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DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 075 338 80 00S 909

AUTHOR Rosen, Seymour M., Ed.TITLE International/Intercultural Education Reports.INSTITUTION Institute of International Studies (DHEW/OE),

Washington, D.C.PUB [ATE Apr 73NOTE 115p.

El:RS PRICEDESCRIPTORS

MF-S0.65 HC-0.58Adult Fducation; *Career Education; ComparativeEducation; Educational Trends; *InterculturalPrograms; *International Education; InternationalPrograms; Prevocational Education; SecondaryEducation; Teacher Education; Technical Education;Vocational Aptitude; Vocational Education

ABSTRACT"International/Intercultural Education Reports"

represents an experimental effort by the Office of EducationInstitute of International Studies to share with professionals somerecent information, ideas, and resources in three areas ofinternational/intercultural education that are otherwiseinsufficiently provided for in ongoing reports or publicationsprograms: 1) Educational experience and perspectives from othercountries relevant to program priorities in the Education Division ofDREW; 2) concepts, programs and developments concerning theintercultural dimension i.i general education in the United States;and, 3) foreign views of American education. In this volume, thefocus is on the current Federal priority of career education. It ishoped that this collection of articles, which report on selectedforeign initiatives and practices, may offer insights to U.S.planners in the field. The fourteen articles do not attempt toprovide full analyses of these activities, but rather are intended toalert concerned American specialists about experiences in Sweden,France, Pakistan, and the U.S.S.R., and elsewhere. The articles drawheavily on foreign sources and are well-documented with referencesthat provide useful starting points for any further analysis.(Author/OPH)

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FOREWORD

IntehnationanntentatuAat Education RepontA representsan experimental effort by the OE Institute of InternationalStudies to share with professional staff members within theEducation Division of DHEW some recent information, ideas,and resources in three selected areas of international/intercultural education that are not otherwise sufficientlyprovided for in ongoing reports or publications programs:

1. Educational exierience and perspectives fromother countries relevant to program priori-ties in the Education Division of DHEW,

2. Concept, programs, and developments concern-ing the intercultural dimensions in generaleducation in the United States, and

3. Foreign views cf American education.

From time to time, other material may be included for variousreasons.

These RepOU6 are intended to draw on the talents ofprofessionals throughout OE and NIE as well as on specializ-ed knowledge outside our DHEW education agencies. The distri-bution is primarily within the Education Division of DHEW,but the material may also prove to be of interest tocolleagues in other Government agencies or in the educationalcommunity outside the Government. This trial effort stemslargely from the initiative of Seymour M. Rosen, Louis J.Setti, Raymond E. Wanner, Helen R. Wiprud, Margot A. Lyddane,and their associates listed on page iii. These IIS staff mem-bers have developed this first collection in addition to theirregular duties and assigned responsibilities and, in mostcases, largely on their own time.

In this trial run, lateknationatnnteAcultuital EducationRepo414 focuses on the current Federal priority of career edu-cation. An interesting collection of articles report onselected foreign initiatives and practices that may offerrelevant insights to U.S. planners in this field. The articlesdo not attempt to provide full analyses of these activities,but rather are intended to alert concerned American special-ists about experience elsewhere. They offer enough informationand commentary so that our colleagues in career educationcan--on the basis of their special expertise--determinewhether or not further examination is warranted. The articlesdraw heavily on foreign sources and are well-documented withreferences that provide useful starting points for any furtheranalysis.

Robert LeestmaA44ociate Commizzione4 04

Intennationat Education

ii

I I ERNUDE

C OUTENTSTTUPForeword, by Robert Leestma, A64sociateEECO Commiazionet 604 Inteuctionat Education.

RR AR EDUCATION FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT

NCT T Some Recent Trends in Vocational and TechnicalEducation in Europe, by Wittiam W. Stickman,AUIS Univelthity o6 Pennaytvania. p. 1.A critical review of the principal character-TLO istics of selected European programs of voca-tional and technical education.ITN

A French Approach to Career Education, by Ray-

0 U mond E. Wanner, InAtitute o6 IntennatipnatStudiea. p. 15.NR A succinct analysis of the important Frenchlegislation of July 16, 1971, on career andAA continuing education.

LL Prevocational and Vocational Orientation in theSwedish Public School System, by Ann B. Wei44-mann, National. Roigionat Reaouitee Centert o6

PennAyivania. p. 25.

Editor in -Chi ©f

Seymour M. Roam

Managing Editor

Louis J. Setti

Editorial Staff

John A. Carpenter

John A. Cookson

Maryann Fisher

Timothy King

Mary Proctor

Raymond E. Wanner

Karen L. Wank

Technical Editor

Helen R. Wiprud

Is8istant Editor

Margot A. lyddane

A detailed description of several careerorientation programs currently being imple-mented in Swedish comprehensive and secondaryschools.

Education for Career Development in the U.S.S.R.,by Seymota M. Ro4en, InAtitute 06 IntanationatStudie4. P. 34.An analysis of recent developments in Soviet"polytechnical education" with particularemphasis on curricular modernization andvocational guidance.

The Implication of Career Education for theFuture of Adult Education in the United States,by Robert M. Wotthington, Saimaa o6 Adult,Vocational, and Technicat Education. p. 45.A description of the career education conceptand research models, indicating the signific-ance of career education for adult educationin the United States.

iii

INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION

The Intercultural Imperative, by John A. CaApenteA, butitutc o6 IntetnationatStudie4. p. S7.An analysis of the need for an intercultural dimension in American educa-tion and a suggested general strategy for its development.

An International Dimension in Undergraduate Teacher Education, by George E.Utch, University o6 Massachusetts. p. 64.A description of an international teacher education program at the Univer-sity of Massachusetts.

A Cultural Approach to the Teaching of Foreign Languages, by F4ank, M. Gkittne4,Wisconsin Departent o6 Pubtic InAtAuttion. p. 70.An essay urging that the teaching of foreign languages focus more heavilyon cultivating attitudes and developing values that relate to a pluralisticworld.

AACTE's Commission on MUlti-Cultural Education, by Richand L. James, AmeAicanAssociation o6 Colleges 6oA Teacher Education. p. 77.An explanation of the rationale of this new commission and its programobjectives.

Notes and Comments, by Maryann Fisher, Institute o6 Inteknationat StuJie4.p. 79.Lincoln -Pilene Intergroup Relations CurriculumMobile County Intercultural ProgramInternational Programs in Ohio Secondary SchoolsCouncil for Intercultural Studies and ProgramsInternationalizing Swedish Higher Education.

INTERNATIONAL CURRENTS

Pakistan's New Education Policy: 1972-1980, by Hakim I. Khan, InstituteIntetnationat Studie.A. p. 83.An analysis of the Government of Pakistan's recent educational policystatement.

U.S. and French Education: Some Reflections of a French Journalist, by CtaudeGambiez, Education Editok, Le Figalto. p. 98.Comparisons based on several recent trips to the United States.

Organization for Rehabilitation Through Training (ORT): A Worldwide Program,by Timothy King, institute o6 Intemationat Studies. p. 101.An overview of the 90-year history and current activities of the world'slargest private organization for vocational and technical training.

Notes and Comments, by Marty Proctor, Institutt o6 Inteknationat Studiea. p. 105.The Tokyo Conference on Adult EducationMeetings on Recurrent EducationConference on Future Structures of Post-Secondary EducationThe Co-operative Education Abstracting ServiceInternational Directory for Educational LiaisonIBE's Comparative Education Newsletter.

iv

EDUCATION FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT

SOME RECENT TRENDS IN VOCATIONAL

AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE1

It

WILLIAM W. RICKMAN,P4004404 o6 Educa-tionat Hiatoty andComparative Educa-tion at the Univet-aily o6 Pennhytva-nia, received hi4Ph.D. 6tom Nov VotkUnivmsity. He wazthe 64:44t p4e6idento6 the Companativeand Intetnationat

Education Society and became p4e4i-dent again in 1967-68. He ha4 wtit-ten mote than 100 books, a4ticte6,and 4evieg4 on que6tion4 a66ectingAmetican and intetnationat education,and i4 a 6tequent gue4t-tectute4 atMexican and 6oteign univetsitiea.Hi4 tateot 4tudie6 04 the 0156ice o6Education inctude Educationat Re,..604mand Renewal in Contempouity Spatnand the 4epokt pupated 664 OrsCareen Education Tadk Force (now inNIE) on which the 6ottowing antic&4:4 based.

There is a deep awareness in

other countries of the crucial needfor vocational education in relationto the economy, society, and generaleducation. This awareness is evi-denced by the various reforms allover Europe and in other continents

as well. It will be recalled thatthe Krushchev reform of 1958-64stressed the role of polytechnicaltraining and multivrscational skillsin the Soviet Union. One of themajor focuses in the new educationalreform of Spain, frequently consid-ered less developed economicallythan many European countries, isupgrading and modernizing all levelsof vocational and technical train-ing. "Since the Second World Wartand particularly during the pastdecade [the 1960's), there has beenconsiderable expansion of technicaleducation and vocationally biasedcourses in secondary schools," 2states an English specialist cur-rently teaching in Canada. Thesigns of the times indicate thatthis trend will continue--and pos-sibly expand--in various parts ofthe world as expectations and de-m:rids for more "relevance" and prac-ticality increase among broad seg-ments of the population.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The study of any educationalproblem or issue cannot be carriedon in an intellectual vacuum. Everyevent has its antecedents, and itis enlightening to consider thebackgrounds of a contemporary devel-opment, so that one has some ideaof how and why things came to be asthey are. Obviously, it is not thefunction of the present article todelve extensively into historicalprecedents: the best that can bedone is to remind the reader that

1

International/Intercultural Education Reports

there is a vertica' as well as a hor-izontal dimension in vocational andtechnical education.

Such an outstanding work asBrubacher's on the history of edu-cational problems finds relativelylittle of significance tc say abouteducation toward careers. 3 Let itbe pointed out, however, that thereare a number of scholarly studiesand general works on the history ofvocational education from ancienttimes onward, some of /hich concen-trate on the United States.4 Thereader of history in this field soonlearns that there has not been aclear demarcation in terminologicalusage, with vocational educationregarded as more or less synonymouswith manual training and industrialeducation.5

The importance of vocationalpreparation for an active andsuccessful adult life was recognizedby all peoples from antiquity onward.In actual practice, however, effi-ciency tended to vary in accordancewith the determination of purpose,expenditure of effort, and varioussocioeconomic factors. An exampleof undergirding vocational trainingwith the demands of moral principlescan be found in the Jewish traditionfrom ancient times onwards. Thus,the Talmud warns that "he who doesnot teach his son a trade(in effect]teaches him to become a robber."6

All through history, in Europe asin the United States, apprenticeshipwas the key approach toward import-ing vocational skills. In a nuMberof instances, this system comprisedmore than vocations: it includedgeneral education and charactertraining, as can be discerned froman examination of indentures. Andif the indentured apprentices weretrained in narrow skills, therewere opportunities at times forexposure to the "higher things" of

2

life, such as the lectures by theRev. William Ellery Channing whichwere addressed to apprentices andmechanics in the 1830's.7 No doubt,by widening their horizons, sy-ftlecturers may have inspired someyoung persons to look for opportu-nities to learn more advancedskills.

Another interesting vocationaldevelopment was the modern. scien-tific secondary school,the °a20n-omack-Methemati4che Rea-Schute,founded in 1747 by the Rev. JohannJulius Hecker in Berlin. Heckerwas convinced that in this type ofschool, young persons with moretalent for practical matters thanfor higher learning could becomeof value to society by masteringcommercial, artistic, agricultural,industrial, and vocational subjectO

The impact of the IndustrialRevolution on the curriculum ofsecondary and higher education indifferent areas is too well knownto require more than passing men-tion. The teaching and learningskills developed by Johann Hein-rich Pestalozzi and Philipp Eman-uel von Fellenberg in Switzerlandexerted a powerful influence onvocational and industrial educa-tion throughout the 19th century inEast and West Europe, the UnitedStates, Japan, and elsewhere.

. The excellence of the moscowImperial Technical School's exhibitat the 1876 Philadelphia Centennial

Exposition, recognized by PresidentJohn D. Runkle of the MassachusettsInstitute of Technology, proved thatthe Russians were capable of an edu-cational Sputnik about three-quar-ters of a century before they launch-ed their space satellite. It wasRunkle's influence that gained ad-herents in America for the Russianprinciples of learning fundamentalskills separately before practic-

Some Recent Trends in Vocational and Technical Education in Europe

ing them in workshops.The period of World War II, with

all its crises, emergencies, stress-.s, and strain'. was marked by theintroduction of ..ew and frequentlymore efficient programs and devicesfor more accelerated training and

retraining in vocational .nd indus-trial skills. Very like]. , it wasthis experience that was applied to

vocational and industrial educationin the secondary and higher educa-tional programs of many countries.The need for civilian and rehabili-tative training resulted in expan-sion of adult vocational education.The advent of automation in the post-war period was still another factorinfluencing the direction of voca-tional studies in various areas.

VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICALEDUCATION IN COMPARATIVE

F.RSPECTIVE

Reports ..)n vocational and tech-nical education in various countrieshave been published since the late19th century, but comparative ana-lyses and interpretations have beenrathv- rare and recent. Although' omparative education has been cul-tivated as a field of study, instruc-tion, and research for some time, ithas "rarely made more than passingreference to technical education,and then only as a9relatively unim-portant fringe." Such an omis-sion has been an unfortunate factof the development of comparativeeducation. It might be explainable,even if not fully forgivable, on theground that, on the one hand, mostcomparative educators have had littlevocational experience and less know-ledge, and on the other, specialistsin vocational and technical educationseldom have possessed the necessarybackground and languages to under-stand the oontext in which these pro-

grams operate.Even with pertinent preparation,

it is not at all convenient to com-pare vocational-technical traininginternationally.

Inc _,rarzat1 n 0 t.Ntin:-.ol 10

IS No,e complex man tha 01 or,r31

at ir, -a!,cs rte ntry comparisons

.v5r, ro.e diHicu:t. fie pr:rli; cause of r 1s

cemplexiti te varioJ content of tpch-

nic:711 and vocational ,ducation, wric;- ly its very

nucc.3.!--Litcs many nt. r-aricnes 01

,tno..ocr !actor is tie ,xtstencc Ur

-r7an1/.at1.nal autharttls: In ,ddiLt n

to t I; o. educe. n other air ra-

t:v, ..re o.ton r vnLed, ;Lyon t!,,,

o,- . 6re d het.t], co errnt.d vcrat.

in.nne or another of the10

In the first place, technical andvocational schools teach differentsubjects and apply different stand-ards of instruction. Moreover,there is no definite demarcation be-tween what is considered a secondarylevel of training in one country anda higher level in another. Amongthe other difficulties is that manyschools are part-time. In view ofthese considerations, the O.E.C.D.report warns specifically against"any outright comparison of trends"in vocational and technical

11education

in the member countries.To continue on a negative note,

"even now, for many administratorsand even educators, vocational andtechnical training is an unknownterritory. Moreover, the expert inthe subject, though he may be thor-oughly familiar with the complex-ities of his own country's systemof training, often has little ideaof what goes on across the neighbor-ing frontier." 12 Such a situation,it can well be understood, resultsfrom the variety and complexity oftraining programs of different lev-els, all of which are affected bythe context of tradition and society.And yet, "a comparative study to

3


improve cooperation in this fieldof activity across internationalboundaries has become a functionalnecessity." ' Recent developmentsin the employment practice in Europewhereby workers of several nationalorigins migrate to an industrialcountry (the Gadtahbeite4 in WestGermany, for example), indicate theneed for a more precise understand-ing of educational and vocationalbackgrounds.

What would seem to be desirableis an expansion of the study of com-parative vocational-technical educa-tion. This would involve collabora-tion between the technical special-ists and those in the field of com-parative education.

TRENDS AND ISSUES

Combining Vocational andTechnical Education withGeneral Education

Several elements are common tothe "career education" programs ofEngland, France, Federal Republicof Germany, the Netherlands, Poland,Sweden, and Yugoslavia. First,there is an unmistakable trend to-ward coupling general education withvocational training programs. Al-though the links between the twoforms of education have locen "verytenuous" until recently, it isevident that many persons of diversebackgrounds concerned with preparingskilled workers have become increas-ingly aware of the humanisticnature of their task. A worker, nomatter in what field, is first andforemost a person, a human being. Assuch, he has to have a general educa-tion in terms of his humanity and isnot to be regarded as a trained andhired hand. A functionally illiter-ate worker is an anomaly in a worldwhere new things and processes dev-4

elop almost daily, and adaptationsto changing work and soc'_al situa-

tions have to be made. Retrainingand advanced training often requirereading, thinking, and interpretiveskills if any efficiency is to beattained. It no longer seems logic-al--or even economically wise--toput the young to work before theyhave obtained a solid basic educa-tion, which in recent years has cometo mean secondary-level schooling.Furthermore, in these times, inade-quately educated employees become aliability to the industrial and eco-nomic development of a country.

In this connection, one may notethe persistence of the prejudicethat general education is "intrinsic-ally superior to vocational or tech-nical education." In some circles,it is recognized that it is inconceiv-able that

...in our predosinant4 scientific and tech-

nical society a man slay be educated withoutlearning something of the technical asrec:s ofsocial and economic life; socalled 'general'

studies will therefore have to include a Lech,nical part. As a result the difference in

character of tho two kinds of education willdiminish progressively. This is what the Swe,dish cocept of the comprehensive sclool promises.lb

To this might be added the exampleof the East European Socialist orCommunist countries, which have emrphasized the role of polytechnicaltraining in overall development ofthe individual, in line with Marx-ist theory. 17

Related to this issue is the pres-tige of predominately technicalschools vi4-a-vi4 traditionallyacademic institutions. Not onlyeducators but also parents continue,in many cases, to express biasagainst education in a vocational ortechnical institution. However, sinceWorld War /I, in several countries(e.g., Germany) assiduous alumni ofvocational-technical educational pro-grams are beginning to be allowed to


pass into higher technical and aca-demic streams. perhaps, in duetime, as alternate paths make highereducation more easily accessible tomore persons, invidious distinctionswilA tend to melt away.

One possible explanation of theforegoing phenomenon is the dichot-omy between training and educationin method and content. So long asit remains, it is likely that thevocational-general issue may not beresolved so easily and so soon.

Cooperation Between Schools andIndustry

Another development in the severalcountries is the close cooperationbetween various institutionalcomponents in technical education.This has been pointed up with abund-ant evidence in a study prepared bythe International Centre for Researchinto Vocational Training (CIRF, Gen-eva) for the O.E.C.D. This study,which covered Belgium, West Germany,the Netherlands, and the United King-dom, showed varying patterns ofcollaboration, such as vocationalschools with industrial plants andworkshop-schools established withinfirms and drawing upon outside tea-chers for general education. 18Reports of collaborative activitiesbetween schools and industry through-out Europe are common.

Even more, cooperation is theessential element in any effectiveprogram f vocational-technical edu-cation in any particular country. Inpoint of actual fact, there is aconsensus among informed persons thatthe problems of industrial trainingcan only be solved "through somekind of partnership between educat-ionists, employers, eNloyees, andpublic authorities." Specifically,

...what is needed 18...A co-ordinated syste-policies at natior,01 level *Hcl. Aill d, 1 witf .voca ional cluician hods c.f rt.,rui rr-,,content of pre-occuFat iohal trt. mining, and the exarninat ior Ey f.t

two functio,,sthnFo of select 1

cat ion. 20

Such coordination need not hif:accompanied by centralization andcontrol at the center of the country.On the contrary, there are sometendencies toward decentralizationeven in countries where the Westerndemocratic ideal does not dominatesociety and political thought. Inany event, it is reasonable to arguein behalf of a coordinated systemthat can facilitate employment, re-training, and other aspects of themanpower situation.

An example of national-local co-operation between educational andindustrial manpower agencies can befound in Sweden.

As a UNESCO report points out,"vocational training in Sweden hashad the benefit of much cooperativeplanning and action on the part notonly of the public authorities butparticularly ol the representativesof industry." 41 Since 1944, theJoint Vocational Trainin5 Council(Akbet4MaJtknadert4 VhkeShad), formedby the Swedish Employers' Federa-tion and the Federation of TradeUnions, has been reviewing vocation-al training, initiating policies,cooperating with public and privateorganizations, and performing otherfunctions. Of special importancehas been the cooperation with theBoard of Vocational Training (Oveh-atyket4en 664 V4ke4utbitdning), aunit of the General Board of Educa-tion (SkahveutyketAen) in the Min-istry of Education (Eckte4itatik-deparamentet). Although the Boardof Vocational Training is responsiblefor "controlling, inspecting and, tosome extent, standardizing vocation-al education throughout Sweden, the

5


initiative in setting up new voca-tional schools lies with the munici-palities, or, in some cases, withindividual industries, or with largeindustrial groupings." 22

Training for Adaptability

The question of general vocationalskill as against specialized skillscomes up frequently in the literature.Training in the special skills bearsimmediate fruit, both to the workerand to the employer. However, in anage of rapid obsolescence of tradesand even industries, it becomes a

rather serious matter if large num-bers of workers are rendered indus-trially impotent within a short time.Crash programs may prove too costlyand inefficient in the long run.The idea of general technical andvocational skills, whereby theworker may adapt himself with rela-tive ease to a new type of work, hasbeen proposed at variousthe different countries.to a solution appears indocument prepared by theEducational Research and

times inOne approacha recentCentre forInnovation of

of the O.E.C.D. This report notesthe problems resulting from changesin the labor market.

...But these changes are bound to become moremarked and more frequent with the acceleration oftechnological progress, and the difficulties in

forecasting occupational structures, already con-siderable, will become much more daunting. As aresult, there will be an even greater need thanat present for a flexible educational system ca-pable of adapting itself at short notice to the

exigencies of technological change and of offer-ing the right kind of training to the rightpeople. Though ,,he remedy may lie, partly, in arethinking of the content and objectives of pre-sent forms of education, aimed not only in train-ing people in new techniques, but also at retrain..ing those whose skills become inadequate to copewith constantly changing techniques. 23

6

Planning for Manpower Needs

Before World War II, industrialtraining was regarded as a reronsi-bility and concern of the indistiialsector. Since Morld War IT, however,the problem of acquiring an aicquatesupply of skilled manpower has becomethe subject of considerable thoughtin most countries. A consensus seem-ed to develop that skilled manpowerwas a national resource of the firstimportance, a basic capital invest-ment.

The vAlue of ecr..-at io:,a1

is reco,,iniied, and overnment ;Tending on thi

form of education cin be justified on national

grounds. lenlel" is trait.ing thoughtAto bene

fit only employer. It benefit:, all.

The growing awareness in govern-ment and in the private sector ofthe mutual dependence of the variousparts of the economic system has ledto the consideration of firmer fin-ancing and more effective planningof vocational-technical training pro-4rams. In several instances, thoughthas also been given to the relationof technical instruction to the otheraspects of society and education.

While the need for cooperation isapparent, particularly in relation tonational manpower requirements, thereis some sentiment to avoid "the temp-tation to adjust the education systemto the employment situation." 25 Thereasoning underlying this attitudeis that employment forecasting issubject to margins for error whichbecome wider at the regional level.Nor is the demand for particularknowledge and skills in the differentoccupational fields foreseeable. Infact,

...to gear education to employment would be

to preclude all advancement and evolution and

Sore Recent Trends in Vocational and Technical Education in Europe,

I...1^ "

04".. .

This viewpoint would seem to -allfor flexible policy with regard tothe relation between education andonploynent. As comprehensive pub-lication of the Council for CulturalCo-operation of the Council of Curaresees it, the school must fulfill fourimportant functions: occupatitnaltraining, basic education, 'teach-ing how to take edvahtage of outof-school possibilities (the parallelschool of informal education),' and"putting the future adAt in a position both of being able and of want-ing to continue to educate himselfafter his school life and to furtherhis own development and the anfold-ing of his personality.' 27

Amid the understandable enthusiasmfor vocationeltechnical training,it would be helpful to remember thatit is not the beall and endall ofthe educational effort, but ratherone part of it, however significant.This arrears to be the message cowveyed by the important and influent-ial Council of Europe. This thoughtshould be weighed with care. it alsosuggests that ample considerationshould be given to the functions ofguidance and adult (or lifelong orpermanent) education in relation tovocation..

Development of Guidance noivlcoo

An integral part of vocational-technical training is guidamoebefore, during, and after. Severalcountries have organised guidanceservices of vary) ,, types. Informotion on occupations is presentedthrough printed matter, radio, film.,and television. .6.4 state of dowelopnent is different for the variousveuntsi.-s, as are ffeetivemees

and the u-to-lateness f the c4t,vrdata. similarly, the administrationand organisation of guidance, end

the preparation of the counselors.are not of uniform level in ¶.lAiropean countries.

An interesting example of long-established guidance service is theYouth employment service, establish-ed in England in 1144. The Serviceoffers career guidance on vglu:,-tary basis to youth about to

school. Operating both on a centra-lised and decentralised basis, itis administered nationally on jointhaste by the Central Youth Hoploy-sent Executive (under the Secretaryof State for Employnest and Produc-ti/ity) and the Department of rduca-tion and Science, and locally by thelocal eAscation aulhoritiPs.

