Theyinvolve students in setting behavioral expec-tations and boundaries.

Teachers have high expectations for thegrowth in science literacy of each student.They understand that science literacy hasmany dimensions; it requires a thoroughunderstanding of the fundamental conceptsand processes of science and incorporatesways of thinking, patterns of discourse, andprecise vocabulary. Accomplished teachershave a vision for the success of their studentsin science that the students might not becapable of having for themselves. They knowwhen to praise and when to push. They alsocommunicate in both explicit and nonverbalterms that they expect an honest, committedeffort from every student.

Teachers know that genuine achievementmotivates students to continue striving to dotheir best. At the same time, they understandthat the threshold of success may vary fromstudent to student. To accommodate thesedifferences, accomplished teachers provideseveral avenues for learning by, for example,choosing open-ended activities that alloweach student multiple paths to approach thecore ideas in the curriculum. They under-stand that mathematics presents a barrier tosome students and devise appropriate alter-native activities that both provide access tothe science concept in question and helpstudents develop the needed fluency in math-ematics. They also understand how to designinstruction that allows students with excep-tional needs, students with literacy difficul-ties, and English language learners to participate fully in class and achievescience literacy.

Teachers help students learn about andinternalize the values inherent in the practiceof science by relying on those values toshape the ethos of the learning community.They help students experience the fact thatscience makes progress through establishinga new consensus based on the strength ofevidence and logical reasoning, not on

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majority vote. At the same time, teachersrecognize that the emotional response ofsome students to a lively, argumentative,inquiry-based classroom might be never toventure an opinion or idea, thereby avoidingthe risk of public failure. Consequently, theywork diligently to establish a congenial andsupportive learning environment wherestudents feel safe to risk full participation,where unconventional theories are welcomed,and where students know that their conjec-tures and half-formed ideas will not besubject to ridicule. They ensure the privacy oftheir students; for example, they do not postgrades on bulletin boards or put student iden-tifying information on class Web pages.Accomplished science teachers help theirstudents realize that they are making progressin their science explorations and salute thisprogress in a variety of ways that encouragestudents to engage in science activities andlearning both in and out of the classroom.

Accomplished science teachers makeinstructional grouping decisions consonantwith their convictions about inclusion andbuilding community. (See Standard VI—Promoting Diversity, Equity, and Fairness.)They are adept at employing whole-class andone-on-one instruction, small collaborativeor cooperative groups, peer coaching, orother clustering arrangements, depending onthe instructional purpose at hand. For exam-ple, they frequently employ heterogeneoussmall-group interactions (with membershipto a group assigned on the basis of anynumber of criteria) because such settingsallow more students to play active roles inthe learning process and bring students ofdiffering backgrounds together to collabo-rate. Accomplished science teachers knowwhen each grouping mode is most appropri-ate and can articulate their reasons for thestrategy chosen at any particular moment.

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Sustaining a Learning Environment


Reflections on Standard V:

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Standard VI: PromotingDiversity, Equity, and Fairness

Accomplished science teachers know thatgiving each student equal access to an

empowering science education requiresresponding sensitively to human differencesand finding and building on individualstrengths. They help students see that thedrive to understand the natural environmentis a basic, common, human one that individu-als from all ethnic groups and cultures have engaged in through recorded time.Accomplished science teachers recognizethat women, people of color, members of lowsocioeconomic groups, and students withdisabilities and special learning needs histor-ically have been discouraged and excludedfrom the sciences, both in academia and inthe world of work. They work to ensure thatthese groups receive encouragement andinterventions that facilitate full participationin science.

Accomplished teachers create classroomsthat enable all students to succeed in thestudy of challenging and significant science.As a fundamental presumption, they believethat every student can succeed in science.They expect each of their students to workhard; they publicly acknowledge studentswho give an honest effort and are persistentin their prompting of underachievers. In theirclasses, no student is allowed to disappear.They promote a deep and sophisticatedunderstanding of science in all students.

Teachers build on the strengths of allstudents. They know that every student comesto school with a unique set of experiences,

personal history, and knowledge of the world.They honor the diversity of aspects of culturethat students bring into the classroom. Theyuse examples derived from students’ cultures,communities, and home environments todemonstrate the relevance of science andtechnology in students’ daily lives and to paypublic tribute to student-demonstrated expert-ise. Teachers also recognize the importance ofrecruiting family and parental participation insupporting students’ science explorations andtake measures to follow through on thatknowledge.7 They work to ensure that allstudents have adult role models by findingmentors who encourage and support the scien-tific growth of their students, especially thosewho lack a significant adult presence in theirlives. (See Standard XII—Connecting withFamilies and the Community.)

Teachers are aware that science may feellike alien territory to certain students—notjust intellectually, but socially, culturally, andemotionally. Accordingly, they make sure thatthese students frequently hear and receive themessage that “people like me” have excelledin science and that, therefore, they can toowithout sacrificing their group identity.Teachers keep role models of successfulscientists from diverse backgrounds and fromboth genders before their students. They knowand appreciate the significance of scientificdevelopments from other cultures and thecontributions scientists from other cultureshave made to the understanding of the naturalworld. Teachers incorporate these elements


Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers ensure thatall students, including those from groups that have historically not been encour-aged to enter the world of science and that experience ongoing barriers,succeed in the study of science and understand the importance and relevanceof science.

7. The word parent, orits derivatives such asparental, is used inthis document to referto the people who arethe primary caregiversand guardians of children.

into instruction to enhance student knowl-edge, skills, and attitudes.

In the classroom setting, teachers proac-tively involve students from underrepresentedgroups in taking the lead in science. For exam-ple, they may frequently organize theirstudents in small groups and have them worktogether toward a common goal. This tech-nique, when properly applied, can signifi-cantly enhance the learning experience andachievement of students from underrepre-sented groups. Teachers are careful to monitorthe participation of students in groups, makingsure that all have an equal opportunity toparticipate in key roles and adjusting groupmembership as needed. For example, theymay sometimes pair girls with girls and boyswith boys during laboratory study to makesure that gender does not determine participa-tion in laboratory experiments and investiga-tions. Teachers are also strong advocates forstudents who need special accommodations toparticipate fully in the laboratory setting.

Accomplished teachers are especiallyaware of the issue of gender equity inscience. They identify and address subtlesignals that indicate girls and boys are havingdifferent science experiences, and theyimmediately stop overt sexual harassment,prejudice, or stereotyping. They ensure thatresources in the classroom are equitablydistributed and that all students engage inhands-on participation. They are careful tocall on both boys and girls equitably and toallow the same wait time for responses.Accomplished teachers actively combat anysuggestion that girls cannot—or choose notto—do science. They encourage all theirstudents to pursue all subdisciplines ofscience.