Each secondary school and localeducational system has the functionof providing each young man or KOWAin its area with the best possibleinformation and encouragement toe mbark upon satisfying vocationalcareer, in terms of his or herintermits and oompetencies.

The Youth nmploymemt Service hasbeen criticised for mot :ivinge ufficilitly to the alas and expectatione of its sp, ours, aiLh,yugh the*alp given young people by the S6r-vice represented more than any sinilnteacher could offer la secondaryschool. As the growing intermit iisecondary school programs of soarperorientation' and guidance suggests,the potential for this type of ser-vice remains strong.

One suggestion toward improvementis to intensify the guidance programsin the years .'ed through higherlevel trainini ,n vocational informotion, (levy eewnt, decisionisaking,and ooureelin., for school guidancepersonnel. 'It is only now thatsuch people are 4.wesie, availablefor the filet time is lirstaisi It

7

Triter-national/Intercultural Education Reports

remains to be seen what roles theywill be allotted in British schoolsand the effectiveness with whichthey will be able to fulfill theseroles." 26

We need to study carefully allaspects of career guidance withinthe framework of the entire educaa.tional system. The cooperation ofthe mass media and other elements ofthe society and culture will beneeded to disseminat --with dispatchand specificityrecent, live Inform-ation on the requirements and avail-ability of occupations. There canbe little doubt that both the voca-tional teacher and the guidance coun-selor are key figures in the fieldof career education. This meansthat the educational and the socio-economic systems should pay carefulattention to the selection, prepare..tion, assignment, and inservicedevelopment of these persons.

The seven countries in the fullstudy--Bngland, the Federal Republicof Germany, France, the Uotherlaels.Poland, Swedes, and Yugoslaviaa'devote some attemtiom, at least, tothe vocational interests and needsof adults on the various levels.This is accomplished by government,education, and industry, individuallyor in combination. There are manyprOblese involved in training adults,whether before or during employment.Solutions or eseerimestal effortshave been undertaken in turopeancountries, and some seem to have hadmuch success.

Not commonly discussed in thewritings on adult vocational educa-tion is the &WINOS function. Inmost case, the vadance ~vicesseem to emphasise the needs of pupilsand students at school. And yet, itwould appeals that, if vocationaltraining is to be effective elOr themottos at large, adequate Widowsprograma should be provided for allS

concerned. Such programs wou.itall for more published materialsadapted to the backgrounds and nerdscif adults, plus the pre;aration ofindividuals equipped with the know-ledge, patience, and skills tc dealwith adults of different ages andexperience. 10 Adequate adultguidance would seen to be a primenecessity in upgrading and expand-ing any national program of vocational education in an age of frequenttechnological and commercial change.

WOKING TO THE FUTURE

There are signs that educatorsand others are moving toward con-sensus on some broad aspects ofvocational training, as, for example,the final report of the internation-al regional trade union seminar con-voked in 1964 in Paris by the 0.E.C.D.There was general agreement that"vocational training in the futureshould only start after a period ofbroader general secondary education,""post 'school' industrial trainingshould be broadly based and accompa-nied by continuation of generaleducation," "employees should beprovided with opportunities for con-tinued training and education through-out their working life," and "organ-isations should be structured so asto offer opportunities for job satis-factioe and NI. upward mobility ofemployees." 34

The delegates, who represented'Belgium, West Germany, the Nether-lands, Sweden, Bwitserland, and theUnited Kingdom, also agreed thateducators, trade unionists, andemployers share joint responsibilityfor cooperation in the planning anddevelopment of general and vocation-al technical education through newtechniques and institutions. SpecialstrAss is to De Lail, according tothe seminar, on


I t Tdr ()*( I ra., I Cl WO: tu.it.t-1. v. . t110', r, hat-.

r r".11, if '_ 'LA. ,,4,!t el iliv-th. edUc 40 i,Jr, an I to; ht ( f

I t. o. Carl if lid .... Mari; uw. rat !.I altd na j level.. Lhioulti :

designed tii bring about oFatkird mobility of ef'ii.Joye..e. Furth. r arid trdibirril wi 11 rca ricerary ,-timii.lcmt,rit to this arid will ir toFirovimt the further wi ining of thei oduc"st tor,.'arid trait.iri9 gar be tom 10rib.

Trade unions are criticized forconcentrating on traditional collec-tive bargaining demands and for hav-ing given "insufficient priority tothe role of education and trainingnot recognizing that it may well havea greater effect on the improvementof living standards than wage bar..gaining."33 The seminar remindedtrade unions that 1980 was justaround the corner and that plansand decisions should be made wellbefore that date.

It should not be assumed thatonly trade unions require urgingtoward action. Although the litera-ture does not abound with such self-criticisms by other groups who areconcerned with technical and vocat-ional training, it is safe to saythat planning and decisionmakingcan well be considered by all organ-izations and institutions dealingwith career preparation.

In conclusion, it would be appro-priate to quote pertinent passagefrom 1964 report issued jointlyby UNESCO and the InternationalLabor Organisation:

lfchniC11111 and vor Ion .1 ICIIJCatiOr should bean i teqral part of an over-..11 system oflion end, due enr, i der it ion ehould brgiven it, it cultural content. It niiuuld dr,owe than train an individual for i givenocciab.., ion by providing the person, ooncorptqlwith tcr riecebbary skills and theoretical know-ledge; it should also, in conjunction with y ..oral education, provide for the developmentpersonality trod character and foster the c.v.,*ity for understanding, isidewwiwnt, N11 Nuprr'.-

t: ion -Ind atlai tart tor. to 1., hr,this ow:, the cot urtil ,,t t.

iOnal cdUCat ,tley._ 1 that the i!, Itechnical and / c, 1.,LIV: I 1%.!1 doe rt,,tetifL tirade' i it -trio

Technology and commerce, underthese principles, are regarded asmeans, not ends. Man cannot fulfillhis potential unless the ends arecarefully considered along with themeans. At the time when career edu-cation and guidance are receivingconsiderable attention in the UnitedStates, it would be well to takenote of the concerns expressed bythe international bodies of educatorsand others interested in furtheringoccupational study and practice. Inthe words of a leading American spe-cialist, "the future almost certain-ly portends a co-mingling of learn-ing, labor, and leisure over thelifetime c;: the individual."35

FOOTNUTE!-;

1 Based mainly on tn..: .,-roci.ctory

and concluding portions c-f studyprepared for the Career Leh. 4tionDevelopment Task Force, '"1 e ofEducation: William W. Drickman."Secondary and Post - Secondary Voc-ational Education in Selected Euro-pean Countries since 1960. aovem-ber 1971.

2 Harold Entwistle. Education,Wotk and Lei4u4e. London: Rout-ledge E Kogan Paul, 1970. p. 2.

3John S. Brubacher. A Hi4toky

06 the Publem4 otc Education, 2d ed.New York: McGraw -Hill, 1966.pp. 267-73.

4 E.g., Lewis F. Anderson. HiAokyoi Manua/ and litdotAial School Edu-cation. New York: Appleton-Century,

9


1926; and Melvin L. Barlow. Hi4tokyIndu5tsziat Education in the United

State:5. Peoria, Ill.: Chas. A. Ben-nett Co., 1967.

5Charles R. Richards. "Industrial

Education," A Coctopedia o Educa-tion, Paul Monroe, ed. New York:Macmillan, 1912. III: 45.

6Babylonian Talmud, Tractate

Kiddushin. 29a.

7Authur B. Mays. The Concept oi

Vocationat Education iv the. Thinkingo6 the Geneva Edacatol, 1845 to 1945.Urbana: College of Education, Uni-versity of Illinois, 1946. p. 9.

8Willy Moog. Ge4chichte deft

PHdagoga, new ed. Ratingen: Henn,1967. 3:37.

sugh Warren. VocattOna/ andTec,4.4cae Education. Paris: UNESc,

196-- p. 1%.

10 Daniel Blot and Jose Seabra.Educationat Expansion in the 0.E.C.O.Couattie4 Aince 1960. Committee forScientific and Technical Personnel,Committee on Policies for EducationalGrowth, Background Study No. 1. Paris:Organization for Economic Cooperationand Development, 1970. p. 109.

11 Ibid. p. 110.

12 Warren. op. cit. p. 13.

13 Ibid.

14 Roger Gregoire. Vocational' Edu-cation. Paris: Organization forEconomic Cooperation and Development,1969. p. 34.

15Henri Janne. "Permanent Educa-

tion, an Agent of Change," PermanentEauccaion. Council for Cultural10

Cooperation. strasbou, :ouncilof Europe, 1970. p. 37

16 Ibid.

17Brian Holmes, Laura G. Ilowe,

and J. A. Lauwerys. "General Intro-duction: Education within Industry,"The Wok.ed yea/: Book oA Education. 1968:

Education within Indcattu. J..seph A.Lauwervs and David G. Scanlan, P(1,London: Evans Brothers, 1968.P. 14.

18Sven Grabe. "The Training of

Skilled Workers: Report on a SampleInquiry into the Background Trainingand Present Occupation of SkilledWorkers in the Mecaanical Industriesof Four Countries'' (1964), as citedin: Roger Grega.;.re. Vocationat /u-

cation. Paris: organization forEconomic Cooperation and Developmi1967. p. 33.

19Holmes, Howe, and Lauwerys,

Lauwerys and Scanlon. op. cit.p. 15.

20 Ibid.

21 Hugh Warren_ op. cit. p. 85.

22Ibid.

23Centre for admcational Researci

and Innovation. taAai EducationalOpp0Atunity: 1, , Statement o6 thcPkoiltem, with Specca Reictence toRecavtent Educative:. Paris! Organ-izatio for Economic Cooperation ant.

Development, 1971

24Holmes, Howe. and Lauwerys, it

Lauwerys and Scanlon. op. cit. p.4

25Bertrand Schwartz. "A Prospec-

tive View of Permanent EducatiorPermanent Education. Council for Cul-


tural Cooperation. Strasbourg:Council of Europe, 1970. p. 54.

26Ibid.

27 Ibid. P. 27.

28 A. Morrison and D. McIntire.Schoot4 and Sociatizat4o. Harmonds-worth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1971,p. 220. Other sources on the YouthEmployment Service include: KennethRoberts. Flom SChOot to WOAk: A

Study ci the tiiti.sh Youth EmplomentService. London: David & Charles,Ltd.; New York: Barnes & Noble 1972.

For a governmental view of thesee: Ministry of Labour, CentrYouth Employment Executive. TL a.(otk

the Youth byrecimtent Sekvice. 1962-1965: A Repett bu the .7 tionaYouth Employment Ccuncil. Londo!:Her Majesty's Stationer Mice, i965.For an example of an oft,,ial publi-cation providing orientation forcareers teachers in secondary schools,see: Department of Education andScience. CaACOt4 Guidance in School:5,Education Pamphlet No. 48. London:Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1965.

29On which this article is bas-d.

Cf. footnote ..

30 Cf.: ire: op. cit.

31Educate,'.; and T.zaiing 6t- he

Metal WoAkeA 1910. Paris: :an-ization for L,_onort_ '.operation IndDevelopment, 1-.71. f. 19.

71.

32 Ibid. 20.

33Ibid.

34 Quoted in: Warren.pp. 14-15.

op. cit.

35 Seymour L. Wolfbein. Occupa-tional Inp,tma.twn: A Careen Guid-

V(CW. New York: Random House,

106S. p. 139.

SELECTED READINGS

Ainscough, Roy. "Visits to Industry:Collaboration between a sixth Format.d a Technical College at Worcester,'The Vocational Aspect oA SkTodatyand FuAtheA Education, AutumnMb.

nderson, Lewis F. Hi.st tl ci :Aanuat

nd Industriae Schoolew Ynrk: Appleton-Cent,:ry, 1g2e.

irlow, in L. FIC.Sfi--,e - :

ti on in the 4: t1 tes.

-oria, .: Chas. A Ronner!)67.

yers, At. E. H. Gids vCok schcot' enInAotmaticboek bet'w;;;,,ndeovle.idin9en en belcc!.,e

ed. Iiaarlem: De Toorts,

,'Cittner, Fritz. "Die Aufga --n derTufsiichule," Handbuch.7,,A!5ciluewe!,e , Fritz. Blattner t.

., eds. Heidelberg: Quel!_er, 1" i.

lAniel, and Jose , SeatrA. Edq-

,-ztoh.a t.ratt.tioll in the 0.7.E.V.-that, ince 1960. Committee forlent.i. and Technical Personnel,mmitt :n Policies for Educational

,,rowth, ,.kackground Study No. 1.Puris: .CD, 1970.

.Apelle, Jean. The. Deveipment o4relmanent Education in Nance.trasbourq: Council for Cultural Co-peration, Council of Europe, 1968.

IRF Publications. Geneva : Inter-national Labour Office.

11


Corpet, Yves. "Overall Country Sur-vey: France," Continuing Maiingand Education duAing WoAking Li6e.Papers for an International Confer-ence in Copenhagen, July 7-10, 1970.Paris: OECD, 1970.

Department of Education and Science.Caiteelo Guidance in Schools, Educa-tion Pamphlet No. 48. London: HerMajesty's Stationery Office, 1965.

Dronkers, P. L. "World-wide Educa-tion, Training and Development withPhilips," The Wo4id Yea A Book o6Education, 1968: Education Within111(144thy, Joseph A. Lauwerys andDavid G. s- anlon, eds. London:Evans Brothers, 1968.

Educatior: and Thai wing Pk the Metawokhen oA 1910. Paris: OECD, 1971.

Education o EuNope: School Systems,a Guide. '4trasbeurg: Council forCultural Co-operation of the Councilof Europe, 1970.

Educations( Devetopment in the NetheA-Cand6 in 7968-1969-1910, Part I.The Hague: Ministry of Education andSciences, :970.

Educational Pat-icy and Ptanning: Ne-theAtand4. Paris: OECD, 1967.

Engel, Dieter and Hans-Joachim Rosen-thal. Bekuktiche Btdunq and 8qt-dungspoUtik in den Bunde4kepubtdzDeutochtand, 1960-1910: Situationand Pekzpektiven. Wiesbaden:Steiner, 1970.

Entwistle, Harold. Education, Wolkand Le44444e. London: Routledge &Kegan Paul, 1970.

Epstein, Edythe. "France," LabouAand Automation, Buttetin No. 4--Manpowelt Adjustment Pugummes: 1,

Ftance, Fedekat Repubtic o6 Gekmany,12

Uu4te4 c;eneva: Internation-al Labour Offi:. 1967.

Friberg, K. '1Q.-mtakten skoLln-naringslivet bdr snabbt fThliattrasayseiArt," 7-Kdse-_iKt Ytkesut-biedning, voa_ 52, No. 3. 1971.As abstractee Lo; CIRF Publications,No 4. Genewo= International LabourOffice, 1971

Gregoire, Roams . VOCationatEducation. ,-atr._.3: OECD, 1967.

GrUner, f.tIvickfue,.4

hahenn Fac;schutendeutschen Svftzzoetiet: Ei Be(tlaqzuh angewakuiteoBetU6SpaCiaelc4iL HrAunsrhweig:Westerman», 1,0*--

Gynasiet OCK :13CkSkiilik. Stockholm:Kungl. SkoilimPrrtyr*Inen, 1964.

Hardebeck, C. * ''ions Reflec-tions on the inecinpro,,K.1 to Educationwithin Indusftew is Me Iotherlands,"The WI/ ad Shat Gook c4 Educa,tioo,4968: Educit4,-* lautu4tkv,

Joseph A. Lannrys and David G. Scan-lon, eds. Ler. ww. Evans Brothers,1968.

Hessler, Tame r, r VoCat«/Itai SChOufSys ten in Sesuid, A Stew ey. Stock-holm: Sw( dump .,,,--itste, 1967.

Holmes, Bri -amen G. some, and J.A. Lauwerys. "Genet:ea Introduction:Education err -us Tneumery," TheWottd Vea4 a ri 1440Ation, 1964:Education (Wm+, ',04MVILif, Joseph A.Lauwerys 5.-anlon, eds..

London: Even erathrs. 1468.

Holtrop, 1012.__Lan Vocationat Edu-cation in Po, tytiro, d.s. Berkeley:University mt .1L! 1.,a Press, 1951.

Jonsson, by. " Labouk andAutomation. - ,',--Manprfee't


Adjust-molt Pto0amme4: 11, Sweden,U.S.S.R., Uttited States. Geneva:

International Labour Office, 1967.

Kata, Wladysla and Adam Puipiski.Szkoettic tom', Wan zaws e: Wybtaneoobtemy Potityfzi, Awiatowej. War-saw: Panstwowe Zaklady WydawnictwSzkolnych, 1969.

Laboul_ Maflket Policy: A SwedishTkadc Union Ploglamme: 1967.

Stockholm: Swedish Confederation of'trade Unions, 1967.

L (.10 MaAket Poeicy: ANS BudgetP' 0,sat gel th, F44caZ VeaA19'72. Stockholm: National La-bot.a. Market Board [1970].

1.4On, Antoine. La te'voeutioncai4e et Veducatio technique.Saris: SociSte des Etudes Robes-pierristes, 1968.

Maizels, Loan. Adote4cent Needs andthe Tlanhition gum Schaal to Worth.London: Athlone Press, Universityof London, 1970.

Harland, S. P., Jr. "Career Educa-tion Now," Buttetin og the National_As6ociation og Secondary -SchaalPtincipat4, Vol. 55. May 1971;and "Career Education," Today'sEduCatiOn, Vol. 60. October 1971.

Mays, Arthur B. The Concept 06 Vo-cationat Education in the Thinkingog the Gene tat Educate;, 1845 to1945. Urbana: College of Education,University of Illinois, 1946.

Ministry of Labour, Central YouthEmployment Executive. The Wokk 06the Youth Employment SeAvice, 1962-1965: A terott by the NationalYouth Empt.Tment Council. London:Her Majesty's Stationery Office,1965.

Morton-Williams,Schee6 Counci.e,Sehoot Leavets.ty's Stationery

R., and S. Finch.Equi.ty 1: YounLondon: Her Majes-

Office, 1968.

Mullges, Udo, ed. Be4tAage :uCeischichte del Bolugsschttec. Frank-furt am Main: Akademischc Verlag-gesellschaft, 1970.

"Obrazovanye u Litostroju odvija seuporedo sa proizvodnjom," NalcistAuca skoea, No. 1. 1970.

Olderin, Gunnar. Vocational Guidatleein Sweden. Stockholm: Arbetsmark-nadsstyrelsen, National Labour Mar-ket Board, Information Service, 19(.9.

The Otganization og Educationct and1,-cationat Guidance. Geneva: Int

national Bureau of Education:UNESCO, 1963.

Page, Andre. "Industry, Educationand Vocational Training in France,"The World Vem Book og Education,1968: Education within 1ndu)stAy,Joseph A. Lauwerys and David G. Scan-lon, eds. London: Evans Brothers,1968.

Peta Beogradska Gimnazija: /zve4htaj1967/68. Belgrade: Izdaje PetaBeogradska Gimnazija (c. 19671.

Polny, Roman. "Reforui'n im allgemein-enbildenden Lyzeum der VolksrepublikPolen," VeAgteichende Padagogik (EastBerlin), Vol. 7, No. 2. 1971.

"The Polytechnics," Reponti en Education, No. Ws. London: TLe nepat-urnt of EducaH.)n and ScietIcSeptember J97.

Report on the iducationae Vevetopmtt<n the SFR og Vugo.stavia glom 1968

13

InternationaVIntercultural Education Reports

tee 1?1::. Belgrade: Federal Couh-cil for Education and Culture, So-cialist Federal Republic of Yugosla-via, 1970.

Review! e4 Motioned Policies wn Uducatio, Netct,Cands. Paris: 01-:CD,

1970.

Review eA Ncti'ionaf Poficie4 Ld-

ucoticb. Paris: oecu,

Riese, Jo, H. L. Nieder, and Del

Mal lges. Lit (dung del! BeAu.

Braunsch,..ig: Georg WestermannVerlag, .69.

Roberts, Hen. "United Kingdom,"Labatet and Automation, Suttet4A Ne.4--ManpawcA Adjuistment Plagkammes:1, FAance, Fedenat Repubtic asGermany, United Kingdom. Geneva:International Labour Office, 1)67.

Roberts, Kenneth. Fkam Schaat toWank: A Study oti the Youth Empfc--ment Sekvice. London: DavidCharles, Ltd., 1972.

Sheldon, R. H. "Training the Commer-cial People at Ford Motor Company(Great Britain)," The Wolad yeahBook Education, 1968: Educationwithin IndustAy, Joseph A. Lauwer'sand David C. Scanlon, eds. Londr41:

Evans Brothers, 1968.

hort, Edward. "The New Polytech-nics," On COulhe (Quarterly Jour-

14

ih:1 for Industry and '2ommer,1' ',1:. January 1969.

Sommer, Karl-Heinz. "DidakticheNcuerungen und ihre Bedeutung fiirdie berufliche Jugend- und Erwach-senenbildung," Johtbu6, 41.07 Wi.1,

sehaAts- ud Se:iafpadagollik:Freiburg im Breisgau: Lamipertu!--

Airlag, 1970.

"Swedish Emp. yment Po_.cy,"from Annual -"7/19.

6'1970. Stock:.olm: N. tonalbour Market Bcard, Ar._,!

marknadsstyrel5n, 197

Int

"Vocational amt Education,"WC5te4n Eukopeu.: Eduea74cn, vol.III. Spring 1F71.

Volk, E. "Struaturplam des DeutschenBildungsrates frir das *ildunguwesen,"BetugiChe Sitaung, No- 9. Septeubel1970. As abstracted in: CIRF Pub-lications, No. 2. Geneva: Inter.national Labour Office. 1971.

Warren, Hugh. Vacationed and Tech-14.eat EdUCatie. Paris: UNESCO,1967.

Wehnes, Franz J. Schwa und .00t-beitswett. Munich: Kiisel, 19G4.

Wolfbein, Seymour L. Occupational'In14,44mation: A Cakeek Guidance1, opt.. New York: Random House, 1966.

A FRENCH APPROACH J CAREER FDUCATION1

RAYMOND E. WANNERa the Institute o6InteAnationel Stud-ie41 4peciae44t incompatative educa-tion Sot WeztetnEtoope. He .btain-ed hi's Ph.D. inCompatative Eibbca-Non 64om the Lni-veltsity oti Pclit4y.e-vania. Pticit to

gtaduate watt:, D4. WanneA assisted iniounding an educationatty innovativepAivate high school in Bet kilt, Md.,

and seAved a4 i.t.5 plincipat nos 1964

to 1968. In additim to pupatinginstitute publicatiolom (inctudinga 6otthcoming upont on Ftench ini-tiatives in education o6 the soc4at-ty and cuttuAatty handicapped andanothet on careen education Wmwhich the 6oltowing atticte ih adapt-ed), he se4ves as editok o6 Wen tetraEunovan Education and i4 pkeTrAngpWa -3tudy Oredacatcov in 11th cen -twu.

Eutope.

On July 16, 1971, the French Na-tional Assembly adopted new legisla-tion on technological and continuingeducation that is bold, far reaching,and of considerable interest to Amer-ican educators working to developmodels of Career Education. 4

This legislation, part of the wide-ranging renewal of French educationunderwmy since 1959, was given parti-cular mpetus by the student disor-ders May 196a, which convincedFrench :fficials *that the ever-widen-inc zda, between .assroom and career

Education for Career Development

had to be bridged. The new laws arcnot completely original, in concert,1:_-orperating as they do certain pro-visions of earlier legislation ontechnological and continuing educa-tion promulgated since 1959. 3 Theyare, however, a dramatic new -xpre:i-sion of a long tradition cf .-artierand vocational education in Francethat extends back at least tc theguilds of the Middle Ages.

INCREASING THE PRESTIGE OF V -ATTON-AL AND TECHNICAL EDUCAT1

The framers of the new 1-7:-lationhave attempted to come to aril, real-istically with the fact that, :lradi-tionally in France as in the tim_l.ted

States, it has been difficult L in-terest students or their parentts intechnological and vocational educa-tion. Former French Minister atEducation Olivier Guichard has ob-served, however, that, as France ap-proaches the 21st century, generalculture cannot suffice where compe-tence and specific skills are needed.4Moreover, in a world that is techno-logically oriented, there can be notrue zulture without a certain under-standing of the uses of technology."Everyone knows this," said Guichard,"but the logical consequences of ithave not been drawn, and so it mustbe done by law. In stating clearlythat the education of our childrenmust provide them with some profes-sional competence and that this im-plies necessarily a certain techni-cal and scientific sophistication,you [the National Assembly) willtransform what is already an objec-tive fact into a requirement vi law."The Fifth Republic dad, it fa.-t. statein th, new lebl-lation that it 7ahnsi-

ders responsibilities to pinuividecontiammg professional and technolo-gical -lineation "une obligation aa-

." 6To interest students in tech..:010-

15


u .; v, .._ationdispel the prejudices against it, thenew law provides for better dissemi-nation of information about care,,isin industry, technology, and tcrafts. Each school is requireeoffer its students guidance ant. n-seling services and provide the: rh

up-to-date information about U.... ..-

ture of such jobs and the trairmaprograms for them that are avai...44in the schools. 7 Furthermore, :ou.-selors are to give students prcle.---tions of future employment poss:...t 1-

ities in these fields .T1 the 11=1-. ofthe most recent sour al ,,ad econow._.:

factors affectin- tnem. From 4thgrade on, intv-. tor, courses therole of econ-r.r. and technoloc- .nsociety (tele ,;:, eCOnom4...;.et 4ociate et initiation tc.,tog4que) arc to be given to al: pu-pils. 8 Minister of Education Umi-chard personally encouraged adevtionof these courses -3 Assistant Secre-tary for Education, S. P. Marland, Jr,

underscored the importance of in-struction such as this when he ie-scribed it as teaching "...survivalskills--the interpersonal and organi-zational understanding without whichone simply cannot exist in a modernnation-state.... 10

DIPLOMA EQUIVALENCIES

There is little doubt that t-e newlaws of July 1971 give much mor- thancosmetic attention to the rather pe-destrian face of technological -td

vocational education. They att 'metto better the image by improvin tine

product.Article 10 of the orientatior _mow

(No. 71-577) is of particular signi-ficance. It requires the Ministry ofEducation to establish equivalenciesbetween diplomas in general academiccourses and those in programs of t4-7--nological and vocational studies.equivalencies will permit trained16

technicians and workers to citntl.fyfor certain positions of lub11.- -m-ployment that formerly had be. r.

able only to hollers of acad.,'plomas. Morecver, the law 1,rtv.that the possession of a diploma intechnical education can be reeu redfor acceptance in certain pub'L- po-sitions or for the pursuit of et mainstudies. 11 These provisions are re-presentative of the French Government'swillingness to use its bureaucraticpower to reinforce and implement itscommitment to broaden prevailing corti-

cepts of professional preparation andiareer education.

Of special interest to the prac-tical minded is the stipulation inarticle 8 that technological and vo-cational diplomas may carry the nota-tion that upon completion of trainingthe graduate demonstrate his abilityto practice his professional skill inan up-to-date manner. Also the con-cept of the "educational raincheck"enables the holder of certain diplomasand certificates to return to schoolperiodically throughout his careerwithout loss of academic credit orstanding. Under the provisions ofthe new law, the student would bepaid during this further training andStudy and would enjoy the same statusand privileges under law as other stu-dents. 12 Special programs of studyand professional formation would beavailable for him in technical schools,in university-level institutes, in aformal apprenticeship, or in programsof continuing education.

IMPROVEMENT IN TEACHER STAIU:

basal 2ualifications

In an attempt to improve the s itus

of teachers in vocationai schools, thenew laws state that all Achersgeneral academic subjec- 're to en-joy the same profesnion, status

whether they teach in academic highschools or technical schools. 13 Teach-ers in both kinds of schools are tohave the same qualifications, receivethe same salary, and have the sameopportunities for professional ad-vancement. Instructors specializingin industrial and technical subjectsmust have a professional standing intheir field equal to that of theiracademic colleagues. They are re-quired, moreover, to take specialcourses in teaching methods and tomaintain professional contacts. Somecommentators see the Government'swillingness to accept the recruitmentand salary expense of such highlyskilled teachers as a measure of itscommitment to upgrading vocatli:naland technological education.

Teaching Leave

Interestingly enough, the law pro-vides for skilled workers and techni-cians to receive, at their request,teaching leave (congf en4e4gtement)during which they may give coursesof instruction in their specialtyeither in industry-based training pro-grams or in technical schools.15Thisprovision of law strengthens the work-ing relationship between industryand the schools and helps provide asource of teacher-practitianers whoare often in short supply. It is alsoof particular interest to educationalplanners because the salary expenseof these specialized instructors,which can be considerable, are sharedby school authorities and industry.

GOVERNMENT LIAISON WITHBUSINESS ANL IND['TRY

The French Government seems gen-uinely interested in using the know-ledge and expertise of the tA.sinessand industrial community in planningprograms of career education. To as-

A French Approach to Career Education

sure that they remain responsive tothe real needs of society, govern-mental- industrial teams periodicallyreview existing programs of vocation-al and technical education in termscf changes in society and new scien-tific, technological, ecronomic,andsocia] developments. 16

This cooperation is organized onthe highest administrative level byan Interministerial Committee (cemiteIte.ImiatOtia) of which the PrimeMinister is chairman and the Ministerof Education vice chairman, and by astanding committee of high-level exe-cutives (Gtou)'e Pcvnavttc d HautsFonctiolutiles) whcse chairman is ap-pointed by the Prime Minister. Thesecommittees are assisted by advisorycouncils on the national, regional,and departmental levels composed ofrepresentatives from government, in-dustry, organized labor, education,and family and welfare associations.The councils formulate governmentalpolicy on career education and decidewhich private initiatives in vocation-al and technological education arc tobe state approved and thus eligiblefor funding.

The existence of such councils onthe regional and departmental level(a provision of the law which enjoyedwide support in the Chamber of Depu-ties)17 expresses a deepening inter-est in decentralization recentlyshown by French officials.19 Educatorsand industrial planners are hopefulthat if these advisory bodies func-tion properly, school-based and otherprograms of career education will, infact, respond to the real and not theimagined needs of French society.

In this respect, it is importantto note M. Guichard's insistence thathowever specialized a trainee's pro-qram of study, or however responsivethat program is to current needs, he

to be given enough humanist c andcleric, al education to enable him, at

17

International/Intercultural Education Pei orts

some later date, to continue his studyor even to change careers.

RENEWED APPRENTICESHIP

The new law of July 1971 definesapprenticeship as a form of educationwhose purpose is to give younger work-ers who have satisfied minimum aca-demic requirements a general, theore-tical, and practical training with aview toward obtaining professionalqualification attested by a certifi-cate of technical instruction. Thistrainin% which is covered by a con-tract, will be obtained partly in abusiness and partly in a center forapprenticeship training. 2C'

By incorporating the apprenticeshipprogram into the general context ofcareer education, officials hope toimprove its quality and to give ap-prentices (youths 16 to 20 years ofage) greater legal protection. Thenew stipulations governing appren-ticeship will go into effect over aperiod of 5 years beginning July 1,1972.

In order to avoid the "dumpingground" image apprenticeship programshave often had in the past, youngpeople entering them will be requir-ed to have completed 9 years of com-pulsory general education. Should astudent not have completed the 9thgrade for academic or other reasons,he will be required to take a special1-year preparatory course before be-ginning his apprenticeship.

The relationship of the apprenticeto his employer will be formalized bya contract which will assure him of aprogram of professional training lead-ing to a recognized diploma. This isone of the key elements of the newlaw since it guarantees to each Frenchyouth the right to at least a minimumlevel of professional training.

Employers are considered by the lawto be more or less An Loco paAeliti418

and are "...obligated to contac' theparents or guardians of a minor ap-pr,mtice when he is ill or absent,rin any other event that might occa-sion their intervention."Jarhey arenot permitted to take on new appren-tices unless they can assure themplaces in an approved training cen-ter and must pay a wage equal to thelevel determined by an advisory com-mittee of labor and business experts.

The Government considers theapprenticeship system an importantpoint of contact and cooperationwith business and industry in thetraining of young workers. Conseq-uently, the Government assumes mostof its costs.

The Workman's Sabbatical

Perhaps the most interestingprovisions of the new legislationare those granting workers time offto attend Government approved pro-grams of continuing education (coltgeptmation). "All during their activelife, salaried workers...who wishto take training courses approvedby the state...have the right, uponmaking a formal request to theiremployer, to take time off." 22 Thetime off, which can extend up to 1year, is "company time"; that is tosay, it is considered as time onthe job. The employee continues,during his period of training, toreceive his salary and build upvacation, seniority, and fringebenefits. During this period, theGovernment pays part of his salary. 23Mbst,workers are eligible for theLenge 6oAlmation after 2 years on theyob. Even this requirement is waiv-ed for young workers between 16 and20 years of age who have neither aprofessional certificate nor a con-tract of apprenticeship. Holders ofvocational-technical diplomas orasiversity degrees must wait untiltheir diplomas are at least 3 years

old before they are eligible forfurther training.

The workman's sabbatical is in-tended not only to assure an initial

minimum vocational preparation for

the young but also, and especially,

to provide for workingmen through-

,.it their careers realistic possi-

bilities for continuing professionaleducation and personal growth. By

using his sabbatical leaves intelli-

gently, a workingman will be able tocontinue his formal education lit-erally until the day he retires.

The Government has committed its

financial backing and administrative support to the following kindsof training programs:

1. Transitional and preventive.

Both of these training courses areopen to persons less than 18 years

of age. The purpose of the tran-

Ational program is to prepare sala-ried workers 24 whose employment hasbeen interrupted because of jobrequirements of a differing nature,and to allow owners of farms and

unsalaried members of their families

(or members of unsalaried, nonagri-cultural occupations) to enter new

lines of occupational activity. The

preventive program is designed toreduce the risk of workers becomingdisqualified and threatened withdismissal because they have not beentrained in new techniques and organ-izational structures. It prepares

workers for a change of activity,either within the framework of thesame company or elsewhere.

2. Adaptational. The purpose of

these courses is to give workers pre-sently employed and paid by theircompany (especially young people with

a professional certification) "easieraccess- to their present job or to anew job.

3. For occupational advancement.Open both to salaried and to unsal-aried employees, these courses help


to increase the level of employees'qualifications.

4. For maintaining or improvingknowledge. Open to salaried employeesunder a work contract or to unsalariedemployees, these courses help employ-ees maintain or improve their presentqualifications and cultural level.

5. For preliminary instruction,training, or preparation for a pro-fessional livelihood or specializa-tion. These courses are open toyoung people from 16 to 18 years ofage who have no work contract. 25

It is the responsibility of theColiSeit d'Eat to establish proce-dures for using the congf tiokmation.2FEmployers may stagger the leaves ofemployees so as to disrupt normalbusiness procedures as little as pos-sible. They may also enter into atripartite agreement (ConVCntiOn deliotmation pholie44iOnnetie) with thetraining center and the Governmentto determine the precise length andcontent of the courses offered, themethods of teaching and evaluation,and the percentage of the costs thateach party will pay.27

Sharing the Costs

The costs of providing programs ofcontinuing professional education areborne for the most part by the Nation-al Government with some obligatoryparticipation by industry. The nature

and extent of the Government's roleis partially determined by the recom-mendations of the InterministerialCommittee for Vocational and Techno-logical Education arrived at afterdeliberation and consultation withappropriate professional and labor

organizations. Governmental assis-tance takes such forms as assumingconstruction and equipment costs,supporting the organizational andoperating expenses of the trainingcenters, and totally or partially

19

International /Intercultural Education Reports

remunerating he student-workerswho take the courses.

Private enterprise is also re-quired by law, however, for reasonsboth pragmatic and ideological, toparticipate in the costs of theseexpanded educational opportunities.In the first place, the financialassistance of industry, even on alimited scale, helps offset the enor-mous costs of this program to thestate. And secondly, the Governmentwishes labor and business to become"social partners" with government(dens pcmtecti4e4 60eiauA) and as-sume a joint responsibility for pro-viding programs of continuing edu-cation to those who need them. Go-vernment spokesmen are attempting toconvince businessmen not only thatthey have a social responsibilityto their workers but also that moneyspent in training employees is oneof the soundest investments a busi-ness can male. 28

Specifically, each business of 30or more employees will be requiredto contribute to the support of con-tinuing education programs. In 1972this tax will amount to .8 percent ofthe annual payroll. By 1976 the per-centage will rise to 2 percent of thepayroll. Employers who provide "in-house" educational programs for em-ployees, expend funds in sending themto training centers, or contributeto approved organizations dedicatedto furthering vocational, technical,and professional education can haveall or part of this tax refunded. 29It is thus advantageous for an em-ployer to encourage his employeesto pursue the training programs forwhich they are eligible since he getsin return both a tax rebate and ad-vanced training for his work force

Interestingly enough, businessenterprises of more than 50 employeesAre required to present evidence tojovernmental offcials that theirboards of lirectors have seriously

20

discussed the whole quertion of fur-ther education for employees and madesome determination as to what companypolicy on this matter will be.3°

SOME RELATED THOUGHTS

This new French experience in con-tinuing vocational education may sug-oest certain areas of further researchthat American educators interested incareer education may wish to investi-y,te. The normal caveats of cross-cultural and cross-national compari-sons and borrowings are, of course,invoked.

To the degree that it is possiblein a decentralized system of schooladministration, officials might ex-plore the possibility of establishinga series of nationally recognized vo-cational and technological diplomasnot unlike the hierarchy of coutt6k-cittz, buvetA, and dipaMe4 that giveofficial sanction to a French youth'sprofessional competence. Americanefforts in this direction--such asthe Educational Testing Service'snational test for the certificationof auto mechanics now under develop-ment--as well as French and otherforeign models could serve as pointsof departure for further research. Itis possible that by earning officialdiplomas such as these and thus ac-quiring more visible professionalcertification, workmen might gain afeeling of personal achievement anda sense of professional pride that isat present, perhaps, not possible.There would also be in such a pro-gram a built-in element of consumerprotection, since the public wouldbe assured of certain minimum stan-dards of achievement for all "certi-fied workmen." Equivalencies be-tween these vocational and technolo-gical certificates and the tradition-al academic diplomas would be estab-lished so that Civil Service andother jobs requiring traditional

academic credentials much as a highschool diploma or a college degreewould be open to all who had reach-ed a predetermined level of "careereducation."

Another idea that merits close at-tention is the "workman's bbatienl"Ic Age kt (tiv0.31 one m.,,ht en-vision, for example, a situation inwhich young people might not beobliged to remain in school for 9or 10 oonsecutive years, but miy'tleave somewhat earlier, after ob....kin-in() some minimum vocational qualifi-cation,with the right to rets-t. itno colt whenever in the future theymight choose to do so. They wouldbe allowed to resume their educationon a full or part-time bailie at leastuntil their credit of state-gurn-teed free education had been exhaus-ted.

If vocational programs were per-mitted to begin on the 6th-, 7th-, or8th -grade level, and if workers weretruly guaranteed paid time off fromtheir jobs at some future date to con-tinue their education, a flexible con-cept of compulsoiy education suchthis would be possible without in anyway posing a threat ,o the rights ofthe young to an education. Suchconcept would, in fact, have the ad-vantage of providing the student withmarketable kill while respecting

hie individual learning patterns; andwould give him, in addition, a realoption to decide when he was ready formore advanced general education or vo-cational training. It would be possi-ble to str-cture and integrate the.course and training programs offeredso that the student need never, at anytime in his life, meet an academic orprofessional dead end. Such a programcould conceivably have the further ad-vantage of defusing potentially explo-sive secondary school situations byallowing students who are not inter-ested in school an alternate route toprofessional formation and general edu-

j French ApprattAgcAregy Iducation

cation. In the interest of nationalliteracy ana the common good, varioussafeguards could be built into thetom to guarsntee that every citizenhad completed a minimum amount of for-mal education by the age of 25 or 30.It is even possible that such an ap-proach to compulsory education cou1.1produce a better and more broadly edu-cated public than can our present sys-tem.

The practice of conge eeignemeit,which allows 'killed workers time offfrom work to teach their specialty,is till another idea that .light beexamined with profit by American edu-cators. one of the most seriousproblems of vocational and technolo-gical education during periods offull employment is the inability ofmany schools to match the high sala-ries that experienced and tilledtechnician. can command in industry.If the business-industrial community,the Federal Government, and localschool authorities could share thesalary expenses of "visiting techni-cian- teachers," it i likely that allwould benefit and the quality andz levance of instruction would in-crease. In fact, the general proce-dures for funding theme new Frenchinitiatives might be of interest toAmerican educational planners theyexamine alternative sources for finan-cing public education.

Finally, far more important thanpossible avenues of further researchand experimentation that may develop,i the fundamental fact that the newFrench laws of July 1971 have offi-cially recognised the equality of vo-cational and technological trainingwith traditional university prepara-tory education and, in prestige-conscious society, have granted it&wit de att..

Likewise, the oommitment to contin-uing education has been formalised in

21


ways that will allow every citizen tocontinue his education well into hismature years. Thus, education thatis truly oriented toward a career maybe pursued on a regular basis through-out one's career.

An open-ended educational structuresuch as this seems to offer real pos-sibilities of responding to the needsof a rapidly changing technologicalsociety. One might note, in conclu-'ion, that it would also have beenresponsive to the comments of a young

educator in the court of Louis XIVwho in 1686 observed: "It seems tome that we should adapt our coursesof study to the present state of oursociety and study those things whichare of some use in the world; for wecannot change the needs of society toaccommodate our courses of study". 32

FOOTNOTES

1 An abridgment of an article be-ing published by the U.S. Office ofEducation under the same title.

2 Law No. 71-575, pertaining tothe Organization of Continuing Pro-fessional Training within the Frame-work of Continuing Education; LawNo. 71-576, Relating to Apprentice-ship; Law No. 71-577, Concerningguidance in the Field of Technicaltraining; and Law No. 71-578, On theFinancial Sharing of Employers inPrimary Technical and -'rofessionalTraining. All these laws were pas-sed on July 16, 1971, and publishedin the JouAnat ObSiciet de to Rip-ubttque FtaLia.i4e of July 17, 1971.pp. 7015-46.

Implementation of various aspectsof these laws has already begun. Seethe diCAel4 and Watio of July 26,1971, Dec. 6, 1971, Apr. 12, 1972,

22

and May 19, 1972. Further informa-tion concerning their implementationcan be found in ministerial circularsof Oct. 11, 1971 and Mar. 10, 1972.

3 Sec the laws of July 31, 1959,Dec. 3, 1966, and Dec. 31, 1968.

4 On July 6, 1972, President ofthe Republic Georges Pompidou madeseveral changes in his Cabinet. Aspart of the governmental change,Olivier Guichard was named Ministerof Equipment, Housing and RegionalDevelopment, and Tourism. He wassucceeded as Minister of NationalEducation by Joseph Fontanet. PierreMessmer replaced Jacques Chaban-Delmasas Premier. Pierre Billecocq becameSecretary of State to the Minister ofForeign Affairs in charge of Coopera-tion.

5 Olivier Guichard. "De NouvellesOrientations pour les EnseignementsSecondaires," Veducation, 108.July 16, 1971. p. I.

6 Law No. 71-575, art. 1; andLaw No. 71-577, art. 1.

7The newly instituted Office

National d'Information Sur lesEnseignements et les Professions(ONISEP) is to help schools andinterested individuals obtain approp-riate information.

Law No. 71-577, July 16, 19'art. 4-6.

9 Olivier Guichard. l'EdueattonNouvette. pp. 63-65.

10 Sydney P. Harland, Jr. Wee4Education --- 300 Pao Letteh. Beforethe Annual Convention of the AmericanVocational Association, Memorial Col-iseum, Portland, Oreg. Dec. 6, 1971.Dr. Marland has since been appointed


DIIEW Assistant Secretary for Edu-cation.

11 Law No. 71-577, July 16, 1971,art. 11.

12 Law No. 71-575, July 16, 1971,title III.

13 Ibid. art. 17.

14 Bernard Roux. "EnseignementTechnique et Formation Profession-nelle: Nouveau Textes," Educationet Devetoppement, 71. October 1971.p. 50.

15 Law No. 71-575, July 16, 1971,title III, art. 7, X.

16 Law No. 71-575, July 16, 1971,art. 2-3; and Law No. 71-577, July16, 1971, art. 14-16.

17Bernard Roux. "Enseignement

Technique et Formation Profession-nelle: Nouveau Textes," Educationet Developpement, 71. October 1971.p. 51.

18 "Decentralization Call," TiMe4EdueatioNat Supptement. Nov. 19,

1971, p. 17.

19 Olivier Guichard. "Developperet Renover les Enseignements Tech-

nologiques et Professionnels," tsiduCa-tion, 101. Apr. 29, 1971, pp.

20 raw No.

art.

21 Law No.

art. 21.

71-576, July 16, 1971,

71-57b, July 16, 1971,

22 Law No. 71-575, July 16, 1971,

title III, art. 7.

23 Ibid. title IV.

24 The term "salaried worker" isnot used here in distinction to"hourly rated employee" as it issometimes used in American businessand industry.

25 Law No. 71-575, July 16, 1971,art. 10, 1-5.

26 Law No. 71-575, July 16, 1971,title III, art. 8, V.

77 Ibid. title II.

28 Jacques Chaban-Delmas. op. cit.

p. III.

29 Law No. 71-575, July 16, 1971,art. 14.

30 Ibid. art. 15.

31 Some union contracts in the U.S.have provisions for further trainingnot unlike the "workman's sabbatical."This is not as yet, however, a com-mon practice.

32 Claude Fleury. Titai.d du Choet de ta Mtthode dea Etude6. Paris:1686.

SELECTED READINGS

Chaban-Delmas, Jacques. "La Reformedes Enseignements Techniques del'Apprentissage et de la FormationProfessionnelle Permanente,"L' education, 107. June 10, 1971,

pp.

"Decentralization Call", TimesEducationa SUppteMeNt. Nov

1971, p. 17.

The Educational Movement in Fhance,1968-1971: MimOihe4 et DOCUMent4ScotaiAe4. Paris: InstitutNational de Recherche et de Documen-tation P4dagogiques, 1971. 127 pp.

23


Fleury, Claude. Tkaitl du Choix etde to M6thode del Etudez. Paris:1686.

Guichard, Olivier. Au ConseilNational de la Formation Professionn-elle, de la Promotion Sociale, et del'Emploi," tqducation, 101. Apr.29, 1971, pp.

"De Nouvelles Orientationspour les Enseignements Secondaires,"tqducation, 108. July 16, 1971,p. I.

"Developper et Renover lesEnseignements Technologiques etProfessionnels," t'eduCation, 101.Apr. 29, 1971, pp.

L'Education Nouvelle. Paris:Plon, 1970. 124 pp.

"Lancement d'une Campagne Pro-Tech-nique," t'iducation, 69. May 28,1969, p. I.

"Law No. 71-575, Pertaining to theOrganizing of Continuous Profession-al Training within the Framework ofContinuing Education"; "Law No. 71-576, Relating to Apprenticeship";"Law No. 71-577, Concerning Guidancein the Field of Technical Training"and "Law No. 71-578, On the FinancialSharing of Employers in PrimaryTechnical and Professional Training,"July 16, 1971, Joultnat 04Kiciet dela Repubtique Fkanfaize. July 17,1971, pp. 7035-46.

Leon, Antoine. HiAt.04A.e de t'Edu-cation Technique. Paris: PressesUniversitaires de France, 1961.126 pp.

24

La Rytt'EdUcation Tec.Soci4tg des Etuc.1968. 313 pp.

Marland, S.P.,MO Days Latet.convention of t.Association, MerPortland, Oreg.

Maurois, Andr4.Appraises U.S. SciReview. Apr. 15,

Reviewt oS Natio,Education: Ranc*1971. 164 pp.

Roux, Bernard. "limp,

nique et Former'nm n.Nouveau Textes,"vetoppememt, ;

pp 4C-55.

Striner, Herbe_ucation az a Naveztment. Kalarizalc.Upjohn InstitutE *Research, 1972.

'4aise etiris:

erristes,

e,t Educations- -

the annualan VocationalAiseum,, 1971.

nchman

Satutday

cie4 ionIs: DECD,

-cement Tech -

'ssionnelle:on et De-

,- 1971,

ntinuing Ed,:apitat In-

Mich.: W.E.Employment

Technical and Vocational Teache4Education and Tkaining. A StudyPrepared by the Section of Techni-cal Education and Technical TeacherTrainin% EDS, UNESCO, and ILO.July 1971.

Worthington, Robert M. CompkehenzivePetsonnet Develop o, KO4 CaAeeAEducation. Keyr ess at theFourth Annual L Develop-ment Seminar for t Jirectors ofVocational Education, Las Vegas,Nev. Sept. 15, 1971.*

PREVOCATIONAL ANC OffkA. L

ORIENTATION IN TN:

PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM

ofISSMANNat )?n ens e,.

-oak ni4 Otativ(

4di,stant aidkewstette4 Manag--, Editok PA theNALtional RegionalRkaoulicez Cente4

Pennzylvmoiaan a Ph. D. candi-iare in compaxa-:ALT education at

the Univeuity of Pemnzylvania. FAOM1949-50 zhe held no limmetican Field

Selivice SchotaAziu tom Sweden tcthe United State4 ai (Atm keceiveda Fit. Mag. degree -7zom the Univek-

zity ob Stockholm. -4aving taught6°4 10 yeau in the .A4,04 and 4e-

nioh high zchoot ,6tem in Sweden,

in 196k 14Z. Weia4mini, came to theUnited State4 and worked as a hepont-ell. and &ten az a new editok pit anewzpape4. HeA attAnte4 havP teenpublizhed in Sweden, ;inland, as4J

Wat Gelunanu.