Accomplished teachers acknowledge theirown biases and recognize that these biasescan affect their teaching. Through reflectivebehavior, they make sure that fairness andrespect for individuals permeates theirinstructional practice. They recognize thatcertain groups benefit from an increased

likelihood of success in the science class-room and create ways to level the playingfield and close the achievement gap for allstudents. For example, teachers understandthe privilege that is often inherent in the highsocioeconomic background of students, suchas access to high-quality curricula, facilities,and equipment, and plentiful informationabout and access to science careers.Accomplished teachers create ways to bringthese benefits and opportunities to allstudents. They level the playing field for, andclose the achievement gap among all groupsof students, while raising the scienceachievement of all.

Teachers realize that language itself maylimit students’ participation in science classand that difficulties with language affect awide range of students. These studentsinclude learners of English as a newlanguage, native English speakers who comefrom low-literacy backgrounds, and studentswith exceptional needs. Teachers understandthe different requirements for comprehend-ing narrative text and the expository text ofscience textbooks. Accomplished teachersare aware that the sophisticated and preciselanguage of science can be a challenge forspeakers of nonstandard English, and teach-ers help students properly use the languageof the discipline without watering downeither language or content. In working withall students, teachers use a natural speechrate with clear enunciation, choose theirwords appropriately and carefully, andfrequently restate important points. Theyprovide helpful nonverbal cues to meaningby using sensory aids to illustrate key ideas.They carry out regular comprehensionchecks to confirm whether students arefollowing the concept under investigation.They ask students to brainstorm and list whatstudents already know, and then build on thatfoundation—offering multiple communica-tion options for those whose command ofEnglish is limited—in introducing newtopics. Thus, they create opportunities for

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37

Promoting Diversity, Equity, and Fairness


students to communicate their knowledgeand understandings as a means of developingstudent usage of academic science discourse.Teachers ensure that students for whomEnglish is a new language have full access tothe science curriculum, and they honorstudents’ native languages.

Two of the most important techniques forworking with students for whom English is anew language mirror key aspects of accom-plished practice for all students. First,accomplished teachers frame science learn-ing in terms of the major concepts. Second,rather than merely reiterate rote concepts,they provide instruction mediated by directexperiences so students can construct deep understandings that replace or are reconciledwith previous mental schema.

Accomplished teachers remove, or at leastreduce, other roadblocks to their students’success in science as well. For example, they

know that many students lack the numeracynecessary to study sophisticated sciencetopics. Accomplished science teachers findways to support, supplement, and increasethe mathematical capabilities of theirstudents. They ensure that even students whostruggle mathematically have access not onlyto science education but also to sciencesuccess. Teachers also work with studentswho have less familiarity with technology tohelp them gain facility in using the ever-changing tools available for scientificresearch.

Accomplished science teachers are dedi-cated to the growth in science literacy of allstudents and are prepared to do whatever ittakes to make that occur.

Reflections on Standard VI:

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This third section of Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards focuses on the directeffect that accomplished science teaching has on student learning. The overall goal of scienceinstruction has already been described as the fostering of science literacy in all students.Consistent with the Introduction and the description of a teacher’s background knowledge ofscience in Standard II—Understanding Science, science literacy is presented in this section interms of developing in students three main capacities: experience with the science inquiryprocess itself, including the attitudes and habits of mind that characterize scientific investiga-tion and advance students’ learning of key science concepts (Standard VII—Fostering ScienceInquiry); an awareness of the human contexts of science, including the history of its co-evolu-tion with technology and mathematics and the impact of science and technology on civilization(Standard VIII—Making Connections in Science); and science literacy demonstrated throughtechniques for assessing student progress (Standard IX—Assessing for Results).

Standard VII: Fostering Science Inquiry

Scientific information is growing exponen-tially. Even fleeting coverage of the ever-

expanding amount of scientific informationwould be impossible in school science.Accomplished science teachers know that, asimportant as it is for students to acquire thefundamental understandings of science, theymust also learn the strategies and proceduresfor approaching a problem scientifically. Abasic goal of science instruction is to helpstudents acquire the mental operations, habitsof mind, and attitudes that characterize theprocess of scientific inquiry—that is, to teachstudents how scientists question, think, andreason. In the classrooms of accomplishedscience teachers, students engage in scientificinquiry by drawing upon prior sciencecontent knowledge as they deepen andexpand their understanding of science.

Science teachers understand that theinquiry process is not a uniform series of

predetermined steps and that scientists varywidely in how they seek knowledge aboutnatural phenomena. Nevertheless, certainpatterns in the methods of successful scien-tists are evident, for example, in their capac-ity to recognize problems, ask relevantquestions, formulate working hypotheses,observe phenomena, record and interpret dataand graphs accurately, reach tentative conclu-sions consistent with data, and express them-selves clearly about the significance offindings. In the classrooms of accomplishedscience teachers, the scientific process is nota linear series of steps but a cyclical processbased on data collection and the continualrefinement of questions. Students’ acquisitionof these mental capacities, and the habits ofmind and attitudes that underlie them, arecentral to the science curriculum.

Accomplished science teachers use theentire spectrum of inquiry, from teacher-


Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers engagestudents in active exploration to develop the mental operations and habits of mind that are essential to advancing strong content knowledge and scientific literacy.

guided inquiry through student-driven inves-tigations. They ensure that hands-on activitiesoccupy their students intellectually and setthe stage for increasingly sophisticated class-room discourse. This focus on the inter-change of ideas, whether through discussionsor the sharing of written work, is key, forthrough such discourse and consensus, aclassroom of individuals seeking knowledgetransforms into a community of learners seek-ing common understanding. As individualstudents communicate their observations totheir peers, they discover to what extent theirperceptions are shared—and if not, why not.In the course of this multidirectional conver-sation, students refine, articulate, and elabo-rate on their own understandings of thenatural world while developing an under-standing of the rules of evidence and modesof argument that guide the inquiry process, aswell as learning vocabulary characteristic ofscientific discourse.