Sweden is a constizational ummarchywith a centralized emempl system.1950, the Rikedmq Oftrliament) mimrov-ed Ph* Schaal :mmmammior's propose.fc. school foam iimassiing the lama-.mar,; 9-year ammorehommivr schociSince then, mmmy edmmmtors have -we-ed to Sweden for leadmrsnip in do-cational planning, safe m, and rfnewel. Of particular /interest hibeen the manner in memmo, Swedish

Edmcam M Career Develepmewt

educ,.al arint

edar

7 -

AWN' 11_

Altroduceu -ion-education dimeL: ,on,ls and have establish-Liaison with industrial-of-school edit. nal

:t is possible eat kmeri--Inal planners ma- cri:d

--erview of the:formative and :=14- ':ruc-

-HE COMPREHENSIV-CL, UPPER SECT:

Ness irot7ras. Aims

-'e r ecent reorganization ofthe cuir=k sive school system isreMecvme 1.7 the 1969 edition of theLib. -4 a, 410' gund4kolan (syllabu-fo_ zAmp.seehensive Sr:hool). ' s

now* pr aka f studies was introduced-mitumb of 1970 on a gradual

basis ,,s4 ls now in use throughouttr r s Sul lystem. A further devel-°anent the 1962 curriculumOftmotr. /0- okundzkotan, it

arremr- :AD introduce improvementson try _momis of experience gainedsince -moor time, to simplify theFystem*a, ,,rbanization, and to closetne gal 4,.,ween the school andsociety.

Curriclu_ar Vie.;

The new ;anagram has led to severalinterest.inn evelopments in prevoc-ational nor cational orientationin the mw__ section (grades 7 to 9)of the emommemmnsive school. Fo-

instanme Addition to typing,metal am* weed mmr*shop studies,smehmsamA AMMONK 1, business slueduos Amid dr..meftic s.ience-heme

mmmeLme Law' Apwrtant new subjects,nmaemmdsmer amd emonomics--have emusaddend to the -art of possible elec-tives. Imreomdogy attempts to informthe stmdere* About products, procef--

25

InternatiocdVIntercultural Education Reports

ses, and services, and to explair thecorrelation of technology to otherarea:- of 1 .man experience. Topicsfor discussion include the importanceof techncLigy for the development ofsociety amd the possible consequencesof this development. The 'goal of theEconomy course is to increase thestudents' understanding of basic mon-etary questions in school and society.It stresses consumer knowledge andincludes facts concerning consumption,distribution, and production. 1

Another development is that allstudents, boys as well as girls, arerequired to take instruction in do-mestic science and child care. Thisdecision was based on the assumptionsthat the school should have the samesocial expectations of both sexes,that men and women will have thesame role in the future, that pre-paration for parenthood is as import-ant for boys as for girls, and thatgirls should be as career-orientedas boys.

The syllabus provides also for"practical vocational orientation"(pkyo) in grade 9. During this ninthyear, each student must spend atleast 2 weeks in an actual workshopor place of business. This workexperience is preceded by at leastthree organized field trips duringgrade 8.2 By special arrangement, astudent may be granted permission bythe local school board to have hisp4#0 period extended to a maximum of316 days.

Because students are not consider-ed as workers during this period,they receive no pay, their insuranceis arranged by the school, certaintasks are prohibited according torules for workers' protection, andthey are ink allowed to participate

vimrx hudiee 6 a.a. er after 7 p.a.,new In overtime work: They were al-lowed to week up to 41 hours and 15memetes per week through December26

31, 1972. r w-

hours per 10!4Clearly, me- u

7 to 9) of the mi:24-e:

may now be rem i a,

vocational c7 ,t,keeping wi= th -4-41K),"

recommenda:c_ons :9t

choice of oc-lugoe ttt-beyond grads 4.

home and CLildsubjects for al: r

sensitivities tc aweAnd the new,shows a desixv-"status thimxtrocthe academi.the vocational.

Iced to 4y 1, 197:ction (g/ ses

sive sch(ainly pry--

This n

2ommissi:that a 4.-

postpone--roductic

:ompulsor-

s evolvinoie questions.organizatiornate the4ould viewuperior tc

AFTER TOE Two-.REMBMSIVE SCHOOL

In theory, a stmt is free toleave school after Arnie 9. However,a new handbook ter uppcs comprehnn-sive students.4 although it pointsout the possaisaili me gaining bothpractical ant themmegaal knowledgeby going directly Swum school to ajob, states test ammat 40 percent ofthe students uric Moe completed grade9 are expected tfl =istr-inue throughgrade 10 and hileve/ kr the publicschool system'. to tact, one of theregional Boards of It ion Gat-lands Lan, Beemp.1 B, indicated thatin 1970-71 almost 100 percent of the16-year-olds more NIL:carted for thesenior secondary -Scoa (.9yXWW41.4kommnas compared to 4 omment in 1960.

The Senior SecondmfY *stem

Included in 'he tommor senior sec-ondary system Which followed the9-year oaf OWasol) were(1) a 3-..year scadon4. school, the

9Ymm444m0; (2) a 1- to Myeas vo-cational school. mad (3) a 2-gamrcontinuation odhool of wocatioond

Prevocational and VocationalOrientation in the Swedish Public School System

chara (.aks- On July 1,1971, vK,c.ati=...1 school and thecontinuation c.minci ceased to existas separatfr -moc forms, becomingincluded in 3U gymna.64:ezhota,"an enters:1z Tf the comprehensiveschoo_."

The Gymnas,,-,Kol....

Stress ap "1-mes."--The gyMnahie-Aota .thre creams, each includ-ing 2-, 3-, nd 4-year courses ofvocational c Aramer. Since thesethree stream' together will be com-posed of a t. al f 22 different"lines" (or -acks) with furtherspecialized :anches, the offeringswill flessarily vary from school toschool. In )rder to provide detailedinformation to the students, eachregion pablisdies a yearly handbooklisting the cyfferings at each of itsschools. Common to all "lines" isa basic general education, in which"orientation on working life" isincluded as a new subject.

The "lines' of the three streamsin the new tpow,tazietkota are asfollows:

2-.Year

Cc/Social Stream

ear 4 -your

are Humanistic

,on:Aimer Social science

So-sumer and

cic

-,cci al

DiAxibutiufand off , r.`f

Economics

Economic Stream

CS

Tears. ,i/Naturaw. Sciences Stream

Aqricultar

Building arc

calstruct

"iatural sciences Technical

flectric/telecom-

-lunications

F,.od pmce-sino

f'.)re;:try

harment

Procecsini technoloqy

Shop meehanicll

Technical

Vehicle

Woodwork

The "lines" usually have a commoncurriculum for all students duringthe first year, with some specializa-tion subsequently branching out fromthe common courses. The followingare examples of how the "lines" with-in a stream divide for specialization:

The 2-/ear "Care Line" kumaniatis/Social

stream) is divided and the child-and-youth-

care group starts specializing during the

first year. During the second year, another

division takes place, and some of thestudents go into child health care. The

group studying general health care and

geriatric care stays together during the

first year but divides during the second

year, and some of theotudents specialize

in psychiatric are.

The 2-lear "Distribution and Office Line"

1Lconomics Stream) is held together during

the entire first year. During the second

year, the diA.ribution group has 18 periods

per week of pm aclicusi (work experience)

requirements, mostly in retail enterprises,

while the office group divides in two: One

with typing, the other with bookkeeping as

a major. Students in this group will

spend their IS periods per week of laracticut

in various clerical tasks./

The 2- ear "Food Processing Line" (Technical

Stream) splits off one group of fuiure

waiters/waitreszles during the first year.

The second year offers specializing for

4uantity cooking, restaurant work, bakery

work, and meat processing.

The 2-yesr "Vehicle Line" (Technical Stream)

again shows a common curriculum for the

first year. Special groups during the

,,econd year train automobile mechanics,

machine technicians, parts personnel, and

airplane mechanics.

27

International/Interc...tural Education

Student choice of vocationalarea.--Statistics on number ofboys and girls in the -carious vocational areas are rarely in theregions. However, questionnairereplies indicated that in SkaraborgsLan (Region R) 340 boys and 4,241girls are taking textile crafts ingrades 7, 8, and 9 during 1972-73;the corresponding numbers for woodand metal crafts are 5,160 boys and1,034 girls. General:!, more girlsthan boys have "crossed the sexlines" in their vocational choice.Areas where sex has been indicatedas having least impact on the choicehave been identified as care areas(health, child, aged), teaching(where the distributio has long beenrather even), commercial/clericalfields (Kristianstad Region L),and care areas and recant work(Uppsala Lan, Region Cl.

As a rule, pnyo placement has beenarranged according to the students'wishes, although their preference forareas like child care centers, othercare areas, retail, and clericalwork, have occasionally caused dif-ficulties because the labor marketin these fields is saturated. Stu-dent preferences have changed since1963, when a representative fromthe Labor Board told participants ina practical teachers' training coursein Gothenburg that the absolute ma-jority of the girls pity° place-ment as beauty operators while theboys wanted to work for bakeries. Hiscynical prophecy at that time

that chaos would reign if all 8thand 9th graders (i.e., including theacademic stream student:AO were "letloose" in working places has notproven true. Perhaps the postpone-ment of pity0 from grade 8 to grade 9has resulted in increased saterityamong the students awl a mmme realis-tic appraisal of heir interests andtalents.28

Reports

The pr,.:-rious_y mentioned handl-for studen=ls referred to theof sex rol, exwections in cLoosir.vocational Area.

AM°, th. yOU 1 Iis our char d v t "m 011 !c.Ce ' . r rol A' , !

iior our 4 Cyou old . an. -oat men A Wffner, W,11

share work .0 ti. .born And the Ai 1 fr..

Cont,icir that the technolo,i al ,1 vela.- rr.will reed the temale talon' c....orv

oot pr-.ently ut i 1 i zed alt. 0 11 A., ,t ,ld t ,

Con v .,;ely, there is a new t the unusedor the ,,de.

There tor. Jo n-t adhere t rA,at h,,,, ri A

Aeret.:-...ypeo way hese r ford, J "mal,""femal, oc wpatioo t - . Your owninterests ',Add

your choice f future work, , the t.1,21. thatyou happen ti he a ooy or a r .

Whether or not the offical policyof total equality between tole sexeswill actually be carried over to thefuture labor market remains to beseen. The are no formal obstaclesto students seeking ptacticss inareas outside their traditiosal sexroles, and questionnaire responseshave not indicated that employersreact negatively to students who havechosen vocational areas traditionallydominated ay the other sex. However,a real-ism-lc note was struck by Marga-reta Vesrbm. Section Director of theNational %card of in alecture tt the Nordic Culture com-mission:

50/0 rati,...-

obstacles to

still remain:

the care

such work cit..

then it -

I me.iet.au.might beth tr,riced for

,put pro ._Ar

1J rot to,rry hou,ri ,11 I orma 1 and .,..t ,

.avisality have diiappeared, it

more tr-gwant that girls

or because they actively

to their personal dispo,...ition,

irely up to them.

, Aorine a .-: al per Ludt L'.!

(riellwr

certa.r, ._;ituatic.4,-. when the.

ilors was critical) to .-.how that

3 ible an d approur .,to and toon responsible _ionrnor-: ins

Pre,/.at al and VocationalOrientption in 77-te Sweu--,"" School Systep

take ' ro_-

r.qual acies r.

,tow

the dri.ira:

all kind,

't

p5.ychol

primary and sec.

tics, Ne can ca_h --tat f.

i.e., give ',:

femal. charact..21

In this ca ,

it Our countrquit, define,: .,

ly, tend t

he solved it.

become bvio-tain

r(1,011".

f t ul

stre

t' '

nts. They

'.atur.,l

ett. "

r. ph,. _ sok character

le+ tr' differencesliffererlly,

than te

t he

not . t

t ! .;ation.

(V t.' . pruller *ill

o' ,d above: !t will

,ore wome,

r:. my

we should "fee traits inboys and as "male,'

It will show in the devedoemont of the

ual one trait dominates, add if so,10one.

Opin ,

totb

trait.individ-

which

OUTSIDE THE PURL 7HOOL SYSTEM

The regional broc.ores offer de-tailed infomNation mr- only on courseoffers in the put school systembut a. on -_ther poesinilities forgeneral Aed -ocations- -Aucatiom andtraininc cfrtain teacrirs colleges,spen tr _=mdents who flaw- complemedgrade (I, are _isted; =,-0 are private

schools and imstitutions that offercourses renewing from 20 hours tcsever yearn Industries freqeset-ly osier!- themeetical tneinwea direct-ly aimed at emsitions tisthu thecompane. Same 07 these oasumniesoffer asielc-sasmie ..-rogsaws Est regu-lar par.

The 6111A...wag aaremples

try-spehaiswea -swaseasewL. trowellasg nettakes (*am the AmwAeale published be%mice Ilesseanlamis Ain) :

Volvo , Industr: - qr comer.:

shop mechar

S2ulliehaue Factory: war tourId, %wen and tin veisms.

Jr'

dr.:

!e:,t1Or

u':I

or- ."

,rr

r 'Ur

'1 r ,r,

a (0,, m_.

'rial aa,r ,

1 Four;

,rt '

Tis1C rote

rUni i,.ut

d hour 11

VraLATICileki, EDUCATION

Qualificatauns

For teachers of vocatioi4411!oriented smblects, qualificanAare gemerall7 identical al_ 31p.4.-_!

the ommetry, e1 though the avalal%.lity 2f maeromer at tieleS-Ight giowaLl variations

The tolbotkuper samplestiammairc rememenes List err ofthe !pal !;,cama_ons required: --

gala (4,0904w, "C")

reeiv enewewommi .fie -lent=

Hmegewee, ummum 1 eseaure per .oer

yeeer -eumeudie neewrides for temur.

pomitiere

1<rasurissas imelcion "L")

A neuenee of lemer, - the large. market

Thesee,lameal ireduee in the ,rep, to be t.g.r

Tawnier truiemidel

Lit, mr)A lausigiv0 ocart" occupational experience

Use field

1 'mar teed or treiand

Mere exporiefflice-primCLaii .ueacher train:

29

Internaticm41/Intercultural Educcion Ruit-rts

Responsibilities

The vocational teacher' respcsibilit:.es are 71:ft restricted to --,

classroom. He ,r she als > has -hefuncti6;, of 1 .ison staff bet.*---,schoc: and ingustrial/connerci_ilift. Tor instance, in some casthis means ocoperating with the 'r-ployment agencies to secure otueplacements; in ether cases, the-Leacher Inas to make these arrange-ments a.,...nne. Usually, attempts aremade to place pity° students locally,but some instances this is impos-sibl. Whether students are illacedloca_._ly or mot, the teacher is tovisit all of the regularly Ln theirwork situations and later it classfollow up on their experiences.

SrHool AND SOCIETY

The .1.162 Lat.:Titan 4MA ougdskaaand the l3'x65 Lifteptait iconsuLsictemphasis* the importance of .nter-action between school and society invocatiori_ edutatIon.

, children ono you,

1-- end. n :tu.A.ntr. know -don ,

them -nett- skills, J,comperat in wit, homes, to further .r

developm..nt ir,tc normonious persor. Ind

cae,ablc, nIf mangers of sc Ay....13

... In its wommitiswel work, the wolawl.ore, that '

de.v _

mew hem-et -yr

_,, of the school mutt :

cont. ,NWO.,. that they arc

tune -resent; tne development of nechool oulc parlIlel to that of sucl,-y.

The i r.t betweer ,chool and societymust at or-, .,at to* sc. 001 not only fulf- lls

n func . r respO,dirA.; to the current n..

of soc,-- ;i1su, :r e long rannt

::ecOiner.

30

lively creati% force in th

1 h. . ,a; Ven

1,1 1 ,1r n.

I wit'

20-1whert are tz,4.2 contact:, i).,_rtw_.n

sch:.K)i and society livelier .a: in

the field of vocational 0t_ "n,

since the whole vocational --rngAmof the pw.lic schools is de:..,Endent

on support from public ant zrivateinstitutions and entercrises.

The Grade-8 Field Trig

As early as grade fielc tripsare planner; cooperatIvely by tilt

quidance counselor o- the class Arida representative for the 7:oropanyvisited. The visit, whion is pre -cared and followed uF it school, canvary in duration from - .ale oflours to a full day, 1 tbe stintsan cone individuall: *5 a arrpsp.

either case, they a r ms a:lowecto montact me -le 3t dor-

posnatir als: hand .**-

practical -.sks.

Ihe Grade-9 P'14

In grade the choice of rtthnractical vocational orientation is

ade by the student based on thtield trips taken in grade 8. The

740vernment-operated employment agcn-_:ies make ariremgeednits for pl4w

placement; Owduld there be no IOC-.1employment agency, these arrenotemt.6become the responsibility of thewuldemizc .mpumselor.

Ummlly, .-111r ptyc student

assumed to at, experienced worker,nis "advisor,' in whose ordinarywork he participates- In callcompanies, the owner/mamager oftentakes on this function; in bag cow-panies, where groups of students areplaced, the head of the personneldepartment (cr some ether mecutive

Prevocational and VocationalOrientation in the Swedish Public Sthool System

in a similar position) generallygives the students an introductoryorientation and then assigns them totheir advisors. "To be an advisoris an honorary assignment from soci-ety and the labor market. It isimportant that the advisor make thestudent's visit with the company asrewarding as possible." 17

The National Board of Educationpublishes separate information bro-chures on pay°, directed to the com-panies (InlioAmatiOn tat 604etagen),to the advisors (1n0Amation titthandtedarte), and to the parents

(Inp4mat,Lon titt OkatditaA). In

addition, the Board of Labor Safetyhas published its own informationfor advisors, and there are detailedstudy plans for training coursesarranged for advisors-to-be.

Cooperation

A 48-page handbook, PRVO--in Coop-elution, lb stresses the importance or

close relations between school andindustrial/commercial life to the suc-

cess of pkyo. The first edition of

5,000 copies was sold out within acouple of momths, necessitating asecond edition (slightly revised) of15,000 copies.

Cooperation in planning for powoperiods is thus a very important areaof interaction between school andsociety, one which also leads to fur-ther commumications and a constantadaptation of school programs to

society needs. One Regional Boardof Education (Skaraborgs Lan, RegionR) reports:

The Regional Board of education has as its mem

bers not only representatives for seboal and other

public institutions but also representatives for

industry and trade. The Board has a Technical

Council as well, a great advantage for coopera-

tion with the society, and the Board also is

supported by regional and local vocational coun

cils....

Through discussions between school authorities

and representatives for aommercial and industrial

life regarding the need of trained personnel, wr

have been able to arrange far specialized on: trans

aimed at procuring worker, in piper mills, flour

mills, gold industry,ls men as furniture and

interior carpenters.

Another Board (Kristianstad Lan,Region L) likewise reports the exis-tence of cooperative agencies, andadds that the "companies are receiv-ing the students in a positive way."20Also in Jintlands Lan (Region Z),both employers and employees of co-operating industries are re9fesentedin the Vocational Council.

In summary, the prwo ice. rindappears to have had a positive recep-tion by the community. er is is

reflected in the comments by theRegional Board of Education in Skara-borgs Lan (Region R) on the pow andthe vocational orientation of thepublic school system.

Remarkably many, at least nalf of the

pry2 students, have entered into training or

employment in occupations related to their .r.a.placements.

The import ..,e vocatio, 11 education

for the inCvtl.al ..r-± for lociety can hardly

be overestimated. Fresentl, he vocational

school systole, .61 so widely developed that al:

students tan! wu,AtIof4a +rainIng (now

part of the ApmesieskoW can get 1.- TMvocational ir,entation continues to be devel

oped according to portly new principles; it

needs and should be capable of even higher

efficiency. 22

FOOTNOTES

1. Skoaveuty4eUema InioAmat4one-4e/tie: Data tt't gamod4kotam.Stockholm: S0 /UtbildningsfOrlaget-1970. p. 12.

2. Ibid. p. 5.

31


3. Labor Safety Board. "InformationSheet." p. 2.

4. Skoteveuty/tetoen4 InOtmation6-4e/tie: Att Vfttja Studievag 1971/72.Stockholm: SO/Uthildningsfarlaget,1971. p. 9.

5. W. W. Brickman. "Secondary andPostsecondary Vocational Education inSelected Countries since 1960." 1971.p. 22. (Manuscript).

6. Skotoveit4tynet4en4 Inpfunation4-4enie: Att Vatia Studio* 1971/72.loc. cit. p. 35.

7. Ibid. pp. 58-60.

8. Ibid. p. 47.

9. Ibid. p. 85.

10. Vestin, M. Skotan, undenvi4ningenoch k1n4ltott4154agoltna. Lecture at asymposium in Copenhagen of the NordicCulture Commission, October 1971.Translation by the author.

11. AU VAtja Studievftg. RegionalBoard of Education, Region U. Vaster&s:1971. pp. 22 and 25.

12. Response to questionnaire regard-ing vocational education in publicschools, sent by the author to allRegional Boards of Education.

13. lftkoptan 664 pundskotan. Stockholm:SO/Sarleget, 1962. p. 13.

14. Ibid.

15. Ibid. p. 14.

16. Lagoptan 604 gymna4i.et. Stockholm:SO[SOrlaget, 1965. p. 20.

17. S-kotavelatytet4en4 Inicotmationa-4ertie: SkoteveutyAet4en4 inourta t. on

32

tcti 614tet-qen/PRVO. Stockholm: SO/UttildninE fOrlaget, 1971. p. 4.

18. Ingegird orne. Ptyc i samvekkan.Stockholm: June 1971. Informationalpamphlet from the Vocational Councilof the Labor Market.

19. Response to questionnaire regard-ing vocational education in publicschools, sent by the author to allRegional Boards of Education.

20. Ibid.

21. Ibid.:

22. Ibid.

SELECTED READINGS

Att Vetja Studievftg. Regional Boardof Education, Region U. Vasteras:1971.

Brickman, w.w.: Sccondarty and Po4t-4econdaky Vocational Edt.cation inSetected Count/ Liu 4ince 1960. 1971.(Manuscript) .

Musen, T. School Relioltm in Sweden(0E-14020) U.S. Department of Health,Education, and Welfare, Office ofEducation. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office, 1965.

Husen, T., et al. Samhatt4kun4kap 2604 oundAkotand h8g4tadium, Stock-holm; Natur och Kultur, 1971.

Kontenta. Journal published by theWomen's Council of the Labor MarketBoard. Stockholm: No. 2, 1972.

t. Maj:t4 imopo4ition 1950:10ang nde Aikttinjelt det Aven4kaskotlibendet6 utveckting. Stockholm:1950.

Prevocational and VocationalOrientation in the Swedish Public School System

Labor Safety'Board. "InformationSheet." 2 pp.

"LSroplan for grundskolan." Stockholm:98/Sorlaget, 1962 and 1969.

"Llroplan fOr gymnasiet." Stockholm:SO/Sorlaget, 1965.

Orne, IngegArd. aamvenkan.Stockholm: June 1971. Informationalpamphlet from the Vocational Councilof the Labor Market.

Orring, J. Comoehen4ive Schoot andContinuation Schoot in Sweden.Stockholm: Kungl. Ecklesiastikdep-artementet: 1962.

Palme, O. Poticy 604 the 70'4. Stock-holm: Social Democratic Party ofSweden, 1970.

Skot6veutyketAenh Inpolationa4eitie:

Att Vatja Studievag 1971/72. Stock-holm: SONtbildningsfarlaget, 1971.

Den nya gymna4ie4kota. Stockholm:SO/UtbildningsfOrlaget, 1970.

Data pund4kotan. Stockholm:SO/UtbildningsfOrlaget, 1970,

Ghtinclaaan: 1910. Stockholm: sniUtbildningsfOrlaget, 1970.

Skottiveutyketzen6 .iniotmation WA'Aftetmen/PRVO. Stockholm: Utbild-ningsfOrlaget, 1971.

Skoteveutyketben6 in6ohmation tilt664atdAaA/PRVO. Stockholm: SO/Ut-bildningsfarlaget, 1970.

Vestin, M. Skotan, undenvianingen ochkammot2664Ag0hna. Lecture at asymposium in Copenhagen of the NordicCulture Commission, October 1971.Translation by author.

Vestin, M. et al. Lagevtappont 2,Pkojektet lOnakottenna och Akotan.Report submitted to the SwedishNational Board of Education, June1972.

33


EDUCATION FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT

IN THE U.S.S.R.

SEYMOUR M. ROSENsince 1960 has beenthe specialist incompartative educa-tion 604 the U.S.S.R.and Eastern Europein .the Institute oaIntermaiional Stud-ies. He ha4 movemany oWciat studytraps to the U.S.S.R.twice accompuhying

U.S. Cong4e44ionat detegation4 andonce heading an 066ice o6 Educationstudy team. Mn. Ro4en id the authoro6 sevekat books on Soviet educa-tion, the latest o6 which id Educa-tion and Modernization in --AiU7Y:CT: (Addison-weaey,-7471T7-and Als arctictes and studies haveappeared in Com ve EducationReview, Phi DeLtaKKaplpan, IntellectWe/ay-Wand Soci.etyl andnumerous GoveAnmeapubti ation4.

The Union of Soviet Socialist Re-publics is a centrally controlledstate that issues binding nationaldirectives in education and trainingas well as other fields, and thatviews career development in terms ofthe priority needs of the nationaleconomy as determined by the Commu-nist Party leadership.

In June 1972, the Central Com-mittee of the Communist Party ofthe Soviet Union (CPSU), togetherwith the U.S.S.R. Council of Minis-ters, issued two decrees that rep-resented a significant step in the34

Soviet attempt to solve the ever-pressing problem of "preparing stu-dents for life" and of educatingSoviet youth for careers in a modernindustrial society. They affirm-ed that the goal of universal sec-ondary education was to be accomp-lished by 1975 and asserted theneed tc link study in school withthe demands of modern industry.

This article is concerned with the"polytechnical education" policies andprogram directions in the U.S.S.R. andwith the practical experiences and majorrevisions of the past 15 years that haveled up to the 1972 decrees.

THE JUNE 1972 DECREES

In April 1971, the 24th CPSU Con-gress issued the "Directives forthe Five-Year National Economy for1971-1975," on which the June 1972decrees were based. The Congressdirectives instructed the nationaleducation sector as follows:

To carry out the further comprehensive

development of public education and social-

ist culture. To improve tht instructional

and upbringing process. To improve the

quality of the training of pedagogical cadres

and raise the level of their qualifications.

To step up work on the vocational guidance

of pupils, taking into account the young

people's inclinations and the national

economy's requirements for skilled cadres.

To develop higher and specialized second-

ary education in accordance with the require-

ments of scientific and technical progress,

to raise the quality of the training of

future specialists and to improve their

ideological and political upbringing.

During the five-year period, to train

approximately 9,000,000 specialists with

a higher or specialized secondary education,

paying special attention to the training of

specialists in new fields of science and

Education for Career Development in the U.S.S.R.

tvtlnu Ay. for the rapidly developny

tranct,vs of produrtion end for the spired e

f serveows.

Tu increase the trininq of sallied workers

in the vocational technical educational emote e

tutions, especially in rural localities, so

that young people, se rule. frill ubtagn

specialty before beginning jab. During the

fiveeyeur period, to train at West ),6100,0.10

.willd stoners for all branches of the

natiorta economy an the seucatie.aletechnical

nducat.onl institutions. To carry out at

higher rates the training of cadres for

sericulture, construction, light industry,

the food industry end enterprises providing

verrley ...vices to the emulative. fly l);5,

to tiring the number of students enrolled in

whAtecersletschncel trenin, mho at the sae

tame receive complete ecedeeio see4wW4r,

oducetoo to $00,41/J to 400,41). 1

The decrees in turn called forpreparing students in both the aced-olio and vocational education systemwho could be both aoedemically andteohnotoglcally keowledgeable. hawk,in describing the geeers1 educationdecree, stated.

hi further strengthen the lase between

the school end the pileup, do .,enor.st

building, the U.S.4.D. Oldn.stry fduost.en

and "we locol popular oder& arlve fry,*

woe (Welted I. develop palyterhee.al teeohe

ing on the bells of clops oasstostion e4 the

LI441, of sense' subjects end the eases of

e mdeen produottenj to irrenes 'vitals/dee

student sesearrsiens to plants, fektooles.

sleds forgo des cell...Aisle Ceram we to

todilserise thee with tokftm.1, .1

end lemur ergenigolliun in -..06! to

fAmillairles thee edth teats..144r e.

end Leber erlenlastlem in enterbeiboos to

Artie her blipmennente to I.44.4. cdavati^a

e nd professional ..4044t1«. .f lue414

thnovidtent the pried of tnoteu.tiewi te

oldlien end equip JO 411 alto lftluetvil

end wortmolswel emereris.., teertfte

wmashees end =MA sRO lotersohoet

"...Am Mil ggegmedge, elvAiodi to 'eV."'

And laterove the eget of eppeertlesse pre.seoe

tie.. Ira end ether pe . .1:, .e4fuses f tee orgentsellee of :4 4

e tuden(e.

It .s sepodaent to enlist sails, pare

tacully the older ones, f,.4. ,r4onlea

Lear parts, .patior in the net ions' vn

00,, the of cities and villa...

and the planting of "winery and ,eture

protetion during vacations.

The vocational education decreecalled for vocational and technicalschools to "produce comprehensivelydeveloped, technically educatedyu.Ang people."

THE FOLTTEOHNICAL EDUCATIONWaft 1991-S9

The full-scale attempt at what theSoviets refer to as "polytechnicaleducation" is well known and hasbeen reported in a number of publi -cations.4 Polytechnical education

may be defined as education thatprovides not only general academicinstruction, predominantly inreorder elementary-semomdary schools,but also (1) t.. his the relation-ship of various theoretical subjectsto their practical application inindustry. (3) teaches the fundgmen-tale of industrial processes and theunderlying principles of groups ofvocational skills, and (3) providespractical training in general workskills and in a specific job skill.

soviet author N. N. Skatkin

writes, in the volume edited by

Shapovalenk,

Oolyte.ito.icel edu atom lives the pupal

ithweiOlet cl the ass" brenshes of produce

and the ectert.fec principles on ehsch

these depend, and a.,custams hie to handling

season tools one ,notelysante of Labour. This

f4ennd Napo tee drooled creative teehaleel

el. idle* end t. nowlele is and respect0o6pal.di 10...or and ~b. by providand

ide /envoi teen. /r I 1.4010prev4, poly.

esu.ets., levee the student an

.4orlonity t.. Owes. freely Nag otur r ,

o, easter verse, of the pose to Ow do,. in

and t. .ley a, ttew 'art 5"Pt to

11-

35

International/Intercultural Fducaticn Ronorts

Following few years of experi-mentation in selected schools by theRussian SPSR Academy of PedagogicalSciences, the Communist Party leader-ship and laws of the Soviet Govern-ment in 19S0-39 initiated the "poly-

technical education" reform,the firstmajor education reform of the entireSoviet school system since the early1930's. knong the major componentsof the reform were the following:

1. Si:tension of compulsorygeneral education from seven gradesto eight grades, with polytechnic-al and labor practice component inevery grade of school.

2. txtension of full elementary-secondary education from 10 years to11 years, with one-third of the last3 years in secondary education devot-ed to production (industrial/agri-cultural) theory and practice.

3. Transformation of the generale ducation achool into the "generaleducation labor -polyteohnical schoolswith production training."

4. Interruption of higher educa-tion admissions for 2 years for thevast majority of secondary schoolapplicants while they worked in in-dustry and agriculture.

Under the reform program, stu-dent completing secondary schoolreceived regular academic educe-two with school diplomas and alsoa grounding in polytechnical prin-ciples with certificate of qual-ification in specific work spe-cialty.

Five years of emperienoe in at-tempting to implement this nationaleducation reform "to connect schoolwith life" revealed major weaknesses.Despite the theory, students weregetting narrow specialisation or34

vocational training, instead oftraining in the fundamentals of pro-duction. Training opportunities forthe pupils of any one school wereoften limited to very small rangeof skills. At the same time, acade-mic studies were being neglected,and the rate of dropouts from reg-ular day schools was increasing.

While many factory programs weregood or satirfactory, in many pro-grams students were given menialtasks to perform during their pro-duction training, or simply told toat-.:h "over the shoulder" of workers.Industrial managers were such moreconcerned with meeting their annualfactory production quotas than usingvaluable plant staff and time totrain the young for the broader andlonger range goals of the nationaleconomy. In addition, facilitieswere inadequate for students bothat factories and in school workshops.Teachers were inddequately trainedfor production training or theyapplied polytechnical principlespoorly in the schools, and factorypersonnel lacked pedagogical skills.

The great majority of studentswho were trained in specific jobskill along with their general edu-cation were not getting jobs usingthat skill after they finished sec-ondary school. Thus there was sub-stantial academic and careertraining wastage.

This combination of polytechnicaleducation and labor training provedtoo heavy load for the schoolsystem to carry, both because of thevastness of the national system thatwas implementing (or attempting toimplement) it and also because itinvolved too substantial a portionof the already academically burdenedcurriculum. In the 11144-63 schoolyear, retrenchment began, to retainthe polytechnical principles but tomake the practices more effective.

TREND SINCE MID-1960's


Following two decrees of the CPSUCentral Committee and the U.S.S.R.Council of Ministers in the summerof 1964, the extension of compul-sory education from 7 to 8 years wasretained, but complete elementary-secondary education was returned to10 years and the total time allowedto practical training and coursesin the theory and practice of (in-dustrial/agricultural) productionwas considerably reduced. In thelate 1960's only schools that hadaccess to factories with good fa-cilities continued "production prac-tice" and issued certificates ofqualification in a work specialty,along with the regular academic di-ploma. Emphasis was on shop work inthe school rather than in the plant.

A reformulation of regulationsallowed a much higher percentage ofthe students going on to highereducation to do so without the 2-year work interruption after grad-

uation from secondary school. The

main problem remained, however--howto "link education with life," orhow to achieve education for careerdevelopment in a growing industrialsociety whose complex needs requiredboth a sound general education and acapacity to grasp the concepts oftechnology and science.

The directions the decisionmakershave chosen in two late 1960's and

early 1970's include modernising the

academic elementary-secondary cur-riculum primarily in the teaching of

sciences and mathematics, and, asevidenced in the June 1972 decrees,aiming at more effective use of the

range of institutional options forachieving comprehensive and career-

oriented education.

Diversity of Study Options

The Soviet Union has developed adiversity of study options for thepupil comleting 8 years of compulsoryeducation. He can continue with up-per secondary general or technicaleducation or go on to short-term vo-cational school--either daytime,nighttime or by correspondence. Theasserted goal of universal compulsoryfull elementary-secondary educationby the end of the ninth 5-year plan(1975) and the need for increasinglybetter educated skilled workers andtechnicians have increased the pres-sure to put an academic componentsufficient for a regular secondarydiploma in the vocational schools,just as in the early 1960's the focuswas on putting a polytechnical/voca-tional component in the schools ofgeneral edmation.

It is interesting to note that

with the approach of universal sec-ondary education, students whosepreference or circumstance directthem to obtain a specific job skillin vocational schools are increas-ingly being given the opportunityto complete their academic secondaryeducation while remaining in the

vocational school. The object in a

sense is to bring the general edu-cation school (i.e., program) to thevocationally oriented students (inthe vocational school) rather thanvice-versa. Soviet educationalstrategy for the 1970's is toaccomplish universal secondary edu-cation partially by increasingenrollments in technical schoolsand academically strengthened voca-tional schools, schools which voca-tionally oriented youth are morelikely to complete. This is theprimary significance of the June

37


1972 decree on vocational and tech-nical training.

Students who complete generalsecondary education (10-year schoolgraduates) have the option of eithertrying for admission to 4 to 6 yearsof higher education (in a specificprofessional specialty), or going,for a briefer period than do the 8-year school graduates, to a second-ary technical school (technieum) toobtain a junior technical qualifi-cation for work in industry, agri-culture, health, education (tobecome a kindergarten teacher), orservice fields.6 Either higher ortechnical education, as in the caseof vocational, can be accomplishedin regular full-time day programs,in the very extensive correspondence-extension course program, or inevening or alternative work-shiftprograms.

Schools of both technical andhigher education require entranceexaminations for admission. Admis-sion is to a specific specialty, oneof several hundred coded (in 4digits) identically with comparablejobs in the national economy. Upongraduation, students are assignedto regular jobs, with some optionsfrost which to select.

One of the more interestinginnovations in recent years is thesystem of withholding the student'sgraduation diploma until he hasworked at his assigned job for 1year. This can lead to problems,as indicated by one Soviet source,which leaves the questions raisedunanswered:

Job assigning is over. The graduating

student receives his certificate of oomple-

tion of the college course. This and his

job assignment paper take the place of a

diploma. The diploma itself he gets a

year later when he presents s statement

from his supervisors that he can handle

the job for which he was trained.

38

but suppose the supervisor takes a

dislike to the newcomer? Or suppose the

newcomer starts criti':izing that he calls

his superior's inefficiency and tries to

change things--something the superior is

bound to resent? It is not beyond the

realm of possibility that the reference he

gets will say he's not good at anything.

It is a possibility and cannot ID! dis-

missed. This diploma innovation, 1.ke any

other, has flaws that will need to be

worked out./

Curriculum Modernization

Modernization of the regularelementary-secondary school curric-ulum was announced by Minister ofEducation Mikhail ProkoVev in 1969.8Like previous major developments,it had been preceded by severalyears of experimentation in selectedschools and by studies under a jointcommission of the U.S.S.R. Academyof Sciences and the U.S.S.R. Aca-demy of Pedagogical Sciences (nowa "union-republic" or national,rather than Russian, republic,edu-cation research organization).

The new curriculum compressedelementary education from 4 yearsto 3 years in length, modernizedthe curriculum particularly inphysics, chemistry, biology, andmathematics, and sought to empha-size mastery of basic conceptsrather than memorization of facts.Innovations also included someelective courses in the senior yearsgeared to the student's personal andcareer interests.

The continuing importance ofteaching practical modern appli-cations of various theoreticalsubjects and labor training ineach school grade was indicated inan authoritative Soviet source in1970.

The ideas of connection between school

and life, polytechnical and labour educa-

tion of the pupils have received a further

Education for Career Developme t in the U.S.S.R.

development in the new educational plans

and curricula.

A great importance is attached to the

application of knowledge in the work,

public and private life. The way from

theory to production and to the applica-

tion of knowledge in life is followed

in the educational process for n 1 the

subjects.

The curriculum for physics, for example,

provides for studying the elementary nuclear

processes and the acquaintance with the

principles of operation of the atomic power

station. Along with the theory the pupils

will study the most widely spread correspond-

ing mechanisms, thermal engines, as well as

the questions of production, transmission and

utilization of electric power; they also

become acquainted with the means of communica-

tion, electrical and radio technique. The

curriculum for chemistry provides for the

acquaintance of the pupils with the most

important branches and general scientific

principles of the chemical production as

well as with the main trends of chemiztion

of agriculture while studying the theory of

feeding plants, for example, they become

acquainted with the fundamentals of egroche.

mistry. The share of the laboratory and

practical work increases, more films are

shown, children go on more excursions

connected with production.

The system of labour education of pupils

established at the school of the Soviet

Won serves the same purpose. The most

essential elements of this system are as

follows: labour education as an education

al subject, out of the school and extracur-

ricular technical and agricultural experi-

mental work of children, facultative (elec-

tive) studies of technical and agricultural

character, generally useful and productive

labour of pupils, special work on vocation.

al training. Labour education is an im.

portant part of polytechnical education; its

major tasks are to provide pupils with the

knowledge and habits of general technical

character, give them an adequate labour

training, develop ^rwative attitude to

labour and prepare pupils for a conscien-

tious choice of future profession.

In 1967.68 the new curricula for labour

training were introduced. There are twohours a week for labour lessons -t the

schools of general education in accordance

with the curricula from the let to the 10thclass.

At these lessons the pupils of primary

school learn how to work with paper, card..

board, tin-plate, wire end placticine.

Beginning from t,,e 4th class and up to the

8th class labour training for the boys and

girls differs: during this period boys

become acquainted with the manual and

mechanical treatment of wood, metal and

plastics, whereas girls learn sewing and

cooking. Both the boys and girls master

some elements of machine and electrical

technique.

At the rural wcmools the pupils also study

the fundamentals of agricultural work in the

9th - 10th ,lass.w. Labour training is conduct-

ed as practical %dem; of metals, electricity,

fabric treatment Arochemistry, vetable-growing,

etc. The purpos )f such practical studies is

to give pupils certain theoretical knowledge as

well as to provide them with practical skill in

this or that branch of production. At some

schools labour training of the pupils of senior

classes expanded on account of facultative stu-

dies and has the character of production train.

ing with the result that quite a few pupils

finishing school receive primary professional

training in this or that specialty (driver,

tractor operator, locksmith, etc.)

In July 1972 (P4AvdA, July 30,1972), the CPSU Central Committeeand the U.S.S.R. Council of Ministersadopted a resolution "On Measuresfor Further Improving Higher Educa-tion in the Country," calling formodernisation and improvement in thequality of the curriculum and teach-ing methods of all specialties, butparticularly those concerned withscience and technology. To help inthis task, two new kinds of councilswere established g (1) a Council forHigher Education under the U.S.S.R.Ministry of Higher and SpecialisedSecondary Education, with officialsfrom various Government ministries,science orgailizations, and studentgroups; and (2) Councils of Rectors(Presidents) of Higher EducationInstitutions, in major higher educa-tion centers.

39

Inter"

Devel4

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otherin th4

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40

1/Intercultui

of Science -Mr

of recent y(ial emphasisidentify the

y gifted forools throughlympiads." S(in music, tl

aye been a 14.R.,but conc(elitism helt

of the scion(1 the early 7he level oft'pment of thees of earlyprofesrnalideologicalare well-egt

some instructtaff. The s11 into underidies, scienti

s for the Dill

other end ofoblen of runlly is beingone-room SC

centrally log

oardinq faciamess of thes of studentreas has ledcrate "prepaya school ye

is who cannotranee anemiaears samowhalor "Workersand early

shed to incrrkers and pegtion student

mts are alsoter education

ducation Reports

'tics

as beenle swi-ll) are

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s forIce, andraditionoutc thethematicss, whenscion-

sty madegyration

swer

!vantages.I amdsy localto eatu-ste andresearch,

spec-Noolsby re-busesschools,

s. ThesmicviouslyunivorV facullength,

tiallys. ThisLiar tolties"s whichthe

s inD s.

g triedols with

"candidate-studem,," who take thefirst year of studies along with reg-ular freshman,and, if successful, re-place those regular students who dropout during or after the first year ofstudies.

In general, the less academicallyprepared students Woo wish to pursuehigher or secondary technical educa-tion do so through the correspondence-extension system sidiao workinetime with paid 1 for exams-tions). Usually ammo a year mirkcorrespondence weedimmt comes so theuniversity or specia4.ised institutefor a series of =mommultations and ex-aminations. Thom- students who livenear the correspemdmmee institute ordepartment may Mamma regular eveningconsultations dursmg see school year.Ithers may have se welly for advice onguidance personnel at onsultationpoints" which may bop gated some-where in the area ueir residenceor work.

In 1970, about 4 peeceme ofthose admitted so higher edmmatienschools and 26 emrepos of times ad-mitted to secomdmme technicalschools were eneetimd in theme cor-respondence-extension courses. Cor-respondence education is nationallyrecognised. In addition to separatecorrespondence schools, most regularSoviet higher education institutionshave correspondence faculties, ordepartments, and are administered bythe union-republic Ministries ofHigher and Specialised secondary Ed-ucation or some other appropriateGovernment ministry. Completion ofstudies by correspondence can leadto upgrading and promotion of workersin the plants in which they are cur-rently employed or to an improved jobstatus elsewhere.

A recent ember reappraisal of thecorrespondence sibeols and apart-ments, which Seel grown at a greatrate in the blIllre and 1960's and


had developed very substantial enrol-lments at the secondary technicaland higher education levels, resul-ted in leveling off enrollments inthe late 1960's and early 1970's.The argument used in early yearsthat correspondence courses weresuch cheaper to the state than full-time education proved fallacious inmore sophisticated cost analysesthat took into account their drop-out rates and the consequent lossof the partial training investmentand skills to the economy. Corres-pondence students were also foundto be relatively weak in their mas-tery of the theoretical aspects ofthe specialties in which they werebeing trained.

Call for Increased VocationalGuidance

One of the knottiest problems ofeducation for career development andowe with which the Soviets have shownincreasing concern in recent years isvocational or career guidance, or asthe Soviets call ito"professionalorientation." Note that the educa-tion sector was instructed "to stepup work on the vocational guidance ofpupils" in the 5-year plan directivesof the CPSU Congress, quoted above.

Soviet sources have pointed tomany avenues for guidances (1) Thefamily (the work level of the fatheris a most influential factor in edu-cational and vocational choice);(2) the school (through the screen-ing process of examinations andquotas, polytechnical or vocationalinstruction by teachers, clubs forstudying local positions and forms,and visiting lectures by workingprofessionals in various fields);(3) the factory or farm (throughsite visits or "voluntary" work byyouth organisations in free time orsummers); (4) Y.M.C.A.-like "pioneer

palaces," "technical circles," and"stations of young technicians andyoung naturalists" (in which youthcan develop extracurricular skillsand are encouraged in the merits of"socialist labor"), and (5) thecommunications media (radio andtelevision, the press,and publish-ed career guidebooks).

What is lacking in the vocationalguidaace picture, however, is coor-dination and focus for the individ-ual student. An author in the Sov-iet Lithuanian press writes:

The nee school year has begun. . . .

Before tree youth (entering secondary school)

is a very important stags in their lives.

And, to large extent, the firmness with

which a student can establish his goal and

achieve it in the most expeditious way

depends on school and on training and educa-

tional work. An important place here is

occupied by the work for professional orient-

ation of the students.nowever, it we talk in terms of a broader

scope, se oust admit that the effectiveness

of this work is still not very great. Prac-

tice shows that the choica of a profession

for graduating students is frequently made

either spontaneously or under the influence

of incidental factors: the wishes of parents

or elders, romantic ides about one or another

profession, and so forth.... In the schools the

professional orientation still has no system

or direction.

Usually nearly 80 percent of the secondary

school graduates (in K.unus) hope to enter

en institution of higher learning and nearly

5, percent of them beoome students. The

remaining 25 percent do not know for a long

time which path to take in life. And, as a

rule, they get into some incidental job. It

doesn't satisfy them; they look again and

find some place else to work. At the same

time, there are meny enterprises which are

literally suffocating because of a lack of

specialists. Even though it is possible to

find interesting professions and high wages,

the youth are not going there. And it is

only because they cannot envision what goes

into those professions. This again bears

witness to the fact that it is necessary to

seriously and purposefully encourage peuple

to go into the working professions. We must

strengthen the professional orientstion of

41


the students, consiciering not only the

learnings and desires of the youth, but also

the demands of the national economy for

personnel....* * *

Also, some teachers have still not recog..

nized the importance of professional orient-

ation and have not mastered the methods oFthis work. The training of teachers for

carrying out professional orientation is

also quite imperfect. One or anotkier

lecture on these problems, of course, can-

not change the essence of the mutter. Work

on professional orientation in amp schools

is sporadic end does not take twee consider-

ation which kinds of specialists are neededby the national economy, what the students

want to become, and what they can be.

Professional orientation of students is

a very important matter which is now an ob-

jective social necessity. And these prob-

lems must be resolved not only by a pedagogi-

cal plan, but also in their psychological,

medical, socmological, and economic aspects.

Toward these ends, we must join together the

forces of all organizations and departments

which are called upon to direct the processes

of development of the vociety.10

Articles in the Soviet press fromother parts of the country also citepoor coordination of vocational gui-dance, the low level of career or-ientation of students, and "insuf-ficient understanding by parents andpupils of the value of a generalsecondary education for today'shighly qualified workers." 11

Perhaps an indicator for thefuture is an article in the authori-tative journal of the U.S.S.R. Aca-demy of Pedagogical Sciences whichcalls for organising a nationwidevocational guidance service thatwould coordinate the efforts of theschools, industry, the communicationsmedia, and presumably local centersof job orientation or "councils ofprofessional orientation of youth"which have already been establishedin some areas."

42

CONCLUSION

It is suggested that there maybe elements of interest for U.S.career education specialists in therecent educational developments inthe U.S.S.R. (obviously, the Amer-icam education experience is ofcontinuing interest to the Soviets.)For those educators developing"smhool-based" models. the Soviet"polytechnical" censegts and trialsand errors in implemmmeation mow beimmtructive. Those developing"employeripased" models may find ofsome interest the technical sal:moan,including some through higher eidercation, located within or attachedto Soviet industrial plants. Thedeveloped Soviet correppondmmmeedmcation program and its develop-ing educational television eat pro-gramed instruction could peohnpsstimulate an exchange of ideas forthose concerned with "home-commem-ity" models of career education.

Although awareness of griticaldifferences in political, economic,and social contexts must always bemaintained, the Soviet Union (likeother large, moreror-less developedcountries with massive educationsystemm,may be viewed as a vast edu-cation laboratory in its attemptsto launch various national educationprograms. In career development,the Soviet experience may be as in-structive in its failures as is itssuccesses, in its efforts to solvethe problem of providing the train-ed manpower needed by a modernsociety.


r

1 Steno.404w46.0 aepott, 24th Cong.!

)4 1 tic :Jonu....hot Patty o6 the

t UnAi iftmr V). JrInt Public-

al.. Research Service, _S- Depart-

mef of Commerce, Ar1Shgton, Va.:

The Decommer p. 89.

2 rtavda. June 25, 19 Trans-Irted in Daily Repent: S %.;et Union.

Frreign Broadcast inform , n Service,

9..3. Department of Comer: June

30, 1972.

3 ,rtavda. June 29, 197_ :Twis-t Union.service,July 3,

lated in Decay Report: SC \,.

Foreign Broadcast InformatiLlU.S. Department of Commerc..1972.

4See, for example, S. shapov-

alenko, ed. Potytechnicat Edura/ionin the U.S.S.R.. Paris: WIMISCL,

1963; William K. Medlin, Clarence B.Lindquist, and Minendiall L. Schmidt.Soviet Education rtogitano (0E-a®7) .

Washington: U.S- government Print-ing Office, 1960: and Seymour Rosen.Signiicicant Upecte od Soviet Edu-cation (0E-14112). Washington: U.S.Government Printing Office, 1965.