How is that ability in inquiry best facili-tated? Teachers recognize that students profitfrom doing. To learn to view the worldthrough a scientific lens, students must haveabundant opportunities to practice the myriadof skills that such an ambitious goal entails.They must have frequent opportunities to takepart in hands-on science activities that arefollowed by designated time to reflect on thesignificance of what they have done. Forexample, accomplished teachers promotelong-term investigations and authenticstudent research in and beyond the classroom.They make full use of available scientifictechniques and technology and capitalize onthe laboratory resources they have available.They know that many times an idea orconcept can be addressed by an activity usinghousehold materials, such as string, maskingtape, or balloons, rather than an expensivepiece of equipment. Accomplished teachersin technology-rich environments make fulluse of the resources available, such as data-acquisition hardware and software, imagingtechnologies, and tools of biotechnology.

They introduce their students to data avail-able from outside sources and teach the criti-cal-thinking skills necessary to evaluate such sources.

Accordingly, teachers organize their class-rooms around frequent, open-ended investiga-tions of natural phenomena in which studentsinitiate the pursuit of knowledge. In choosingor designing activities, teachers keep anumber of important criteria in mind to ensurethat the activities are standards-based and leadto significant learning. They use science andscience education research to help find activi-ties that are age-appropriate to the develop-mental level of their students; likely to raiseinteresting, worthwhile questions; relevant tothe lives of all their students; and flexible.(See Standard III—Understanding ScienceTeaching.) A good activity allows activeparticipation and student control over manip-ulating variables, posing questions, and usingtechnology and data analysis. Accomplishedteachers also select activities that engagestudents in using and improving their researchand communication skills, such as writinglaboratory reports and preparing presentationswith graphs and visual displays. As part ofresearch projects and investigations, accom-plished teachers teach students how to inte-grate laboratory data with research from avariety of printed and electronic resources inways that effectively communicate the resultsof student investigations.

Teachers know that the processes ofscience are underpinned by such qualities ascuriosity, openness to new ideas, skepticism,the demand for evidence, respect for reason,honesty, objectivity, the rejection of dogma orauthority as arbiters of whose positionprevails, the acceptance of ambiguity, thewillingness to modify explanations in light ofnew evidence, and teamwork. Teachers workto incorporate these values in their classroomsso that students acquire a sense of howscience communities function by being part ofsuch a community. (See Standard V—Sustaining a Learning Environment.)

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In facilitating classroom discussions oractivities, accomplished teachers ask thought-provoking and relevant questions. Such ques-tions stimulate a rich interchange of ideas asteachers and students test one another’sassumptions, premises, and conclusions.Raising questions integrally related to thestudent’s concerns of the moment is one pathto success in this arena. A well-posed ques-tion will often permit the students to push thediscussion forward. Accomplished teachersalso know how to guide students to ask ques-tions that teachers believe will lead to impor-tant learning. Because they recognize thevalue of post-activity debriefings, teachersengage students in discussions to tie togetherall the activity’s elements and to ensure that students learned what they should have learned.

Teachers monitor their direct involvementin classroom discourse. They allow appropri-ate wait time after posing questions and afterreceiving responses to give students time tothink. They value all contributions to adiscussion, even as they coach students toprobe the reasons that lie behind the opinion,and emphasize the need for credible evidenceand consistency. They know when and hownot to say too much and facilitate student-to-student interactions that reflect peer-to-peerdiscussions by scientists. Discourse in theirclassrooms is characterized by the kind oftentative, hypothetical, exploratory languagethat scientists themselves use.

Accomplished teachers are mindful that along-term goal of science education is tocultivate lifelong learners. They understandthat students need time to develop fluency

with science inquiry processes. They encour-age this growth by offering their studentsabundant practice and, when opportunemoments present themselves, demonstrationsand directed instruction. For example, theymight take the opportunity to talk through ascience question that comes up in the courseof a class discussion, “making public” thethought processes and strategies that anexpert in science uses when faced with a newchallenge. Accordingly, they take care tofoster their students’ intellectual independ-ence—at first, modeling and demonstratingthe thinking processes of a scientist for theirstudent apprentices, but gradually makingway for increasingly student-generated questions.

In pursuing an inquiry-based curriculum,accomplished science teachers take risks.They are willing to live with the sometimesunpredictable consequences of an activity-and student-centered pedagogy. They knowthat experiments and student interpretationsof them will not always—or even veryoften—proceed exactly as planned. Theyendure the temporary frustration on the partof students as a predictable aspect of theinquiry process because they know that theconclusions students earn are lastingly theirown, and that acquiring the processes ofscience implies experiencing all the sensa-tions of scientists—including, from time totime, confusion.

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Fostering Science Inquiry


Reflections on Standard VII:

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Standard VIII: MakingConnections in Science

Science is a way of looking at the worldand interpreting it in a thoughtful,

creative, and logical manner. It is an ongoingsense-making activity with deep roots inhumankind’s collective past and huge impli-cations for the shape of its future. Forstudents to see science as alive with possibil-ities, accomplished science teachers knowthat students need regular exposure to thehuman contexts of science. They need tolearn stories from the past about the struggles,setbacks, and triumphs of individuals andteams of investigators in their quests fordeeper understanding of the natural world.They need to see examples of the interde-pendent relationship among science, technol-ogy, and mathematics and examples of ethicaldilemmas, both current and past, thatsurround particular scientific activities,discoveries, and technologies. They needopportunities to think about and work throughthe pervasive, sometimes deleterious,economic, cultural, and social changesscience has induced. Accomplished teachersare aware of the origins of science and makeexplicit the multiple connections between itsprogress and the course of civilizations.Through their instructional choices, accom-plished teachers invite students to explorethese relationships across the disciplinesinstead of adhering rigidly to disciplinaryboundaries.

Accomplished teachers fill their class-rooms with engaging and stimulating materialthat students can use in their investigations of

science history. They understand that studentsmay identify with certain groups, and theyprepare materials relevant to their students.They introduce topics and issues that willentice all their students—especially girls andunderrepresented minorities—to participateactively and enthusiastically in class discus-sions and activities. They know that the studyof science history is an excellent opportunityto have their students read and write in the discipline.

Accomplished science teachers provide acomplete picture of the human contexts ofscience. In broaching a topic, they acquaintstudents with stories of some of the peopleand major events that produced or wereaffected by a discovery. On occasion, theymay confront students with the same intel-lectual problem faced by a previous investi-gator and ask for proposed solutions. Theydo so for a variety of reasons. One of the bestways for students to learn how science tran-spires is to encounter concrete examples thatillustrate the reality, for example, that scienceis a collective enterprise that ordinarilygrows by accretion through the contributionsof many investigators operating within astable paradigm; that paradigm shifts orrevolutions are usually resisted by the scien-tific establishment; that scientists are subjectto the same weaknesses and temptations aspeople in other lines of work; and that thescientific community demands reproducibleproof and eventually yields to logic based on it.


Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers create oppor-tunities for students to examine the human contexts of science, including its history,reciprocal relationship with technology, ties to mathematics, and impacts on soci-ety, so that students make connections across the disciplines of science, amongother subject areas, and in their lives.

Accomplished teachers also make surethat students develop a rich and diversehistorical perspective about science becauseteachers realize that such knowledge is partof students’ shared cultural heritage. Theseteachers emphasize the inquisitive nature ofscientists, the ways scientific investigationhas manifested itself in leading to scientificdiscovery, and the role a healthy sense ofwonder plays in the lives of all people whovalue science. Certain episodes are so semi-nal to the development of modern science—for example, Copernicus’s model ofplanetary motion displacing man from thecenter of the universe, Lise Meitner’s earlywork in modern atomic theory, CharlesDrew’s discovery of blood plasma—that allstudents deserve access to them. A historicalperspective makes students aware of theimpressive sophistication of early civiliza-tions, such as Chinese, Egyptian, Greek,Aztec, Incan, and Polynesian scientific think-ing. Teachers incorporate and include thecontributions of historically underrepre-sented groups, such as women, minorities,and indigenous peoples. Accomplishedteachers teach their students about the impactof science on art and literature and about theuniversal drive in all societies to understandand better use their natural environment.

The instructional practices that character-ize accomplished science teachers are alsonotable for their integrated quality acrosssubject areas. Accomplished teachers havedeveloped powerful mental schema for inter-preting phenomena in terms of large interdis-ciplinary patterns. They actively push forinterdisciplinary connections within scienceand with other disciplines. They might, forexample, have students make connectionsamong the disciplines of sciences by havingstudents analyze concentrations of pollutantsin water and air (chemistry) and discuss theemerging theory of sepsis (biology). A cross-disciplinary unit could be based on the writ-ing of an author such as Charles Dickens.Students could read a Dickens novel (reading

and language arts), and they could explorethe environmental issues of late nineteenth-century London (science). Students couldthen prepare impact studies to examine theinfluence that Dickens had on the decision ofLondon magistrates to pass laws to controlpollution (civics and science). They alsocould study the child labor laws thatstemmed from scientific progress during theIndustrial Revolution (social studies (historyand science).

Historically, the scientific endeavor hasdeveloped out of a fruitful union of science,mathematics, and technology. Studying thehistory of science tends to highlight thereciprocal relationship in the development ofthese three modes of thought, each of whichhas an essential place in the education of thescientifically literate individual. Teachershelp students explore this mutual interde-pendence, including helping students under-stand the differences between science—theeffort to gain knowledge about nature for itsown sake—and technology—the effort toassert control over nature for the benefit ofhumankind—as well as the use of mathemat-ics in both.

By engaging students in thinking criticallyabout the interaction of technological changeand society, accomplished science teachersenable students to appreciate that theseendeavors provide important benefits, butthat technological solutions can exist onlywithin natural and ethical constraints; thatthese solutions frequently have significantand unforeseen side effects; that all technolo-gies involve tradeoffs; and that the public—as consumers and voters—ultimately mustdecide which technologies to rely on as asociety. Teachers share with students exam-ples of such key advances in science andtechnology as those in medicine that havereduced infant mortality and extended theaverage life span. They also help studentsunderstand the ethical complexities ofscience and technology and their impact onglobal issues in such contemporary examples

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as the human genome, cloning, weapons ofmass destruction, and germ warfare.

Teachers help students understand how touse the process of science inquiry to searchfor information on which to base decisions inall areas of their lives. Accomplished teach-ers ensure that students recognize the appro-priate foundation for their decisions; somedecisions will be based on scientific facts,whereas others will be grounded in moralbeliefs, worldviews, religion, and family andcultural values. In guiding their students indiscussing the ethical issues raised by

science, accomplished teachers do notimpose their own values but help theirstudents develop the critical-thinking skillsthey will need to make appropriate choices ina world dominated by fast-moving changesin all the sciences. Teachers understand thatcritical thinking has a motivating power andintrinsic value in helping students understandthe nature of technology and its influence onthe quality of life.

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Making Connections in Science


Reflections on Standard VIII:

46



Standard IX: Assessing for Results

Assessment—the process of using formaland informal methods of data-gathering

to determine students’ growing scientificliteracy—is a crucial, ongoing component ofthe pedagogy of the accomplished scienceteacher, used to inform instruction andimprove student learning. It is especiallyimportant as the education profession, alllevels of government, and society at largemove toward requiring more tangibleevidence of learning. Accomplished teachershave command of a wide range of assess-ment methods and strategies that align withthe central goals and key concepts of thescience curriculum, and they willingly holdthemselves accountable for what goes on intheir classrooms. They understand that theirprimary purpose is to advance the sciencelearning and development of the students intheir charge. They demonstrate that theirstudents have made meaningful gains in theknowledge, skills, and attitudes relevant fortheir discipline, school, and district.

Accomplished science teachers under-stand the complexities inherent in defininglearning goals and outcomes. They know thatdifferent teaching and learning contextsrequire tailored goals and assessments tomeasure student progress. They also realizethat the knowledge, skills, and attitudesexpected to be learned by students—includ-ing the ability to understand scientific content,design and conduct experiments, make argu-ments from evidence, communicate scientificinformation, and work collaboratively on a

team—are interrelated and may require a vari-ety of formal and informal measurements.

Accomplished teachers use a variety ofmeasurement tools, ranging from tests andquizzes to portfolios, interviews, and studentwriting such as journals, to document themeaningful positive growth in students’science learning, and they use this informationto inform their instruction. They measureadvances in students’ science knowledgethrough a combination of assessments andalong several dimensions. For some students,meaningful gains might be completing amajor research project, solving a particularlycomplex science problem, or achieving highscores on a portfolio defense or a high-stakestest. For others, an initial gain might be achange in attitude or attendance that leads tomore significant gains in science knowledge.(See Standard I—Understanding Students.)Accomplished teachers can also show howtheir students have grown in terms of othermeasures of student progress, such as changesin students’ behavior, communication skills,and academic discourse. In all cases, however,accomplished teachers are able to documentmultiple, meaningful, and positive changesthat occur to the students in their classes.