5 M.N. Skatkin in: S.G. Shapova-lenko, ed. op. cit. p. 18.

6 A complete first cycl of 2years, like that in the Americanjunior college, does not exist inSoviet higher education. During theauthor's visit to the recentlyfounded Institute of the U.S.A. inMoscow in January 1972, tt,e Institute'specialist on U.S. higher educationexpressed interest in the U.S. ju -nior college concept and stated thatthe (generally) 5-year Soviet highereducation system "could benefit bysuch a filter." It will be intec-eating to see in the if the

focus on career development andmeeting the needs of the developingeconomy, sill bring Anent changes imSoviet rmgher educatioc in the direc-tive of the junior college.

7mor SedOWS- "Job rirs7_, Dip-

Imam Aftereerd," SOvicf LAti.. May

1964.

aDetails of ProkoCe 3 descrip-

tion of the new curriculum appear inhis Ennestion in the U.S 3.R., Moscow,Movosti Press, undated (.469); and in

ROSOW, Education and hiedekniZatiOn4, the L.S.S.R. Readinci, Mass.:Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,1971.

9 "on the Main Trends in the Fieldof Education in the USSR in 1968-1970," XXXTI Se.a.sion 06 the Intet-national. Cookatence oi Peoptea' Edu-cation. mumsw: U.S.S.R. Academyof Pedegmgiona Sciences, 1970.

10 A. appga. "The Choice of aProfessaen as a Controlled Process,"Sowet4hegn Litva. Sept. 27, 1971.Tnanslamed in TharatatiOn.6 onU.S.S.R. Political and SociologicalAtitcaiA4. No. 183. Joint PublicationResearch Service, U.S. Department ofCommerce. Arlington, Va.: The Ser-vice, Oct. 22, 1971.

11 TtanaationA on U.S.S.R. Pait-(cal and Sociological A6Aailtz.Nos. 167, 170, and 185. ,p.cit.

Aug. 4, 1971, Aug. 17, 1971, andNov. 3, 1971 respective.

12Batyshev, S. Ia. "'The Revolut-

ion in Science--and Techn,logy andthe problem of Training 'liedWorkers in the U.S.S.R." wvet6haiapcdagog4ka No. 8. 1971. Translatedin SOviOt Education, May 1972. Inter-natior:al Arts & !:c..ences Press.


SELECTED READINGS

DeWitt Nicholas. EdtiCatix andPko6e44iuma1 Employment in the u.S.S.k.Washington: U.S. Government Print-ing Office (NSF' 61-40), 1961.

Nozhko, K., et al. EducatApnat Ptan-ning in the U.S.S.R. Paris: UNESCO,International Institute for Educa-tional Planning, 1968.

Medlin, William K., Claremore B.Lindquist and Northall L. Schmitt.Soviet Educatim Phoram4. Washing-ton: U.S. Govan went Printing Office(0E-14037), 1960.

44

Rosen, Seymour M. Patt-Timc Educationin the U.S.S.R.: Evening and CovIes-pondence Study. Washington: U.s.Government Printing Office (0E-14113),1965.

Education zud Widow-ization in the U.S.S.R. Reading,Mass.: Addison-Wesley PuZlishingCo., 1971.

Rutkevich, M. N. The Calteelt Pane ciYouth. (Translated and edited byMurray Yanowitch). White Plains, N.Y.: International Arts & SciencesPress, 1969.

Shapovalenko, S. G. PotytechnicatEducation in the U.S.S.R. Paris:UNESCO, 1963.

THE IMPLICATION OF CAREER EDUCATION

FOR THE FUTURE OF ADULT EDUCATION

IN THE UNITED STATES1

ROBERT M. WORTHINGTON

AA tke AaaociateComenia4ione4 6o4

401114Nand

Vocational,nd Technicat Edu-

cation. He 4eceiv-ed his Ph. D. inEducation 64om theUniveuity 06 Min-neaota. DA. Wo4th-ington Otmeheysenved a4 Dikectonoi Vocationat-Tech-

nicat and Adult Education in theState o6 New Je4aey, had taught atthe high school and univertaity tev-

eta, and 4eAved 604 1 yeana as

P4o6eaao4 and Chairman o6 the Depot/a-mtnt o6 Induat4ial Education andTechnology at Menton State College,N.J. He had atao been a membe4 ando664ce4 o6 varcioua pto6ea4ionatazaociationa and haa 4aved on thefteaident'a National Adviao4y Coun-cil on Vocational Education. Dn.

Wo4thington headed the U.S. Detega-

tion t) the 1972 UNESCO Wo4tdCon6etence on Adult Education andLi6etong Leakning in Tokyo.

lam very pleased on behalf of mygovernment to have an opportunity toaddress this distinguished group ofeducators, government officials,businessmen, and other leaders gath-ered here in Tokyo for the ThirdInternational Conference on AdultEducation convened by UNESCO. Muchhas happened in the United States in

Education for Career Development

the 12 years since the last suchconference in terms of our perspec-tives on adult education, and I wantto discuss today the new concept ofCareer Education and its implica-tions for the future of adult educa-tion in the United States.

Although there are more than20,000 possible careers in America,diverse enough to encompass every-one's interests and abilities, eachyear more than 2.5 million of ouryoung people graduate from highschool or drop out of college orhigh school with no planned careerand few, if any, marketable skills.It costs us $28 billion a year to"educate" them for potential failure.

Despite our concerned efforts inrecent years to make education morerelevant for all the students inour schools, our record is still thennot very encouraging in terns of hu-man resources or financial investment.Consider for example that:

There is increasing separatior.between students and the world ofwork. They feel they are not neededby our technological society sincefewer and fewer workers are neededto produce more and more consumptiongoods.

About one-third of all Americanstudents pass through high schoolvia what we cal] the "general cur-riculum," a type of education whichleaves its graduates neither trainedwith a salable skill nor qualifiedto pursue higher education.

Tbere is, in many of our schools,an undesirable counter-productiveseparation of the vocational educe-tion,general education, and academiccurriculums, with the result thatthose in the vocational curriculumare often viewed as low-status

45


individuals, while those in theacademic curriculum emerge withlittle contact, preparation toward,or qualification for the world ofwork.

Because of the widely held viewthat a degree is the only kind ofsocially acceptable occupational pre-paration in our society, many highschool students choose academicpreparation. However, many of thesestudents do not go on to college andmore begin than complete it. Inaddition, the numbers who do com-plete college are increasingly outof proportion to the occupationalopportunities in our society. Infact, the Bureau of Labor Statisticsof the U. S. Department of Laborpredicts that in the foreseeablefuture, nearly 80 percent of thework to be done will not require abachelor's degree preparation. Thisis not to imply that a collegeeducation has no value other thanthat of preparing a student to pro-cure employment. We fully recognizethe fact that the educated adultmind is essential to our citizen-guided government concept. However,we do believe that there has been amisguided assumption in our societythat you need a college education inorder to get a job.

Our present system often resultsin hasty career decisionmaking andfails to offer individuals theoption of changing directions duringtheir years of preparation or ofobtaining new training and shiftingoccupations later in life.

Our current system neither pro-vides students with adequate careerguidance and counseling whilft inschool nor adequate opportunitiesfor counseling, retraining, and re-entry once they have left thesystem. Our economy, which is based

46

upon technological change at a timewhen the rate of change itself isever increasing, thus freezes out a

large number of adults who do nothave an adequate level of education.

Other industrially advancednations faced with similar problemsof economic growth have solved themin a variety of ways. In the UnitedStates our response is Career Educa-tion. We think it is an absolutenecessity for a healthy, expandingpost-industrial society. Let meexplain what we mean by the term.

Career Education is a revolution-ary approach to American educationbased on the idea that all educa-tional experiences, curriculum,instruction, and counseling shouldbe geared to preparing each individ-ual for a life of economic indepen-dence, personal fulfillment, and anappreciation for the dignity ofwork. Its main purpose is to pre-pare all students for successful andrewarding lives by improving theirbasis for occupational choice, byfacilitating their acquisitions ofoccupational skills, by enhancingtheir educational achievements, bymaking education more meaningful andrelevant to their aspirations, andby increasing the real choices theyhave among the many different occu-pations and training avenues open tothem. While it is anticipated thatCareer Education would increase tneopportunities available to the dis-advantaged, it is not explicitlydesigned to involve any particulargroup or segment in society. It is

directed at changing the wholeeducational system to benefit theentire population.

Career Education recognizes thecritical decision points when stu-dents must be prepared and equippedto decide whether to pursue a job orfurther education or some combina-tion of both work and formal study.

The Implication of Career Education for theFuture of Adult Education in the United States

It is a lifelong systematic way ofacquainting students with the worldof work in their elementary andjunior high school years and prepar-ing them in high school and in

college to enter into and advance ina career field of their ownchoosing. For adults it is a way tore-enter formal as well as informalprograms of education at any time toupgrade their skills in theirestablished career field or to entera new career field. It is similarto vocational education, but thereis a fundamental distinction. Forwhile vocational education is

targeted at producing specific jobskills at the high school level andup to but not including the bacca-laureate level, Career Educationembraces all occupations and pro-fessions and can include individualsof all ages whether in or out ofschool.

Career Education, as the UnitedStates envisions it, has five levelswhich are not distinct and often areoverlapping. Each level has appro-priate academic as well as voca-tional education. The first is thelevel of career awareness from kin-dergarten through the 6th grade.The second is occupational informa-tion and career exploration rangingfrom grades 7 through 9. The thirdis specialized job training andplacement extending from the 10ththrough the 42th year of schooling.The fourth is specific occupationalpreparation at the postsecondarylevel. And the fifth and mostimportant level is adult and contin-uing education. It is concernedwith the continued personal develop-ment and enrichment of the adultcitizen as a decisionmaker at a timewhen he faces the challenges offamily life, community problemsolving, expanded leisure time dueto the trend toward a shorter work

week and increased mechanization,and the estimated eight to 12 careerchanges he will have to make duringhis working lifetime. It is the mostimportant level from a time-lineviewpoint since an adult has approx-imately two-thirds more time tolearn than his younger counterpartwho has generally completed hisformal educational preparationduring the first third of his lifespan.

The U. S. Office of Education hasgrouped all of the various possiblecareers into fami,ies of "clusters"of occupations as Lollows:

* Agribusiness* Business and Office* Health* Public Service* Environment* Communications and Media* Hospital and Recreation* Fine Arts and Humanities* Manufacturing* Marketing and Distribution* Marine Science* Personal Services* Construction* Transportation* Consumer and Homemaking

Education

We are developing four researchmodels to help schools, colleges,employers, and others visualize andbegin to work out their own ap-proaches as they adapt the conceptof Career Education to the particularneeds of their States, cities, andcommunities.

The first of these models is theSchool-Based Model. In the earlygrades Career Education means thatthe vital academic program isexpanded to make children aware ofthe many fields of endeavor open tothem in coming years.

47


Teachers are trained to relate a

science lesson, say, to a career inX-ray technology or oceanography.Curriculum specialists organizecourse work in social studies toinclude future job possibilities asan historian, geographer, carto-grapher, artist, printer. Guidancecounselors -- in the elementary aswell as secondary schools -- buildfield trips to factories, shipyards,and salesrooms into careerorientaticn.

In junior high school, CareerEducation encourages students toexplore in some depth two, three, ormore broad career clusters. Forexample,a student's outside interestin an American government coursecould be keyed to his interest inpublic service or communications.His field trips might concentrate onvisits to his State legislature andto newspapers and radio and TVstations. Students interested inconstruction could actually take andanalyze soil samples and stringelectric cables.By senior high school,each student

should have made a tentative careerselection and begun appropriatetraining. In the health field,students who want to be naramedicsmight work part-time in a nearbyhospital, along with students whoplan to be doctors and pharmacists.All would take the same academicprogram. Each would leave highschool with a skill that has marketvalue immediately or that can beapplied to advanced education for aprofessional degree.

In the 1971-72 school year, theOffice of Education funded pilotprojects in six school districtsthat were already well along indeveloping the Career Educationconcept: Mesa, Ariz..; Los Angeles,Calif.; Jefferson City, Colo.;Atlanta, Ga.; Pontiac, Mich. ;and

48

Hackensack, N. J. In these six pro-jects, the year was devoted largelyto planning, teacher training, andcurriculum development. About85,000 students will become fullyinvolved next fall. In addition,100 mini-model projects--at leastone in each State -- are serving700,000 students under small grantsauthorized by the Vocational Educa-tion Amendments of 1968.

The second of these models is theEmployer -Based Model. This is atotal education program for a cross-section of youngsters aged 13 to 18who find their school offeringsunchallenging and want to try adifferent approach to learning.Operated by a consortium of publicand private employers, this modelprogram will use employer know-howand, where appropriate, employerfacilities. It will provide bothacademic and job-related preparation.Students will graduate from theemployer-fun program with creden-tials at least equal to thoseoffered by their high school, orthey will return to their highschool with full credit for workcompleted.

Projects serving about 100 stu-dents each will get under was thisfall in Portlant, Ore.; Charleston,W. Va.; Philadelphia, Ps.; the SanFrancisco Bay area in California;and perhaps one or two other sites.

The third of these models is theHome-Community Model. Designed toenhance the employability of out-of-school adults, this approach willuse TV and radio programs to encour-age people to use the career prepa-ration services available in theirown communities. Project staff willprovide counseling, guidance, andsome instructional services. Thestaff will also assess communityeffectiveness in providing careertraining and recommend new

The Implication of Career Education for theFuture of Adult Education in the Unitgd 5tatS4

services as needed.The Rand Corporation has analyzed

four successful TV programs for com-

patability with Career Education

series keyed to the Home-Community

Model. Under a $300,000 contract,the Educational Development Center

in Newton, Mass., is studying the

potential population of partici-

pants, developing an evaluation

plan, and drafting concepts in waysin which media and community effortscould most effectively mesh.

And the fourth of these models isthe Rural-Residential Model. For

disadvantaged families living in

remote rural areas with few career

opportunities, this model provides

the opportunity to move temporarilyto a training center where every

member of the family can learn new

skills for employment, homemaking,or further study.

The first group of families is

now training at pilot center on

part of an Air Force bump near

Glasgow, Mont. By fall s.--

families should be in resiaence.

The program is operated under a $4

million grant from the Office of

E ducation by the Mountain-PlainsEducation and Economic DevelopmentProgram, Inc. The center serves

residents of Idaho, Montana,N ebraska, North Dakota,South Dakota,and Wyoming.

In addition to research and

development support for the four

Career Education models, the Office

of Education held 16 regional work-shops this spring to bring industry,labor, civic, and ethnic representa-tion into the growing dialogue aboutwhat Career Education is or should

be. More than 1,200 spokesmen for

some 30 national organisations,ranging from the APL-CIO to the

N ational Association for the

Advan.ement of Colored People, metwith Federal,State, and local schoolpeople to map strategies for similar

workshops in their states, communi-ties, and organizations.

The Office of Education alc

sponsored conferences of top educa-tors to develop inservice and pre-service training programs forteachers. For example, educationdeans of 75 major American collegesand universities met this spring toexplore ways of building Career Edu-cation into their undergraduatepreparation of teachers. The deansin turn nominated senior profes-sionals from their schools of educa-tion to attend a subsequent work-shop.

The Office of Education alsosupports curriculum development inthe 15 career clusters. We have

already developed and tested in 25schools over a 3-year period thejunior high curriculums for the con-struction and manufacturing clusters.We have invested $2 million in thisdevelopment effort.An in-house task force coordinates

Office of Education planning and

management of Career Educationinitiatives.

S.P. Harland, Jr., as Commissionerof Education, made Career Education atop priority of the U.S. Office of Ed-ucation, utilizing $114 million in Fis-cal Year 1972 funds to support the in-itiatives and asking Congress for near-ly $55 million more for Fiscal Year1973.

President Nixon has mace LareerE&...ation a White House priority,giving it special emphasis in his1972 State of the Union Message toCongress. He said:

Career Education is another area of major

emphasis, an emphasis anion gross out of my

bel of that our schools should be doing more

to ..wild self-reliance and self - sufficiency,

to prepare students for productive and ful-

filling life. Too often, this has not been

happening. Too many of our students, from

all Income groups, have beer "turning off"

or "tuning out" their educational emperience4.

49


And--wh. ',,r they drop out of school or pro-

ceed on to collegetoo many young people find

Iles elves unmotivated and ill-equipped for arewarding social role. Many other Americans,

Ow have already entered the world of work,

find thut they are dissatisfied with their

jobs but feel that it is too late to change

directions, that they already are "locked in."

One reason for this situation is the in-

flexibility of our educational system, in.

eluding the fact that it so rigidly separates

academic and vocational curricula. Too oftenvocational education is foolishly stigmatized

as hbirg loss desirable than academic prepares

Um. And too often the academic curriculum

offers very little preparation for viable

careers. Most students are unable to oombin,

the most valuable features of both vocational

and academic education; once they have chosen

one curriculum, it is difficult to move to theother.

The present approach serves the beet ir.

tercets of neither our students nor oursociety. The unhappy result is high numbers

of able people who are unemployed, underem-

ployed, or unhappily employed on the one handwhile many challenging jobs go begging on theother.

We need a new approach, and I believe the

best new approach is to strengthen Career

Fdcwe,'ion.

Career Education provides people of all ages

with broader exposure to and better preparation

for the world of work. It not only helps the

young, but also provides adults with an op-

portunity to adapt their skills to changing

reads, changing technology, and their ownchanging interests. It would not prematurely

force an individual into specific area of

work.but would expand his ability to choose

wisely from wider range of options.

Neither would it result in slighting of aces

donde preparation, which would remain a con.

tral part of the educuitional blend.

Career Education is not single .pacificprogram. It is more usefully thought of as

a goal and one that se can pursue through

the many methods. What we need todmy is

nationwide search for such 'methods - s

search shish involves every arse of edm.

cation and every level of government. Tohelp spark this venture, 1 will propose

an intensified Federal effort to develop

model programs which apply and test the

best ideas in this field.

SO

There is no more disconcerting w.w.te

than the waste of human potcntill. Andthere is no better investment than an

investment in human fulfillment. CareerEducation can help make education and

training more meaningful for 'he student,more rewarding for the teachers, moreavailable to the adult; more relevantfor the disadvantaged, and more produc-tive for our country. 2

Members of the U. S. Council ofChief State School Officers repre-senting each of the States andTerritories have pledged a majoreffort to gain legislative andpublic endorsement in their indi-

vidual States. Several Stateslegislatures have already approvedsubstantial sums to design andimplement Career Education programsin school districts.

Large city school systems turningto Career Education as their basicdesign include those of Dallas, Tex.and San Diego, Calif.

Many professional educationalassociations have devoted confer-ences and field investigation to abetter articulation of the concept,problems, and potential of CareerEducation.Career Education is clearly, then,

an idea whose time has come and itsimplications for the future of adulteducation in the United States aremany and obvious. It is essentialthat this concept encompass theentire educational system and allits participants because there canbe no adult education program devel-oped which is completely separatefrom education for young children,adolescents, and college -age stu-dents. The provision of any newsystem for education that is gearedto the needs of individuals who havecompleted their typical formaleducation must constitute the devel-


opment of a basic factor whichredesigns and redetermines the

fundamental form of the entireeducation system from preschoolthrough college.

America, as I am sure you areaware, has long been a credentialedsociety and adult education hastraditionally been active in pre-

paring adults to enter it. Basicskills courses,high school programs,and job skill classes have helpedprovide adults with the skills toget and keep jobs and to live happyand productive lives. Remedial andretraining programs have thus shapedour approach to adult education inthe past. But the Career Educationreform movement, presently underwayin the U. s. Office of Education,

seeks to establish a new relation-ship between education and work. It

encompasses not just preparation for

low skill work or for the limitednumber of top professional posts buteducation for all types of work. It

recognizes that the only true form

of unemployment insurance in a

technological society is a program

of education and training which

provides people with the skills

needed in that society. Career

Education has special implications

for adult education in a competency-based credentialing society.

As I indicated previously; CareerEducation beyond the high school

includes any preparation required byan individual so he can enter

employment at any remunerable task;

improve his knowledge or skillsas they relate to his job: or

prepare for a new one at whateverstage in his working career (or

careers) such education might be

beneficial to him. Thus described.Career Education has no new elementsin it from a decade or even a

century ago. What is -icnificant

and new about it now is the hntext

and thc relationship of t_

for the work in our present societyand that of tomorrow compared topast practice and the nature of theworld of work half a century or twodecades ago. The need for retrainingand upgrading adults within CareerEducation has been brought about bythe phenomenal growth in the serviceindustry which has been observed byeconomists in the past several yearsin the United States. This shift to-ward a service-oriented economy is oneof the most important considerationsaffecting the nature, type, andperiod of training and education forthe young as well as the adults inour society. To be specific,Dr. Herbert Striner in a study donefor the Upjohn Institute for Employ-ment Research found that in America

...in 1947 the goods- producing industries ene>.

loyed 26.4 million people. At that time the

service-producing industries employed 25.4

million people. By 1969, a radical shift in

these proportions had taken place: in the

(pods-producing industries employment stood at

27.8 million while in the service-producing

industries employment had skyrocketed to 46

million. It is projected that by 1;00 goods

production will employ 30 million people,

while service production will employ close to

CO million people.... 3

This phenomenon represents morethan a shift of interest to personsconcerned with the composition ofthe labor force. It represents atremendous potential for employeemobility as well as a need forconstant training to provide for the

skills necessary in our ever-changing, service-oriented economy.With continuing displacement of

labor in the manufacturing indus-tries at the low end of the skilllevel, we will have to provide per-sons remaining in the manufactaringindusi with the means of acquir-ing contiquouq Jpgradinn of their3k;11;. fhe :.at ire of -jobs, al-


though perhaps more repetitious,will probably require much more inthe way of abilities to handlecomplicated printout electronicmechanisms, indicator mechanisms,and complex monitoring system. Inthe service industries, such fieldsas government (local, State, andFederal),wholesale and retail trade,finance, insurance, real estate,transportation, public utilities,health, automotive repair, and airconditioning will require employeeswhose initial backgrounds and train-ing are fairly extensive andtechnical, and who can participatein continuous upgrading and trainingin depth, made necessary by constantchanges in the nature of theservices.

Manufacturing industries, moreoften than service industries, havebeen related to specific geograph-ical sites. As a result, employeesof this type of industry did nothave the usual motivation to thinkof geographic mobility. Instead,their life-styles in terms of buyinghomes and sinking roots into a localcommunity reflected the fact thatthe jobs they were doing wereones which would keep them in a

specific area throughout their work-ing lifetime. This is not so in thecase of the service-producingindustries. The trained secretary,the insurance salesman, the bankclerk, the medical technician, themechanic--all possess a greaterdegree of physical mobility than dopersons typically employed in themanufacturing or goods-producingsector. Hence, these individualswill be freer to move with theirfamilies to acquire jobs which aremore attractive than the ores theycurrently have, even though thosejobs may be in the same particulartype of industry.

Therefore, as many leading educa-tors have pointed out, it will be

52

necessary to provide continuously theadult education which is necessary toupgrade individuals and improvetheir ability to market their skillsin any part of the country. Webelieve Career Education will fillthis need because wherever there aresurplus workers of a particulartype, they will be able to movefairly easily to other areas wherethere are shortages of individualswith their skills.The accumulated results of applied

science and technology to all facetsof our country's means of productionhave thus radically changed theworld of work during the last halfof the 20th century to require amore demanding educational prepara-tion in which the necessary special-ization must in large measure belearned by adults after high school.Machines have taken the place of theunskilled worker in our mines,forests, factories, and on our farmsand are rapidly displacing theunskilled in offices, transportationsystems, and in most other majorfields of employment. Most of thework could be learned by a personworking beside an experienced workerand observing and learning thoseelements of the work which comprisedmost of his employment activities onthe job. He needed only to bring tothe job a limited amount of basiceducational preparation. In recentyears, however, the United States hasaspired to a level of general liter-acy that would have all people ableto read and to write and to exercisea functional literacy with regard toarithmetic, social understandings,and the tools that basic educationprovides as a basis for learning tolive and earn a living in society.To achieve this goal now, it isnecessary to provide a broad educa-tional base for subsequent special-ization required for employment.

With the unskilled worker largely


displaced, the United States is facedwith an educational problem neverbefore confronted to the same degreeby any other society. Our socialheritage and mores have been built onthe concept that most of our popula-tion must work to support themselvesand satisfactorily fulfill theirlives.

There is no alternative to pro-viding a better education for ourpeople because the technologicalsociety in which we now live willbecome more complicated rather thanless. Technology will not disappear.It is here to stay. We must pre-pare our people for it. The neces-sary preparation is an educationalproblem which we believe can besolved by Career Education. The U.S.Office of Education's emphasis onCareer Education and the adoption ofthis emphasis by State and localeducation agencies then is pri-marily based on the rapid growth oftechnology and its concomitanteffect on the lives of the Americanpeople.

Almost all professionals, mosttechnicians and similar supportivespecialists, and many skilled work-ers will continue into institutionsbeyond the high scheNol before theyenter the work for which their careerpreparation equips them. Almost allof these workers will, at varioustimes in their adult lives, returnto institutions beyond the highschool for formal upgrading, updat-ing, or additional preparation fortheir careers or to qualify foi newcareers in order to cope withchanges in technology that affecttheir choice of occupations.

Under Career Education, personswho seek a career in one of therecognized professional fields mayfollow a traditional baccalaureateprogram or other more flexiblecompetency-based programs designed

to prepare them for their particularprofession. They may be doctors,lawyers, clergymen, teachers,managers of businesses, artists, andthose people who traditionallyrequire a baccalaureate degree plusadditional education of the formalkind usually found in colleges.universities, or specialized pro-fessional learning centers.