In the daily practice of accomplishedteachers, assessment and the daily flow of instructional activity are difficult to separate or distinguish from each other.Assessment takes place before, during, andafter instruction and interacts with it in waysthat are formal and informal, embedded, and


Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers employmultiple, ongoing methods that are fair and accurate to analyze the progress ofindividual students in light of well-defined learning goals, and their studentsachieve meaningful and demonstrable gains in the learning of science. Teachersclearly communicate these gains to appropriate audiences.

ongoing. These might include objective testmethods, portfolio reviews, science projects,laboratory reports, interviews, essays, andother techniques. Portfolios in particular canbe effective in gauging student progress overtime, provided they are meaningful records ofthe natural pulse of the classroom intellectuallife. Accomplished teachers systematicallymonitor the quality of student contributions togroup discussions. They observe perform-ances during laboratory exercises to evaluatestudents’ reasoning, application of thoughtprocesses, and growing skills in laboratorytechniques. Such teachers also record theirobservations of student activities andperformances in a thoughtful and systematicway. For example, they observe each studentat regular intervals rather than only whensomething unusual has happened to promptan observation.

Teachers also recognize that the achieve-ment of their students does not begin whenthey first enter the high school building.Science literacy develops throughoutstudents’ entire school careers, from earlychildhood through young adulthood.Accomplished teachers identify and focus ontheir part of the science curriculum contin-uum. For example, at the start of the schoolyear, they use pre-tests to establish a baselineof their students’ science knowledge;throughout the year they then use post-teststo measure students’ progress. They use care-fully crafted diagnostic instruments andstrategies to identify students’ understand-ings of specific science topics, beginningtheir instruction with a clear understandingof the starting knowledge of each student.(See Standard III—Understanding ScienceTeaching.) They also evaluate their studentsin terms of multiple intelligences, learningstyles, and preferences. (See Standard I—Understanding Students.)

Teachers throughout the United States facemandated testing programs, whether at thelocal, district, or state level. Accomplishedteachers actively seek information on the

disciplinary standards and curriculum frame-works that underlie the high-stakes tests. Theyalso keep abreast of new testing environ-ments, such as online assessments. Theyincorporate this information into their class-room science activities to prepare theirstudents for testing procedures while helpingthem learn. Accomplished teachers alsoprepare students for external measurementmethods in ways that use inquiry-based learn-ing. They know how to acquire and use thedata that large-scale tests provide, and theyadvocate for the appropriate reporting andinterpretation of that data.

Throughout their practice, teachers inte-grate performance tasks that incorporate prob-lem solving to teach students the processes ofscience inquiry and the values and habits ofmind associated with this way of analyzingthe natural and engineered worlds.Assessments devised by accomplishedscience teachers probe students’ depth ofunderstanding, in addition to their ability torecall facts or work an equation. These tasksrequire students to use higher-order thinking,deductive reasoning, and writing skills. Forexample, teachers might ask students to usetechnology resources to analyze a novel prob-lem or work through a laboratory investiga-tion, create a science portfolio, construct agraphic organizer such as a concept map,evaluate an ethical dilemma, or write a criticalessay. These assessments might requireseveral discrete, logical steps to solve oradmit to more than one solution. They mighteven require a period of days or weeks tocomplete. Whatever their particular form,such assessments reveal to the teacher thestudents’ thinking pattern, in light of currentresearch-based cognitive learning theories.Teachers are able to determine when studentsused the right method to arrive at a wronganswer, for example, or used a flawed methodto achieve a correct answer. Because theseassessments are deeply informative, teacherscan use them to determine the direction offuture instruction.

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Student understanding of assessmentresults plays an important part in the accom-plished teacher’s approach to assessment.Teachers involve students in assessing theirown progress because they know the abilityto self-assess fosters the growth of independ-ent learners. Students might select whichprojects to include in their science portfolioand justify their choices with a reflectiveessay, which itself might become part of aportfolio and the basis for a student-teacherconference. Teachers might encouragestudents to participate in identifying criteriafor group-created rubrics that could be usedto assess student learning. Accomplishedscience teachers are completely open withstudents about the purpose and content ofassessments, and they share with students therubrics they will use to evaluate responses.They also return to students more than just agrade. Their feedback is rich and informa-tive, telling students what the grade means,where they are doing well, and where theyneed to improve.

Accomplished teachers develop andprovide to students a clear evaluation plandescribing how student performance will bemeasured, recorded, reported, and inter-preted. They address the rights of studentsand their parents as related to confidentialityand academic honesty. They prepareevidence-based reports of their evaluationsof student progress that clearly communicateto students, parents, and administrators thekind and quality of gains—or lack thereof—in students’ understanding of science.Teachers provide parents with meaningfulfeedback that includes examples of the kindof work their child is doing in science classand that is performance standards forstudents at the same developmental level.(See Standard XII—Connecting withFamilies and the Community.)

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Assessing for Results


Reflections on Standard IX:

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ADOLESCENCE AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD/SCIENCE 51ADOLESCENCE AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD/SCIENCE

Promoting Professional Development and Outreach

This final section of Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards addresses thoseaspects of practice that guide instruction and improve teaching continually, both in the class-room and beyond: using self-evaluation and analysis (Standard X—Reflecting on Teaching andLearning), contributing to the continuing growth of the larger professional community(Standard XI—Developing Collegiality and Leadership), and recruiting home and communitysupport for the science program (Standard XII—Connecting with Families and the Community).

Standard X: Reflecting onTeaching and Learning

Accomplished science teaching comes inpart from experiences working with

students and addressing their specific needswhile regularly reflecting on how one’sactions and initiatives are fostering studentlearning. Accomplished science teacherscontinually strive to become masters of theirprofession. They are lifelong learners whowork to improve the quality of their practice.They recognize that the teaching of science isan evolving field in which some issues aresettled and others remain to be resolved.They recognize that the demands of accom-plished science teaching change over time;indeed, they change with each class and eachstudent. Consequently, accomplished teach-ers regard themselves as working on the frontline of education research. They view eachyear as another opportunity to improve thequality of their own teaching.

Accomplished teachers exercise seasonedjudgment in coping with tough challengesthat do not lend themselves to simple solu-tions. They experiment with new approachesand instructional strategies. They are alert tothe teachable moment and are consistentlyable to take advantage of the unpredictableopportunities that present themselves in thecourse of the school day.

Teachers avail themselves of manyresources in analyzing the appropriatenessand effectiveness of their teaching. Theyseek and use feedback from students,colleagues, administrators, and parents.Other teachers, in particular, are a richsource of perspective and insight. (SeeStandard XI—Developing Collegiality andLeadership.) Accomplished teachers alsoshare their reflections with their colleagues.

Accomplished teachers keep themselvesup-to-date on significant science and educationresearch findings, which they assimilate withthe open-mindedness and skepticism of ascientist. They extend their knowledge of local,state, and national standards and of standards-based teaching strategies. Teachers readprofessional publications and take advantageof professional development opportunities.They add to their classroom repertoire of effec-tive demonstrations, explanatory analogies,and activities that show the promise of intrigu-ing and engaging students and stimulatingstudent thinking. Their classrooms are student-centered but teacher-led. (See Standard III—Understanding Science Teaching.)

Teachers have a vision for their students,the dynamics of their classroom, their ownteaching role, and the future of the profession.

Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers continuallyanalyze, evaluate, and strengthen their practice to improve the quality of theirstudents’ learning experiences.

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They know, and have positions on, the majorcontroversies in the field. They consider newpedagogical ideas and make sound judg-ments regarding their applicability to theirown teaching. They can speak compellinglyabout why they make the pedagogical deci-sions they do and can explain the internallogic underlying the actions they take. Theyclarify their instructional goals to studentsand adapt and extend resources to achievebest practice for all their lessons.

To improve instruction and student learn-ing, accomplished teachers gather and useextensive data from their own classroomsand from outside researchers. Accomplishedteachers also advantage of the capabilities oftechnology in their search for data about theirteaching. For example, they may videotapetheir teaching to later examine the compo-nents of their practice.

Teachers continually analyze and reflecton their practice, asking themselves ques-tions such as, “Why didn’t kids understandthe changing concentration when they didthis titration experiment? Is it that they don’tunderstand the concept of titration?” and“How can we increase our students’ ability tofind patterns in their ecological data?”Accomplished teachers work with theircolleagues—in departmental or team meet-ings, in workshops and conferences, and withcolleagues around the district, state, andnation—to ask questions about their

performance and that of their students anduse those discussions to improve practice.(See Standard XI—Developing Collegialityand Leadership.)

Teachers are aware of their personalstrengths and weaknesses and use thisknowledge to set professional goals. Forexample, they can describe how their partic-ular cultural background, biases, values, andlife experiences might limit or enhance theirteaching effectiveness with their particularschool community, and they commit tobroadening the perspectives of everyoneinvolved.

Accomplished teachers participate in awide range of reflective practices that rein-force their creativity, stimulate their personalgrowth, and enhance their professionalism.They exemplify the highest ethical and moralideals and embrace professional standards inassessing their practice. Ultimately, self-reflection contributes to teachers’ depth ofknowledge and skill and adds dignity to theirpractice. Accomplished science teachersground their entire practice on a profoundbelief in the intellectual and academic meritof teaching. Reflection is therefore a criticalelement that improves and refines theirprofessional life.

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Reflecting on Teaching and Learning


Reflections on Standard X:

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Standard XI: DevelopingCollegiality and Leadership

Accomplished science teachers under-stand that teachers need not and should

not work in isolation; rather, they should beactive members of learning communities. Assuch, they contribute to the improvement ofthe practice of their colleagues as well as tothe instructional program of the school andthe larger professional community. They letall members of the community, includingpolicymakers and parents, know what realscience learning is.

Accomplished teachers strengthen theschool as a learning community in manydifferent ways. They are team players,committed to supporting and learning fromtheir colleagues. They participate in the solu-tion of districtwide and schoolwide problems.They contribute to discussions of policy,especially those related to the K–12 sciencecontinuum, in ways that demonstrate profes-sional responsibility and advocacy withoutbeing partisan. They develop and analyzecurricular materials for their department andparticipate in evaluating state and localscience standards and high-stakes tests. Theycollaborate with learning specialists to ensurethat students with special needs and diversebackgrounds have positive, strong, success-ful, and effective science learning experi-ences. (See Standard VI—PromotingDiversity, Equity, and Fairness.) They dotheir part in discharging administrativeresponsibilities. They act as science resourcesfor colleagues in other disciplines and collab-orate in the planning of integrated curricula.They understand that informal interactionsand peer relationships can be as powerful as

formal mentoring structures, and that leader-ship emerges from either context. Finally,they articulate to students, other practitioners,administrators, families, and the communityat large the virtues of science education andthe forms it must take if all students are tobecome science-literate adults.

Teachers advance the knowledge and prac-tice of colleagues, at the school and beyond,in several other ways as well. For example,they may design and carry out professionaldevelopment activities in science, includingmentoring pre-service and novice teachers.They also may advocate for securing andimplementing current resources and maketheir colleagues aware of new uses of tech-nology. They often take the lead in encourag-ing publishers to improve instructionalmaterials; for example, they may suggest theincorporation of the latest science and scienceeducation research or the inclusion of materi-als reflecting diverse cultures and diversestudent interests. They observe and critiquethe instructional approach of colleagues and,in turn, welcome their peers into their class-rooms and laboratories. They share success-ful practices, organize workshops, or publishin scholarly journals. They may organizeinformal study groups to discuss importanttopics and research papers. They read andpost to electronic discussion groups and mail-ing lists in their subject area. They play anactive part in, and make a positive contribu-tion to, professional organizations and mayserve on local, state, or national educationtask forces. They may work with researchersand scientists to do science, and to make the

Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers contribute tothe quality of the practice of their colleagues, to the instructional program of theschool, and to the work of the larger professional community.

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science more meaningful and accessible tothe community.

Accomplished teachers believe ferventlyin the professional status of teachers. Theyadvocate for and help build a professionalcommunity and foster an atmosphere ofintellectualism. Through their enthusiasmand passion, they encourage their students toconsider a career in science or science teach-ing. Teachers advocate for scholarships foreducation students and may sponsor schoolclubs that focus on teaching, such as tutoringclubs or Future Educators of America.

Accomplished science teachers partici-pate in professional growth activities to thefullest extent their situation allows. Theytake a leadership role within the scienceteaching profession and the broader profes-sional community, sharing their accumulatedwisdom and working to strengthen the prac-tice of their colleagues and the learningopportunities available to the nation’s youth.