Generally speaking. these peopleneed the broadest base of under-lying organized and theoretical know-ledge plus their specialized know-ledge and skill preparation,what-ever their field. Usually the entrylevel for their own chosen profes-sional career requires graduationwith a baccalaureate degree andoften further study.

The major Career Educationemphasis then must be to provideeducational opportunity and encour-agement to more adults. We in theUnited States recognize that aninvestment in adult educationincreases our nation's -humancapital without which we cannotremain a viable partner for worldbetterment. Other nations such asDenmark, France, and West Germany, toname a few, have dealt with theproblems of economic growth in anadvanced industrialized society byreconceptualizing the role of adulteducation. We are following suit bythe institution of Career Educationbecause we have come to realize thatour economy whose expansion dependsheavily upon new products, newtechnologies, and new distributionsof incomes must also have a labor

force constantly being refitted,retrained, and re-educated to meetthese needs.Career Education will specifically

help adults upgrade their skillsand knowledge on their present jobs,learn new skills and knowledge toadvance their careers, retrain for

53


new jobs when their present jobshave been eliminated by organiza-tional or tearlical changes and

provide salable skills to those whohave never before been in the workforce. It will also provide special-ized educational services for: Womenwho have already raised families orwho must supplement family income orprovide all of its older workers atall levels displaced by younger.better prepared workers; retiredmilitary or other persons who want toenter a new field of employment; andscientists, managers, and other pro-fessional leaders who have beendisplaced by such national techno-logical goal changes as from aero-space to oceanographic study orenvironmental improvement. We

recognize that training and educa-tion are essential for an appro-priate job-role in our modernsociety. But beyond that, re-entryinto the educational system is

equally essential in our new worldof work. Not only do the newjobs call for skills resulting fromtraining and education, but thenature of our jobs is such that evenhigh-skill jobs phase out or arechanged, so that new skills must beacquired by many already skilledpeople if they are to remain employ-able throughout life. And this isincreasingly important since peoplenow live longer than formerly andare healthier for a greater part oftheir lives. The responsibility forproviding a means to start where theprevious educational preparationleft off and to equip them to dowork by which they can support them-selves with dignity and self-respectis our responsibility, Institutionsof many kinds can make a contri-bution to the salable skill-develop-ment component of Career Education,such as junior and communitycolleges, technical institutes, areavocational schools, divisions of

4-year colleges, both private andpublic, and proprietary business andtechnical schools.More programs to serve these able,

motivated, but under-prepared adultsare also needed. We now know how toorganize such programs; and we aseducational leaders cannot fullymeet our obligations without provid-ing these necessary services to allwho need them.

As indicated earlier, severalWestern European countries havealready responded to the need fordeveloping an educational systemthat continues throughout the lifeof the individual to provide himwith the skills necessary for hisown personal gratification as wellas the skills which.are necessary tothe economy. These countries haveanalyzed the changing matrix of jobskills that have accompanied thetechnological dangers in theireconomies, and have recogni'ed theincreasing sense of personal frus-tration for adults who have not beenequipped to participate as theeconomy and the society change. Wein the United States now see adulteducation as the crucial factorwithin Career Education for trans-forming the whole American educationsystem.

The transformation will bepermanent in nature and provide asystem of continuous guidance where-by the individual's personalaspirations and avocational andvocational objective needs may bereconciled; whereby the individualwill be encouraged to developcreative faculties, spontaneousreactions, and critical outlooks,all of which are of immense impor-tance in a highly organized societyin which science and technology pre-dominate; and whereby the individualwill utilize the principle of self-education under the active guidanceof teachers by means of the wide-


spread use of up-to-date educationaland communicatione techniques andgroup dynamics. As part of thistransformation, Career Educationwill focus on the adult as a citizenin our participatory democracy..thatis, one who governs himself andseeks to shape the society andenvironment in 'which he lives. It

will also focus on the adult as afamily member and as a parent becauserecent research indicates that whenthe whole family is involved inlearning activities the childrenstand to gain very directly. Theirattitude is changed to one ofcuriosity which results in lifelonghabits of knowledge seeking whichcan be transmitted through genera-tions. Consequently, adult CareerEducation is as inuvh concerned withpreparing the nekt generation forresponsible and fulfilling adulthoodas it is with preparing those indi-viduals who are presently adults tomeet their immediate occupationaland citizenship goals.

Since the last internationalconference, then, adult educationhas taken on several new aspects.Statistics show that adults in theUnited States ate looking more andmore to adult education as a meansfor the individual to solve immediateproblems and that there is increasingacceptance of the idea that learningthroughout life is an ongoing pro-cess. Rapid social and economicchanges have created societal pres-sures that have presented adulteducation its greatest challenge- -equipping people to give intelligentand orderly direction to this change.

Today, when ire than 70 millionAmerican adults still face lifewithout a high school education andcountless others need new compe-tencies to obt$341 jobs ,nd upgradejob skills, the Reed for lifelongcareer education is urgent.

Adult needs for career-orientededucation are presently met by avariety of agencies and groups, bothpublic and private--adult educators,vocational educators, manpower educa-tors, and vocational rehabilitationeducators--all of which have an

interest in the adult learner. Thereis a need, however, to coordinatethese groups' efforts through CareerEducation to reduce program duplica-tion and improve adult learning

opportunities.Our adults, most of whom are

mature and talented but are perhaps

handicapped by academic, socio-

economic, or other circumstances,represent an invaluable pool of

human resources that must be devel-oped if our society is to remainspiritually and economically healthyand remain a resource for inter-

national development. We believethat Career Education is the key tothis development.

FOOTNOTES

1 A talk and background paper pre-pared for the Third International Con-ference on Adult Education convenedby UNESCO in Tokyo from July 25 toAug. 7, 1972.

2 President Richard M. Nixon. Stateof the Union address. January 1972.

3 Herbert Striner. COnti4uing Eda-catien a4 a Mationat Capita 'meat-ment. Kalamazoo, Mich.: The W.E. Up-john Institute for Employment Research,March 1972. p. 9.

55

InternationallInter.ltural Education Reports

SELF t t.

Ametica Educ_a'<_on career edli,

articles byWilliam A.Harp(*,and Jeanette It

pp. 11-30.

special section. including-arland, Jr.,

.ffrey B. Nelson,.ncld. March 1972,

Caiteut Educatio, . (HL 5.U.S. Department co' Vealthand Welfare, Offis,7,- ofWashington, D. C. U. SPrinting Office, 1971.

280:80075).,Education,Education.

. Government

"Career Education: Equipping Studentsfor the World of Work,"reprinted from Nation14 School4,December 1971. Researched and writtenjointly by Nation', School's andCollege and Univenaity Buhineas.

Marland, Jr., s.P., "The EndlessRenaissance " (HE 5.211.11034),reprinted from Arne/Liam Education,April 1972. Washington, D. C.U.S. Government Printing Office, 1972.

"The Need forCareer Fducation. April 1972.(Mimeograph). A speech deliveredbefore the Career Education Workshopin New York, Apr. 5, 1972.(Available from: Press Office,Office of Education, U. S. Departmentof Health, Education, and Welfare,Washington, D.C. 202024

56

Martin, Marie Y. "Advancing CareerEducation," Amet'can Education.Augnct-September 1972, pp. 25-30.

National Advisory Council on AdultEducation. CaAeek Renewal 6(07 AduetsThrough Education . May 1972.(Mimeograph). A position paper.(Available from the Council: 526Reporter Bldg. 7th & D Sts., 3WWashington, D.C. 20202.

National Center for EducationalResearch and Development. Nett) Thqustsin Vocational. Education(HE 5.280:80074). Washington,D.C.:U S. Government Printing Office,1971.

Welch, James. "Career Education: AReexamination," Educational Re-4eaukek. 2:2:12-13, February 1973.

"NIE, Minorities Seek toChange 'Career Education,'" Educa-tion U.S.A. Feb. 12, 1973, p. 131.

INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION

THE INTERCULTURAL IMPERATIVE

JOHN A. CARPENTER,Intetcuttu4at Edu-cation Speciatistin the Institute06 IntetnationatStudies, 4,4 cuh-

untty on Leave64om the Univek-sity (16 SoutheuCatipAnia whekehe 4.4 P406e64194 196

Sociat Foundations and Dikecto4 o6the Cente4 6o4 Inteknationat Educa-tion. A6teA studying and teaching inthe United States, Canada, and Europe,he completed his doctoute in educestion and phitosophy at the Unioetsityo6 SoutheAn Catigoknia. Past expeAi-ence includes initiation and dikectiono6 graduate studies pugunis in Eultopeand Asia, teacheA and culucicutum de-

veLopment pujects in Ghana, Germany,Taiwan, and India; and inteuutturEatpeAsonnet development tabouctoities inLocal Ametican and aye/outs dependentsschoats distAicts. In addition, hehas directed an AID highe4 educationpuject in East A6Itica, intanationatpaAticipant tAaining pAogItams, andAmerican Studies institutes 104 inter-national teachers. He has atso workedwith educationat ptanneAs in SoutheastAsia and the Middle East.

All decisionmakers in educationtry to avoid vagueness--as waste;and confusion--as crippling. Theeconomy of programs requires with-drawal from the unnecessary and the

unproductive. To some, "internation-al understanding" and "ethnic heri-tage" seem pedagogically remote orpolitically inspired. To others,they appear separate, often unful-filled and unfunded hopes. Whateveris called international educationstruggles for definition, for prior-ity, and for broad constituency--orsettles into the form of foreignarea and comparative studies, and anarray of international projectsscattered across the country. Thetraditional international favoriteof government and campus, foreignlanguages, is caught in self-doubtas requirements and enrollmentserode first at university, then atsecondary levels. At a time whenthe Ethnic Studies Heritage Act issigned into law, diminishing partic-ipation in ethnic studies becomesnational news, yet ethnicity isdemonstrably more powerful.

Within this confusing contextthere is hard, convincing evidencethat our people need an interculturaldimension in American education.We need to consider an essential- -not an enriching but an essential- -objective: The creation of an in-tercultural dimension in education.

At most, one can submit here onlya few brief samples of evidence.Torncy, Hess, Kelman, and othershave documented the need for inter-cultural knowledge, skills, andattitudes to achieve effectiveeconomic and political decision -making. Smith, Bohannan, and Simp-son have demonstrated that analyticsecond culture experiences are re-quired to stabilize personal securityand openness, and interpersonal trust

57

International /Intercultural EJ,Jcation Percrts

and empathy wit'l lee h- of

domestic and foreign .ilturt_s.has observed that interculteralrelations are inevitable, in view ofthe interdependenc:? of human socialunits, and in light of the worldsituation pressing all social unitsinto more intimate contact.'

There is new probing of culturalpluralism. Our people live in aculturally pluralistic society inwhich diverse cultures exert increa-ing influence at local, national, andinternational levels. how do weprepare to live in this society?How do we benefit by cultural plural-ism? In the main our schools haveexcluded a culturally pluralisticapproach on the assumption that itwas unnecessary and divisive. Themost characteristic trait of Ameri-can society--cultural diversity- -has resulted in social antagonismand educational loss rather thancultural advancement. In Greeley'swords, "the hope of unity throughhomogenization betrayed a profoundmisunderstanding of the human con-dition."2

But it is slowly becoming evidentthat uniformity no longer definesunity. Integration no longer meansidentity and required assimilationinto a dominant culture. The schoolsand society, as Glazer and Moynihanassert, are called to go "beyond themelting pot"--on the one hand, tooutgrow the insecure, mono-ethnicapproach; on the other hand, to avoidtribalism. 3 Cultures, whatevertheir traditions, are continuing,evolving, adaptive realities. Aspatterns of behavior learned in con-formity with some group standard,they are not static objects of adu-lation or tools of political control.The process is one of freedom tochoose whatever legitimate valuesand ways of living are self-fulfill-ing. In our schools, cultural dem-

58

cagy I alized.Liom-tic and int,,1-

1:Ational, may, with Ir.)1,,f

ome a systematic source of hurtniif,veloment and national unity..;ust wnat is this interculturaldimension in education: The term"intercultural" is defined generi-cally to include both internationaland domestic t.lini experiences,since some of the objectives ofthe international experience, suchas crosscultural communication skillsand personal openeess, are identicalwith those of the domestic intercul-tural experience, especially ingeneral education, in K-14 education.

The term "dimension" suggests thatthis is not merely the addition ofelective courses or specialized pro-grams in international studies for asmall number of students on our cam-puses. It is especially not ,jraduateinternational studies simplified andoffered as undergraduate courses,and, in some cases, as area studycourses in high school. The inter-cultural dimension should permeatethe regular curriculum common to thelarger student population both inthe variety of specialization pro-grams and in general education.Specialization, the selective know-ledge and skills needed to achieveparticular academic and/or profes-sional expertise, is to be disting-uished from general education, theformal process by which our peopleare prepared to live effectively inthis society. This distinction istelling. Not all competenciesrequired to be a specialist--forexample, to be a China scholar--areneeded by the general population.The objectives of general educationare not identical with, nor minorversions of, the achievements ofspecialists.

Most of the attention under theoriginal Federal programs in inter-

national studies was focused on spe-cialized research and training at ad-vanced levels for a relatively smallpercentage of those engaged in highereducation. And, yet, the objectivesof the international/interculturalexperience are essential to all ofus in a culturally pluralisticsociety, in a culturally pluralisticworld. Recently, especially sincethe establishment of the Instituteof International Studies, "the Officeof Education concern has steadilybroadened to include increasing at-tention to the international dimen-sions of general education at theelementary, secondary, and under-graduate college levels."

The primary task is not to prolif-erate additional elective courses andspecialized programs while the reg-ular curriculum remains provincialJnd monocultural, a source of signifi-cant ethnocentrism in the products ofour schools. The need is to create anintercultural dimension; that is, todraw data and experiences from domes-tic and foreign cultures into ourregular courses, into our regularprograms.

There is a requirement for spe-cialists in international studiessuch as international economics andinternational political science, butthere is also a need in every econo-mist and every political scientistfor intercultural competencies, per-sonal and Professional. There is needfor educational leaders in higher edu-cation who are willing to commit them-selves not only to specialist programsbut also to the designing of an inter-national dimension in undergraduategeneral education. There is a majorrole for specialists in internationaleducation, but there is urgent needfor teachers and curriculum special-ists who can work in multiculturalclassrooms. It is essential to haveteachers and curriculum specialistswho can work in classrooms to prepare

GS DC 73.1te66

The Intercultural Imperative

all students to live in a culturallyOuralistic world. In fact, theintercultural experience, if we lookat the total educational spectrum,of the highest priority in th,craies. If it begins liter, videnc,ndicatts that it may be, at best,

remedial. As Bruner claims, "Ifsuch things are new to a 20-year-old,there is not only a new view to learn,but an established view to unlearn." 5

A scattering of projects, inter-natonal and domestic ethnic, willnot achieve this major objective.To create an intercultural dimensionin American educati ,n, it

necessary to moblliz,institutions ,ind ind: sup. .

ists. For al, whc littmortto c following suggestions

may be helpful.First, it is suggested that there

be little tolerance of the valid butvague nonoperational purposes and 7.,,i-ulous evaluation: that now plague in-ternational programs. "Interculturalunderstanding," "globalizing eCuca-tion," and even "to know more aboutAsia"--such diffused reaching forgeneralities prevents both adequateplanning and appraisal.

Nor should one tolerate the pro-liferation of projects which do notcontribute to the creation of a sub-stantial intercultural dimension incurriculums. Just what will the peo-ple enrolled in these programs gainpersonally, academically, and pro-fessionally? How will they and theirteachers know what has been achieved?Several problems impede adequate ap-praisal. There is need for system-atic evidence in regard to methods,selection of content, and results ofsuch programs. Perhaps even moredifficult, as Taba indicates, is

...the lack of clarity about the nature

cf crone - cultural learninn.... For example...

Programs often assume that knowledge about a

country automatically creates a favorable

59


attitude toward that couptry, Dr 1. a.

formation about international crlanizatio

produces international-mindedness. 6

And one should refuse to toleratestrictly cognitive efforts that over-look the potential of analytic experi-ence, rather insisting upon evidence-based experiential components--actualand simulated experience in foreignand domestic cultures. The effect ofexperience on attitudinal and valueshifts, and attitude on cognitiveinput and validity, are growing con-cerns. There is evidence that indi-cates that a person sees, hears, andlearns largely what he wants, whathis values and attitudes permit himto gain. According to Sherif:

Since attitudes...are formed as ip:-v1

ual accepts the norms of hic mroup, it is en-

tirely reasonable to suppose that such atti-

tudes can be altered only by .hc acceptance

of membership and a functioning role in a newgroup. And this is exactly the case, as sev-

eral studies have shown. The problem then be-comes one of creating group situations which

will carry over into daily life.... Only by

creating new loyalties with strong emotional

appeal in the day-to-day activities of the

individual, as well as in the group situation

itself, can the old attitudes be altered.7

A second recommendation for plan-ning urges a focus on undergraduategeneral education. In a requiredsociology or ecology course, data orexemnlifications concerning racialques:dons and pollution control mightbe drawn responsively from Englishand Japanese societies. This pro-vides a broader, more effective database, a more scientific and universalunderstanding of concepts and pro-cesses included in the courses.Some colleges may find foreign stu-dents and exchange scholars or for-eign curriculum specialists of assis-tance to the faculty in such efforts.Curriculum and faculty developmentmay be needed. The Institute of

60

Int- '_ional Studies, at the urgingc: .1. Robert Leestma, last yearbegan providing support for the"strengthening of the internationaldimension of undergraduate generaleducation and teacher education." 8

A third initiative might be cen-tered upon the international studiesprograms in our colleges. Are theobjectives, plans, and evaluationstrategies based upon evidence? Willis graduates find career opportuni-t,es significantly related to the,tud,!-- they pursued? Are the pro-4ram r,-..ources available not ,nlyto that small number enroll-ss in

international studies, but are theseresources also supportive of theneed for intercultural experienceamong the general student population?

A fourth target is toodwor devel-opment, both inservice and preservice,a bias of my own, a bias that shouldbe shared not only by the profession-al schools but by the academic depart-ments. In just about every State morethan 50 percent of the coursework pur-sued by a teacher on the way to a cre-dential is not taken in a college ofeducation. Cooperative activityshould be encouraged by which strongacademic and professional commitmentsmight support systematically the de-velopment of this vein of the teachereducation program.

Teacher education can essentiallybenefit by intercultural competenciesin art and music, in language arts,and social studies. For example,the nationwide evolution of theconceptual approach in social studieshas produced social studies programsin which concepts and processes fromthe social sciences are organizedinto a K-12 conceptual framework.Exemplifications from domestic andforeign cultures are particularlyeffective in teaching these concepts.

Thus, to initiate the study ofthe concept of political decision-

making in the fifth grade, it iseffective to draw exemplificationsfrom the United States and foreigncultures, e.g., employing an Ameri-can and a Japanese illustration ofpolitical decisionmaking. To teachthe concept of role, family roles,in the first grade, the Californiateacher might call upon Mexican-American and Anglo-suburban familysettings. To restrict the selectionof data and contexts, as has beenour habit, to the Anglo-suburban manin the United States poses greatdifficulty for children from differ-ent cultural experience and is a po-tential cause of ethnocentrism in allof our children. The use of settingsfrom different cultures, domesticand international, as particular ex-emplifications of such concepts, isessential for the valid study oftotal man and provides students anopportunity to accept, on the onehand, th unity of oneness of man asdemonstrated by universal needs, byuniversal forces influencing humanbehavior. On the other hand, stu-dents come to know and accept with-out threat the differentiated cul-tural expressions of these needs.Cultural groups will "see each othersas valued variants of a common human-ity," each in search of how best tofulfill human needs.9 Unity invariety, which Aristotle defined asbeauty.

Professor Fred Gearing claimsthat one of the most socially signi-ficant results of anthropologicalstudies to date is

...the discovered fact that all men are,

in empirical truth, MAN. When one has seen

through the cultural code of an alien people,

one has seen himself in them and has thereby

seen in Clese two together a tangible glimix:e

of the species. This experience transforms

one's vision of the human world. Phrasings

of 'Us' and 'Them' cannot simply be made to

go away. But the blinding invidiousness

which is built into such phrasings should be


rna6, to To Jway and $ he L xn,d .jtj ' 7

MAN do. s just. The A. A r

(PACin9 men to FMPIRICAL MAN is primarily in

,'Ic schools and colle9es.1°

A fifth suggestion is to examinethe objectives and organization ofour colleges. It is now feasiblefor some to join with foreign uni-versities to organize open, self-sustaining international studiesand experience programs in a varietyof fields. Transportation costs arealways brought up as an obstacle, andyet you see large numbers of collegestudents traveling around the worldon their own. Teachers who also travelby the thousands might gain profession-ally as well as socially if collegeswere to provide seminars preparingthem for individual and group involve-ment in second cultures.

A sixth suggestion is to be foundin the community. What culturalresources- -what analytic second cul-ture experiences--are feasible in ourown communities? How are. we utilizingthose resources?

And finally, but without lesssignificance, it is said that everysuccessful rainmaker is caught in therain. Will we, ourselves, as individ-uals, seek the professional and person-al advantages of a second cultureexperience? Will we join together tochange neglect and conflict of cul-tures into cultural democracy, anational maturity resulting in aninternational celebration of cultures?Between peoples, greater communicationand cooperation; between individuals,thoughtful concern and caring.

In the words of Maxim Gorky:

There will come a time, I know, when people

will take delight in one another, when each

will be a star to ;he other, and when each

will listen to his fellow as to music. The

free men will walk upon the earth, men great

in their freedom. They will walk with open

hearts, and he heart of each will be free of

envy and worry and distrust and greed; And,

61


therefore, all mankind will be without malice

and there will be nothing V:, divorce the

heart from reason. Then lire will be one

great service to man.

His figure will be raised to lofty heights;

for free men, all heights are attainable. Then

weshall live in truth and in freedom and in

beauty, and those will he ac.:ounted the best

who will the more widely embrace the world with

their hearts, and whose love of it will be the

profoundest. Those will be the best who will

be the freest; for in them is the greatest

beauty. Then life will be great and the people

will be great who live that life.

FOOTNOTES

1Muzafer Sherif. "Light fromPsychology on Intercultural Rela-tions," Cattahat Ghoup16 and HumanRetations, Karl Bigelow, ed. Free-port, N.Y.: Books for LibrariesPress, 1970, pp. 111-12.

2Andrew M. Greeley. "The Ethnicand Religious Origins." Unpublishedpaper. National Opinion ResearchCenter, The University of Chicago.October 1971.

3Nathan Glazer and Daniel P.Moynihan. Beyond the Melting Pat.Cambridge, Mass.: MassachusettsInstitute of Technology Press, 1970.

4Robert Leestma. "U.S. Office ofEducation Programs Abroad," Exchange(Fall 1972). p. 2.

5Jerome S. Bruner. Toutatd aTheory InstAuction. New York:Norton, 1968. p. 91.

6Hilda Taba. Cuttutat Attitudesand Intetnationat Undet4tanding.Occasional Paper Number 5, San Fran-cisco Institute of InternationalEducation, 1957. pp. 2-3.

62

7Sherif. op. cit. p. 123.

8Office of Education, U.S. Depart-ment of Health, Education and Wel-fare. "Guidelines for Public Law85-864, Title VI, National DefenseEducation Act Program for Strength-ening the International Dimensionsof General Education Act at the Under-graduate Level." October 1972.

9Glazer and Moynihan. op. cit.p. xii.

10Fredrick Gearing. "'Mankind'

Empirically." Unpublished paper.State University of New York at Buf-falo. n.d.

SELECTED READINGS

Asian Studies in Ametican SecondatyEducation. Office of Education,U.S. Department of Health, Education,and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office, 1972.

Becker, James M. and Lee Anderson.An ExaminaUon of Objectives, Needsand Pftiokities in International Edu-cation in U.S. Secondany and Etemen-taty Schoot4. (ED 031-612) Final Re-port Project No. 6-2908, Contract No.1-7-002908-2028, U.S. Office of Ed-ucation. July 1969.

Bigelow, Karl W., Gordon W. Allportet. al. Cuttutat Groups and HumanRelations. Freeport, N.Y.: Books forLibraries Press, 1970.

Bohannan, Paul, Edith King, IrvingMorrissett, and W. Williams Stevens,Jr. "A Preliminary Review of the In-tercultural Dimension in Internation-al/Intercultural Education, Grades

K-14." Unpublished paper. SocialScience Education Consortium, Inc.,boulder, Colo. January 1973.

B oulding, Kenneth E. Beyond Economies:E4640 on Society. Ann Arbor, Mich.:University of Michigan Press, 1968.

' remold, Theodore. The We od Nolo-iive !demo in Education. Pittsburgh,Pa., University of Pittsburgh Press,196%.

Ethnic Heritage Studies Centers.NalUAOA &dote the GeneAal Subcom-mittee on Education the Committeeon Edlication and Labors. Nouee ofRepresentatives, Ninety-irat Com-geese, Second Session, on N.R. 14910.Congress of the U.S. 1970.