Reflections on Standard XI:

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Developing Collegiality and Leadership


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Standard XII: Connectingwith Families and the Community

Accomplished science teachers place apremium on connecting with families

and community members in meaningfulways. They recognize the importance ofestablishing productive, mutual relationshipswith students’ families. They also reach outto communities to enhance student learning.They know that the expectations and actionsof families have a huge impact on the learn-ing success of students. They respect the roleof families as students’ first teachers andacknowledge the high aspirations that mostfamilies have for their children’s education.Early in the school year, they solicit thesupport of parents and other adult caregiversfor the science program. Teachers are recep-tive and welcoming in their attitude; theyestablish communication with the family,seeking information from parents about theirchildren’s strengths, interests, preferences,learning goals, and home life. They are alsoproactive and anticipate parents’ concerns.Timely response and active outreach are hall-marks of their communication activities.

Accomplished teachers provide informa-tion to families about the school scienceprogram’s content, routine, and goals. Theysuggest actions that families can take to helptheir children’s science literacy growth by,for example, providing a quiet place and a settime for doing homework and encouragingthinking and reasoning about everyday natu-ral phenomena inside and outside the home.From time to time, accomplished teachersmay design an intriguing science activity,challenge, or project with an eye toward

involving the whole family in thinking ofsolutions. Accomplished teachers informparents about science opportunities forstudent enrichment beyond the school build-ing, such as resources on the Web and at thepublic library, opportunities for studentinvolvement in community science activities,and science programs after school or duringthe summer. Accomplished science teachersrearrange and adapt activities so that highquality instruction is available for allstudents regardless of the amount of parentalinvolvement. In cases where parental supportis lacking, accomplished science teachersdemonstrate resourcefulness in finding waysto include parents in the education of theiradolescent or young adult.

Accomplished teachers actively seek waysto disseminate information about the scienceprogram by learning what methods workmost effectively in their community. Forsome schools, traditional outreach means—newsletters, school newspapers, parentorganizations, back-to-school nights—continue to be the methods of choice. In otherschools, creative approaches are needed, suchas using community centers, local houses ofworship, or other areas that parents frequentas venues for posting school information.Teachers learn about relevant cultural prac-tices in their community that can affectparent-teacher communication. Because theexperiences of accomplished teachers tellthem that information sent from the class-room does not always reach its intended audi-ence, they actively follow up and keep trying

Accomplished Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teachers proactivelywork with families and communities to serve the best interests of each student.

to establish a reciprocal relationship withtheir students’ families.

Teachers see parents and adult caregiversas their allies. They communicate regularlywith families about their child’s progress inscience and respond thoughtfully to families’concerns. They explain to parents that large-scale tests are just one of many measures oftheir child’s progress. They help parentsunderstand and interpret test scores as indi-cators of achievement by providing themwith concrete examples of what their child,and their child’s peers, can actually do inscience. Accomplished teachers provide richreports of a student’s progress that go beyonda letter grade. (See Standard IX—Assessingfor Results.)

Accomplished teachers embrace technol-ogy as a communication tool. Voicemail ande-mail allow convenient asynchronouscontact. School and classroom Web pagescan both display student work and conveyessential information, such as class readingsand homework assignments. Accomplishedteachers also recognize that not all studentshave computers and other types of technol-ogy at home. To give all students and theirfamilies access, they find out what outside-of-school computer resources are available,such as computers at libraries and commu-nity centers; learn about the policies govern-ing their use; and encourage students andtheir families to use them. When such tech-nological resources are difficult to access,teachers creatively use whatever resourcesare readily available to effectively connectand dialogue with parents.

Science class eventually brings studentsinto contact with important topics, such asevolution, that some portions of the popula-tion may find objectionable. Teachers knowhow to handle criticism on these occasions;they effectively communicate with parents,respecting their private beliefs but standingup for the right of students to encounterscience as a process of inquiry that is driven

by empirical evidence, but is limited by thetechnical instruments available to scientistsat any point in time.

Teachers regard the local community as animportant asset to instruction and studentlearning. They actively recruit families andother community members with science- ortechnology-related backgrounds to contributetheir knowledge, skills, and experiences toinstruction. In addition, they involve studentsin community-based science explorations atsuch places as local museums, parks, andbusinesses. This involvement can focus ondoing research for intellectual satisfaction oron solving a problem, such as analyzing thequality of a local stream, doing a neighbor-hood energy audit, or counting buds or butterflies to monitor local populations. (See Standard III—Understanding ScienceTeaching.)

At the same time, accomplished teachersare conscious of their membership within thecommunity. They are aware of their obliga-tion to give back to the community and tofoster in their students a similar sense ofcommunity responsibility. They encouragetheir students to actively participate in theworld beyond the classroom and help themfind appropriate outlets for their desire tohelp their community. Accomplished teach-ers set an example of community participa-tion and involve their students inscience-related activities that have an altruis-tic motive—for example, volunteering at theregional hospital to help in the blood testinglaboratory or interning at the localEnvironmental Protection Administrationoffice to help measure pollen counts. (See Standard IV—Engaging the ScienceLearner.)

Accomplished teachers see theirstudents’ families and local community as anextension of the school. They take advantageof local resources to bolster the curriculumand foster student learning.

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61

Connecting with Families and the Community


Reflections on Standard XII:

Epilogue

63

The 12 standards in this document represent a professional consensus on the charac-teristics of accomplished practice and provide a profile of the accomplished

Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science teacher. Although the standards are chal-lenging, they are upheld every day by teachers like the ones described in these pages,who inspire and instruct the nation’s youth and lead their profession. By publishing thisdocument and offering National Board Certification to science educators, NBPTS aimsto affirm the practice of the many teachers who meet these standards and challenge othersto strive to meet them. Moreover, NBPTS hopes to bring increased attention to theprofessionalism and expertise of accomplished science educators and in so doing, pavethe way for greater professional respect and opportunity for these essential members ofthe teaching community.

In addition to being a stimulus for self-reflection on the part of teachers at all levelsof performance, Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards is intended to be acatalyst for discussion among administrators, staff developers, and others in the educa-tion community about accomplished practice in this field. If these standards can advancethe conversation about accomplished teaching, they will provide an important steptoward the NBPTS goal of improving student learning in our nation’s schools.



Ann Haley-Oliphant—ChairAssistant ProfessorDepartment of Teacher EducationCollege of EducationMiami UniversityOxford, Ohio

Grace S. Taylor—Vice Chair Biology Teacher/Lead TeacherCurriculum Development Education Development CenterNewton, Massachusetts

Lawrence J. Bader Assistant to the DeanCase Western Reserve UniversityCleveland, Ohio

David S. Ely Science TeacherChamplain Valley Union High School Hinesburg, Vermont

Maria Lopez-FreemanExecutive Co-Director California Science ProjectUniversity of California/DavisDavis, California

Dorothy L. GabelProfessor of Science Education School of EducationIndiana UniversityBloomington, Indiana

Carole R. GoshornChemistry TeacherColumbus East High SchoolColumbus, Indiana

Marjorie M. KingScience ConsultantDepartment of InstructionJefferson Parish Public School SystemHarvey, Louisiana

Helen D. PerryPhysics and Astronomy TeacherMississippi School for Mathematics and ScienceColumbus, Mississippi

Melanie R. WojtulewiczManager of ScienceDepartment of Curriculum and InstructionChicago Public SchoolsChicago, Illinois

Wilton WongScience TeacherCapuchino High SchoolSan Bruno, California

Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards Committee

Developers of First Edition

All job titles reflect those held by committee members at the time the first edition ofAdolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards was adopted by the NBPTS Boardof Directors.


Gail Wortmann, NBCT—Chair Instructor: Anatomy and PhysiologyOttumwa High SchoolOttumwa, Iowa

Maria Lopez-Freeman—Vice ChairExecutive DirectorCalifornia Science ProjectUniversity of California at Los AngelesLos Angeles, California

Mary Bishop Earth Science Teacher/

Science Department HeadSaugerties Senior High SchoolSaugerties, New York

Ronald Bonnstetter Professor of Science EducationUniversity of NebraskaLincoln, Nebraska

Troy Braley, NBCT Science TeacherBear Creek High SchoolLakewood, Colorado

Thomas Brown, NBCTScience TeacherChapel Hill High SchoolChapel Hill, North Carolina

Frances Coleman, NBCTPhysics, Anatomy, and

Astronomy TeacherAckerman Local School

and Weir Local SchoolAckerman, Mississippi

David Ely Science Teacher: BiologyChamplain Valley High SchoolHinesburg, Vermont

Ron FrancisPhysics TeacherAndover High SchoolAndover, Massachusetts

Charles Green PrincipalFrayser High SchoolMemphis, Tennessee

Mary GromkoScience SupervisorColorado Springs District 11Colorado Springs, Colorado

Michael Lach, NBCTManager of ScienceChicago Public SchoolsChicago, Illinois

Ann MacKenzie Associate ProfessorMiami UniversityOxford, Ohio

Mary Owens DeanDivision of Graduate StudiesCoppin State CollegeBaltimore, Maryland

Judy Wages, NBCTBiology TeacherBonners Ferry High SchoolBonners Ferry, Idaho

Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards Committee

Developers of Second Edition

Acknowledgments

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The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards’ Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science Standards reflects more than a decade of dialogue about accomplished

teaching in science. These standards derive their power from an amazing degree of collabora-tion and consensus. Through the expertise and input of two standards committees, convenedten years apart; numerous reviews by a board of directors; and two periods of public commentby educators, policymakers, parents, and the like; as well as through the intense study of candi-dates for National Board Certification who have immersed themselves in the first edition; thesesecond-edition standards emerge as a living testament to what accomplished teachers shouldknow and be able to do. Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards represents thebest thinking by teachers and for teachers about advanced teaching practice in the field.

The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards is deeply grateful to all of thosewho contributed their time, wisdom, and professional vision to Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science Standards. Any thank-you must begin with the pioneers in 1992, who spentfive years debating, reflecting, and articulating the multiple facets of accomplished teaching,so that they could help advance the field and also provide a rigorous and sound basis fornational certification of teachers. In particular, the National Board would like to show its appre-ciation to Chair Ann Haley-Oliphant and Vice Chair Grace S. Taylor, who so skillfully led theeffort to weave the National Board’s five core propositions into field-specific standards ofteaching excellence.

Any field grows, shifts, and evolves over time. Standards, too, must remain dynamic andtherefore are subject to revision. In 2002, the National Board for Professional TeachingStandards convened a second Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science StandardsCommittee. This committee was charged with achieving both continuity and change, using thefirst edition of the standards as the foundation for its work, but modifying the standards toreflect best practice of the early twenty-first century. The Adolescence and YoungAdulthood/Science Standards Committee exemplified the collegiality, expertise, and dedica-tion to the improvement of student learning that are hallmarks of accomplished teachers.Special thanks go to Chair Gail Wortmann, NBCT, Vice Chair Maria Lopez-Freeman, andFacilitator Shelby Cluts, NBCT, for their invaluable leadership in making the second edition areality. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards also thanks Ted Willard forserving as a liaison from the American Association for the Advancement of Science and Al Byers and Eric Packenham for serving as liaisons from the National Science Teachers Association.

The work of the Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards Committee wasguided by the NBPTS Board of Directors. The National Board Certification Working Groupdeserves special thanks, as it reviewed this second-edition standards document at variouspoints in its development, made suggestions about how the standards could be strengthened,and recommended adoption of the standards to the full board of directors. Representing theboard of directors as liaison to the standards committee was Patricia Colbert-Cormier, whoseknowledge and enthusiasm made her a valuable advisor and friend to the standards committee.She contributed significantly to the work of the committee and helped represent its views atNBPTS board meetings.


Acknowledgments

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Many staff members and consultants to NBPTS deserve thanks for helping to make thepublication of Adolescence and Young Adulthood/Science Standards possible. As staff liaison tothe standards committee, Teacher-in-Residence Maria Telesca, NBCT, worked directly with thecommittee, making suggestions and guiding the entire development process. Writing credits goto Holly Cutting Baker, who turned the ideas from the committee’s rich conversations intoclear and cogent prose. Thanks also go to the collaborative efforts of Teacher-in-ResidenceMary Lease, NBCT; former Manager of Certification Standards Michael Knab; AdministrativeAssistant Glowena Harrison; and Consultant Angela Duperrouzel, who skillfully supported thework of the standards committee in ways too numerous to mention.

In presenting these standards for accomplished science teaching, NBPTS recognizes thatthis publication would not have evolved without the considerable contributions of manyunnamed individuals and institutions. On behalf of NBPTS, I extend my thanks to all of them.

Katherine S. WoodwardDirector, Certification Standards2003


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The core propositions of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards

1) Teachers are committed to students and their learning.

2) Teachers know the subjects they teachand how to teach those subjects to students.

3) Teachers are responsible for managingand monitoring student learning.

4) Teachers think systematically abouttheir practice and learn fromexperience.

5) Teachers are members of learningcommunities.

elevating teaching, empowering teachers - nbpts ......3) teachers are responsible for managing and...

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