Glaser, Netball and Daniel P. Moynihan.legend the Mali,* /et. 36 ed.Cambridge, Mass.s The MassachusettsInstitute of Technology Press, 1970.

Geedlad John I., et al. TomeadMankind Cutnicalmem An Adventmne inihmaniatic Education. odnostLeaalingniey, Imo" and Council for theStudy of Mankind. 1971.

N ess, R.0 and Judith V. Tormey. TheDevelopment od Politica A/Wm/4e.Chicago, Ili., Aldine Publishing Co.,

1967.


Intelinational Education Resoultce4; ASummally (4 0E-Funded Reaeatch Ptcjectsand Reports Available tiviough theEducational ReoeaAch lndotmation Cen-telt, 1156-1971. office of Education,U.S. Department of Health, Education,and Welfare. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Government Printing Office, 1972.

King, With V. The Ilottd; Contextdole Teaching in the Elementalty School.Ws. C. Drown Co., 1972.

Norrissett, Irving, ed. Concepts andStAucturce in the Mem Social ScienceCuAA4cula. New York, Solt, Rinehartand Winston Inc., 1967.

Sherif, N. et al. 1 koup Condlictand Coope4ation: The No CaveEve /tiniest. Iestitete of Group Re-Latices. 1961

Verney, Judith V., and Donald N.Iberia. 'She Blenestary School,"°teed NAKAMURA is U.S. Education.

New Yorks The New York 'Friends Grote.Inc., 1972

Valentin, Charles A. 0440.64t and/evenly. Chimps University of Chi-cago Press, 1972.0

63


AN INTERNATIONAL DIMENSION IN

UNDERGRADUATE TEACHER EDUCATION

a. A

GEORGE r i ^A is

DiAcctv.nationo: .eachelt

Education andAssistant P401t4-604 o4 CompaxativeEducation at theUniveuity o4 Mas-sachusetts, Schooloi Ed cation. Hav-ing Itece4ved

Ph.D. in Companative Education juinthe Univexsity o4 Michigan, he taughtand did stseasch in Keno' 400 1,64to 1966. 04. Unck.6 to

include "One Textbook AgainAt theMould" in Education Leadikship, Apnit1 1171 j "The-WaliZtv, the -Teachesand Ethnocentaisn" is 'mustTeaches Education, *miiii-T,70; and"dot Elementssy Class-4000. in Social Studies, Octobes 197t.

The first step toward teachingU.S. students About other culturesa'.2 ways of life is to develop pro-gram that will give our tutuseteachers a broad international per-spective. One attempt to developsuch an undergraduate program hasbeen made during the pest 2 years atthe University of Massachusetts inits Center tor International Sduca-tion.

The Center operates one of 20special programs offered undergrad-

64

uates in education at the Universityof Massachusetts. (Others focus onareas such as "urban education" orthe "integrated day.") During theirfirst 2 years all education studentsparticipate in a course that intro-duces them to the range of specialprograms in education available at

unAversity. 'ben at the end ofthe sophomore year, students conferwith the faculty responsible for theprograms of particular interest tothem, and with faculty agreementselect one in which to concentrate.During their final 2 years, thoseeducation students who have enteredthe Center for International Educa-tion program will participate in thevarious activities described in thisarticle as well as take the regularcourses required in their majorfield. In 1972-73, SO undergradu-ates are enrolled in the Center'swaits's.

The International Education pro-gram has three broad objectives:

1. lb determine methods of intro-ducing an international dimensioninto all subject areas of U.S. edu-cation.

2. To provide prospective teach-ers with an opportunity to explorethrough study and experience a cul-ture different from their own.

3. To develop in these teacnersmodes of thinking and instructingthat reflect high degree of cross-cultural sensitivity.

An International Dimension in Undergraduate Teacher Education

THEMES FOR STUDY

To develop strategy for imple-menting such program, discussionswere held with individuals fromdifferent parts of the world to de-termine what they thought prospec-tive U.S. teachers should know aboutthe world community. Foreign stu-dents on campus proved to be anespecially valuable source of ideas,for not only were they interested inhaving Americans know more abouttheir own culture, but also theythemselves had been involved in anintensive crosscultural experienceand so were Ware of its problemsand benefits.

In these discussions some commonthemes appeared. Although theyveva neither new nor inclusive, itwas felt that start could be madeby allowing prospective teachers toinvestigate these themes and that,in doing so, they would at leastbegin to gain crosscultural per-spective and an attitude of world-mindedness. The themes upon WhichCenter students have therefore beenconcentrating are the followings

1. The variation of people andideas within any one culture.

2. Cultural patterns and habitsdistinguishing one grout fromanother.

3. Value orientations of diversepeoples.

4. Social changes throughoutthe world.

The Viation of _People and IdeasWithal...11W One Culture

The first theme was selected be-cause it wee felt that one of themost owaaon ad000nomptiono among

U.S. students is the belief that allpeople from given cultural areaare similar. Exploring this themehelps students to become aware ofthe divergence of thought patterns,life-styles, and the like within aparticular cultural group.

Cultural Patterns and Habits Distin-filigiq7aGroup from Another

This theme gives students theopportunity systematically to ob-serve the differences between groupsand the causes underlying them. Theobjective is to enable prospectiveteachers to develop the habit ofasking themselves why people are asthey are, and, importantly, to un-derstand that it is not necessary toestablish cultural conformity as aprecondition to cooperativeworking or learning environment.

Values Orientations of Diverse!amass,

When students compare and contrastanother culture analytically withtheir own, they begin to recognisethat preconceptions play an impor-tant role in shaping values, both inother cultures and in their own.They start to understand that valuesare more often relative than abso-lute and become sore understandingof and tolerant towards values otherthan their own. Seposure to valuesacross cultural lines points notonly to differences, but also tosimilarities among all peoples suchas the search for beauty, the desirefor happiness, and the foolings ofwarmth toward family and friends.

Social Changes Throughout the_ World

Students mey observe both socialchange and cultural conflicts moreclearly in distinctly crosscul-

63


tural setting. Increased contactbetween cultures has led in the lessdeveloped nations to increased tech-nology and other innovations whichin turn have led not only to econ-omic amelioration but also to socialchange within those nations. Thissituation, wherein cultures withdifferent customs, institutions,and values confront each other, isoften one of conflict. Prospectiveteachers, by examining these con-flict situations in other areas ofthe world,learn how to distinguishtheir causes and to cope more ablywith the reality of the prevailingcultural forces operating in theirlocal community.

Classroom teachers often will beteaching students who have been up-rooted from their cultural heritagethrough social change. This themeof social change throughout theworld helps them develop the sensi-tivity to perceive the impact socialchange has had on such students andmakes them aware of the danger offorcing their will and values uponthem. Teachers' ability to respectother cultures and understand thesituation of students from othercultures may be more important tothe growth of their students thanthe actual knowledge they transmit.

METHODS or "RAY

Pour methods were chosen to pro-vide experiences that would enableprospective teachers to explore thefour themes. These methods, eachapplicable to more than one theme,are still viewed ea experimentaland are continuously being redefinedand evaluated. They are (1) casestudies of conflict situations andcritical incidents, CO individual-ised study contracts, (3) short-torncrosscultural experiences, and (4)

in-depth rvascI experiences.

66

Case Studies of Conflict Situationsand Critical Incidents

The case study approach presentsa problem situation that often in-volves a conflict of values, atti-tudes, or feelings. Both "open-ended" and "closed" case studieshave been used. The former, des-cribing an unresolved situation,provides apple opportunity for stu-dents to diagnose the situation andprescribe alternative solutions orresponses. The latter, describing aresolved situation, allows stu-dents to analyze and discuss theactions taken by the individual orindividuals involved.

Conflict situations focus on thethought and actions of diverse peopleand raise issues about the way proib-

law are approached in differentcultural areas. Their purpose is todraw students' attention to thosehuman traits that influence the waydifferent people view present-dayproblems so that they will begin torealise that all people (includingthemselves) look at problems throughan ethnocentric lens formed by habitsand attitudes.

For example, an "open-ended" casestudy might present the problem ofindustrial waste in Japan or the con-flicts and incongruities of traditionand modernity on the African conti-nent as they affect the daily lifeof an African student. A "closed"case study might center on the in-ternment of Japanese Americana duringleprld War II.

Some situations are fictitious,while others are drawn from currentbooks, periodical; and newspapers.They are usually presented to thestudents in written form, but filmsand video tapes have also been used.

Critical incidents are brief des-criptions of particular problem inparticular cultural setting. They

An International Dimension in Undergraduate Teacher Education

may present a fictional situationconcerning which students are askedto make an individual value judoment or to arrive at a consensus withtheir peers; or they may be an actualcrosscultural experience a studenthas reported in a written account.

In preparing such reports, a stu-dent is instructed not only to des-cribe the incident but also to indi-Ate personal reactions to it. In-

structors and students then discussthese incidents in group sessionswhere a student may reflect on theexperience and benefit from the re-actions and insights of peers and in-structors.

Individualized Study Contracts

Individualized study contractsprovide a student with the opportu-nity to structure a crossculturallearning experience. The instructorassists the student in selecting atopic, organizing the objectives, anddetermining the activities necessaryto meet them, thereby helping him todevelop problem-solving techniquesthat can be applied in crossculturalsituations.

Depending on the contract, thestudent moves out of the classroomfor a portion of the semester or forthe entire semester. He uses libraryand community resources, benefitsfrom the range of expertise on campus,or becomes involved in service-ori-ented community projects. The indi-vidualised study contract is oftenused in connection with the activi-ties that students undertake duringthe short-term and in-depth crosscul-tural experiences described hereafter.In addition, study contracts havealso boon used to help students pre-pare for and evaluate these experi-ences.

Short-Term Crosscultural Experiences

Few teacher education programsprovide opportunities for their stu-dents to sample the cultural diver-sity found In our society. Whilemethods instructors have been anxiousto place their students in schoolseither to observe or practice in-structional techniques, instructorsin educational foundations courseshave made little effort to providetheir students with first-hand ex-posure to the multicultural forcesoperating in our society.

One n.ethod of providing this ex-posure is the short-term field ex-perience, an activity specificallystructured to enable students to ex-plore directly the relationship be-tween school and society. As part ofthe program discussed here studentshave participated in activities rang-ing from attendance at communitymeetings(of organizations such as theP.T.A., American Legion, and Leagueof Semen Voters) to visits to store-front schools and community centersin minority areas. In addition, somestudents have spent weekends in ruralNew England villages, communes, andconvents.

During these activities studentshave the opportunity to gather infor-mation about a different culture orsubculture through direct observationand interviews. The knowledge theygain, the insights they acquire, andthe reactions they have--both thoserecorded at the time and developed inretrospect--are later discussed andanalyzed with their instructors andpeers. It is felt that experiencesof this kind help students both tounderstand the need for modifyingtheir behavior in order to communi-cate effectively in &verse culturalsituations and, importantly, to re-cognise the nature of the particularcultural or subcultural perspectives

67

International Intercultural Education Re orts

that they themselves possess. Bydeveloping such insights first-hand,these prospective teachers may be-come more sensitive to the wide rangeof values and attitudes found in themulticultural classrooms they willencounter as they carry out theirprofessional responsibilities.

In -Depth Crosscultural Experiences

At one time in the history ofwestern education the wanderingscholar-teacher played a widely ac-cepted role. Today, however, thereis little opportunity for prospectiveteachers to satisfy all their degreeand certification requirements andstill have time for at least one se-mester of experience and study in aforeign country. Perhaps the solu-tion to this problem lies in a teach-er education program that includes acrosscultural dimension as an inte-gral step in the learning sequence.Conceivably, an in-depth crosscultur-al experience can be the link betweentheory and practice in educationalfoundations courses by providing stu-dents with the opportunity to exposethemselves to divergent values andto test their skills in real lifesituations.

As a consequence each student itthis program is encouraged to parti-cipate in a semester-long activityin foreign country. Some studentshave done practice teaching in Eng-land, Ecuador, and the Netherlands.Others have enrolled in local insti-tutions or undertaken individualisedstudy programs in France, Germany,!areal, Liberia, and Northern Ire-land. Currently, attempts are under-way to offer students an opportunityto arrange similar activities in Ja-pan. The cost for this part of theprogram, borne by the students thewselves, often amounts to no morethan that required for semester oncampus.

In preparation for their overseasexperience, students work closelywith their instructors, previousparticipants and, when possible,students from the foreign country towhich they will be going. Upon theirreturn they present a written ororal report to their instruct Irs andclassmates and engage in varioustypes of evaluation sessions.

COURSEwoRK

There are three formal coursesoffered as part of this program. Afoundations course introduces thestudents to the different philosophiesof international education. Theseare examined both through classroomwork and outside projects. A secondcourse entitled "Pre-Practicum inInternational Education" is designedto expose the students to broad is-sues in American education and therole of international education inthe public schools. Finally, a coursein "Curriculum Development in Inter-national Studies" affords the stu-dents an opportunity to work withthe Center star and curriculum spe-cialists in th,.1 respective majorfields to determine how they mightintroduce international studies intosubjects they will be teaching aftergraduation. Prospective secondaryschool teachers, with majors insocial studies, art, music, and ]_t-'mature, review the existing curri-culums and recent developments inthe teaching of these subjects; andelementary education majors concen-trate similarly on the curriculum atthis level. As part of the course-work, or through subsequent indi-vidualised study contracts, studentscan attempt to develop appropriatenew curriculum materials or adaptexisting ones to their particularsubject fields. On occasion, oppor-tunities also exist for them to testout their efforts during practiceteaching experiences.

An International nimension in Undergraduate Teacher Education

CONCLUSION

The activities here described re-present sore of the methods used bythe Center of International Educationto provide students with a crosscul-tural dimenOion in their undergrad-uate teacheo education program. Whilethese efforts ai-e still considereddevelopmental and research is need-ed to deterstine the full extent oftheir impacts it is the opinion ofthe Center's staff that the programparticipants have in fact gained abetter undefotanding of the effectof culture on their own perceptionsand, in addition, have begun to de-velop the wills and attitudes need-ed for effective and personally pro-fitable cr000cultural interaction.

soLecTEr READINGS

Forbes, Jack b. The Education o6 theCut2tm4tty DA4ektnt: A Mutticuttuk-

Appotodeh, Berkelets.Per Nest Lab-oratory for Educational Research andDevelopment, 1969.

Griffin, Willis and R. Spence. Co-opeAative Trattnationat Education.

Washington, D.C.: Association torSupervision and Curriculum Develop-ment, National Education Association,1970.

Holmes, Henry and S. Guild1 eds.A Manuat oi Teaching Techniques 6o4Intekcuttukat Education. Amherst,Mass.: Center for International Edu-cation, University of Massachusetts,1971. (Unpublished).

Humphreys, Mary B., ed. Apwroachezto the Study o6 Inteknationat andInteacuttukat RaatiOn4. Chicago:North Central Association of Collegesand Secondary Schools, 1968.

King, David C. InteAnationat Educa-tion Sok Spaceship Earth. New York:Foreign Policy Association, 1970.

Kenworthy, Leonard S. The Tntekna-tionat Dimension o6 Education. Wash-ington, D.C.: Association for Super-vision and Curriculum Development,National Education Association, 1970.

Ward, Barbara. Spaceship Eakth. NewYork: Columbia University Press, 1966.

Wight, Albert and M. Hammons. Guide-tinee Oh Peace Comm C4o46-CuttuhatTkaining. Esters Park, Colo.: Centerfor Research and Education, 1970.0

69

International Intercultural Education Resorts

A CULTURAL APPROACH TO THE

TEACHING OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

FRANK M. GRITTNERi4 FoAeign LanguageSpecialiat 60A theDepathnent o6 Pub-lic InetAuction inMadieon, Wieconein.He Aeceived hie

Ph. V. ecom theUniveAeay o6.cauin in MadLoon.D4. GAUtnet haetaught German,

Spanish, and Engtieh at the highechool level bon 8 yeaA4, and hewtaught graduate COUAACA in oAeignlanguage methodology in 1910

6

and1912 at the Univeuay o6 Wieconein.In 1964 and 1910 he was sfunded bythe German Federal Republ4c Foiceign(Mice to make etudy tonne oi theNut Getman education eyetem. Heha4 Aeceived gAante to ptepaAe "WhyStudy Foreign Languages," a tape-tiimetAip 4elat4 pteeented by ACTFL,and Chapteit 11 in Volume 3 in theOnitannied Review a Fateign LaiouaseEduces .icon. author offeacn-griFigtot Language4 (New YoAkiW:peA, TniTand ToKavrduatizini theftne:iat Language -"no:04am (Siv4a17ick.A.R044: Nathonar-reabook Company,in pne44).

throughout the history of for-eign language teaching in Americathere have been recurrent claimsthat one of the chief outcomes offoreign language instruction was "abetter understanding of the foreignculture." However, there is reason

70

to believe that, in practice, theteaching of culture in the averageforeign language classroom has beensomething less than ideal.

Some teachers have assumed thatthe mere learning of the sounds andlanguage patterns of a second lan-guage constituted a significant cul-tural experience in and of itself.For such people, the fact that thestudent is learning to manipulatenew sounds, new grammatical patterns,and new word order arrangements isadequate evidence that the studenthas broken through the barriers ofmonolingualism and monoculturalismwhich are characteristic of themind-set of many Americans.

There are others who contend thatthis type of learning is not enough;that it is, indeed, possible to de-velop a rather high degree of pro-ficiency in manipulating the ele-ments of a second language withoutever penetrating into the "soul" ofthat language. That is, many Ameri-can students may merely be using asecond system of oral and writtensymbols to express Anglo-American"realities." Examples would be thestudent of Spanish who has learnedthe Spanish word liamitid but who hasin his mind the sma- unit ofthe American suburbs, consisting,perhaps, of father, mother, or threechildren. Another example would bethe student of German who equatesthe word Gymna4ium with the Americanterm "high school." Even if thestudent's information is expandedto the point where he thinks of theGymnaeium as a "college prep highschool," which issues a "diploma"called the Abituk, he is still far

from understanding the role, func-tion, and significance of thisparticular educational institutionwithin the framework of life inGermany.

A Cultural Approach to the Teaching of Foreign Languages

Thus, from the standpoint ofvocabulary alone, the foreign lan-guage teacher faces an enormousproblem with respect to the teach-ing of culture. It is clearly notpossible to teach all the nuancesof meaning and all the emotionalovertones which come as second na-ture to the native speaker of a lan-guage. Yet if foreign languagelearning is to be anything morethan a troublesome secret code usedto express what the student alreadyknows, then the student must comeaway from the experience of foreignlanguage learning with the firm con-viction that foreign sounds expressa different version of reality thando the English "equivalents." He

must further come to realize thatfew real equivalents exist acrosscultures. He must be constantlyalert to the fact that the semanticrange of words from one culture toanother is vastly different. Insome cases the differences in cul-tural function of seemingly simpleobjects is so enormous as to defyall efforts at translation. Forexample, there is an Ashanti wordwhich is translated as "stool." Inthe Ashanti way of life, however, astool has great significance forevery individual. What the NorthAmerican would consider a simplepiece of furniture is to the Ashantia mark of social standing, a vehiclefor recording the important eventsof his life, and,after his death, apublic record of his mortal exist-ence. Stools of a given tribe arestored in a central location whereprofessional "stool readers" canhave access to them for recountingevents of the past. This examplehelps to dramatize the enormous de-gree of miseducation which can resultwhen a teacher of foreign languagesattempts to convey meaning by merelymatching English words or sentences

with the alleged crossculturalequivalent.

A further aspect of vocabularylies in those areas where no equiv-alent forms exist. For example,in Spanish there is no word com-parable to the English word for"pet." On the other hand, Spanishis much more concerned with differ-entiating the parts of an animalbody from that of the human body.Thus, for example, while Englishdifferentiates between the animalpaw and the human hand, Spanishgoes further to differentiate inits vocabulary between an animalneck and the human neck, an animalleg and the human leg, etc. Doesall of this have anything to dowith the fact that an animal ceme-tery in Mexico City is as incon-ceivable to a Mexican as a bull-fight would be to a baseball fanin Chicago?

Thus far, the illustrationshave been based largely on vocab-ulary items. Of course, languageis much more than a collection oflexical items. For example, thereare phonological, morphological,and syntactical patterns in manylanguages which reflect a struc-turing of reality markedly differ-ent from that of English. Thisversion of reality is imposed uponthe child in any culture as anautomatic part of his inculturationinto the patterns of his nativeenvironment. And the language re-lates to those patterns. If heremains monolingual (or if helearns other languages while keep-ing his ethnocentric biases intact),he tends to accept that languageand the version of reality which itsymbolizes as the norm. All otherlanguages are seen as queer waysof expressing his own "correct" ver-sion of reality. Thus, unlike thespeaker of English, the native speak-

71

International /Intercultural Education Reports

er of Spanish is not the agent inforgetting such things as theatretickets or in missing a train. In-stead, Spanish idicm shifts the blameto the object. In effect, Spanishexpresses the idea that "the ticketsforgot themselves on me," or "thetrain took off and left me." Also,while a North American clock orwristwatch "runs," the Spanish time-piece merely "walks" (with the verbanda4). Navajo language lacks agentpower in situations where Europeanlanguages have it. Thus, most Euro-pean languages would say that "grand-father is dying" while in Navajo itwould be necessary to say that some-thing like "death is now occurringin grandfather." In German thesyntactical patterns "the dog bit theman" and "the man bit the dog" canboth be used to express the sameessential idea. The accusative end-ing on the definite article willindicate--in either word order se-quence--whether it was the man orthe dog who was bitten. The lack ofcase endings in English mandates thesyntactic pattern in which the directobject follows the verb.

The foregoing examples were givento illustrate both the complexitiesand potentialities of using languageas a vehicle for teaching culture.It is also important to cite the dan-gers inherent in this approach. Fromthe standpoint of a language teacher,one danger is that instruction mightbe reduced to little more than a longseries of "fascinating" anecdotesabout the "peculiarities" of the tar-get culture, thereby reinforcingnegative stereotypes about the for-eign culture and confirming the stu-dent's suspicions that "those peopleare really pretty funny and they doeverything backwards." Also, thereis the danger that the teacher andthe students may overgeneralize fromlimited data. To refer back toour former examples, students might

72

tend to assume that the Spanish lan-guage with its "walking clocks" andseparate vocabulary items for animalparts is evidence of lackadaisicalbehavior and of cruelty to animalsamong speakers of Spanish. 1 havepersonally heard persons use similarlinguistic evidence to explain that"Germans are more precise" and that"Indians are closer to nature."In this regard, scholars are highlyskeptical at attempts to drawspecific relationships between lan-guage and culture. As Edward sapirexpressed it:

If it can be shown that culturt an

innate form, a series of contour:., quite a-

part from subject matter of any description

whatsoever, we have a something in culture

that may serve as a term of comparison with

and possibly a means of relating it to lang

uage. But until such purely formal patterns

of culture are discovered and laid bare, we

shall do well to hold the drifts of language

and of culture to be noncomparable and unrt-

laicd processes. from this it follows that

(.11 attem,its to connect particular types of

linguistic morphology with certain correla

ted stages of cultural development are vain.

Rightly o.derstood, such correlations are

rubbish.1

The point here is not to dis-courage students and teachers fromexploring the intricacies of lan-guage as a manifestation of culture,but to caution them against drawingspurious conclusions. This doesnot prevent the learner from exam-ining samples of patterned behavior,linguistic or otherwise, and pre-senting evidence in a descriptivemanner. Nor does it prevent himfrom making crosscultural compar-isons of language and culturalpatterns. In fact, it is precis./in this area that the foreign lan-guage teacher could profit greatlyfroo the experience and practiceof the social scientist.


In my opinion, the foreign lan-guage community has done very littlein the way of helping students to

look 'jectively at language as pat-terned cultural behavior. I haveeven seen a Spanish textbook whichinforms the student that "Spanishdoe, it backwards." This was in re-fe 'e to the Spanish placement ofob)%..ct pronouns before the conjugat-ed verb. From the standpoint ofteaching crosscultural understand-ing, this is clearly an abomination,for it tells the student that thesyntax of English is correct and thatany departures from that patternare strange and deviant. And, ifthe student is taught to be biasedabout syntax, the implication is al-most inevitable that other patternsof behavior that differ from hisown are also deviant and strange.How much better it would have beento present the two patterns as be-ing of equal validity. Perhaps itwould even be well to encourage thestudent to make his own value judg-ments about the relative superior-ity of one pattern over the other(leaving the outcome open-ended withno final "one right answer" ever be-ing supplied by an authority figure).In certain situations an Americanwill say, "Him (I) avoid like theplague:" That syntactic pattern,which places the object pronoun be-fore the verb, is rare in English.However, it is standard in SpanishAB is the pattern which would beliterally translated "To her it (I)gave." Is it any less sensible toknow who the receiver of the action

prior to knowing what the actionitself is? Does it fail in any wayto communicate?

Might not the teaching of for-eign languages be greatly enhancedif we were to develop a series ofcrosscultural concepts relating tolanguage so that the student's knowl-edge of language could be developed

arci"td a relatively manageable num-ber of insights rather than beingbased upon acquisition of one setof patterns after another? The ex-ploration of this and similar ques-tions by a consortium of social stud-ies and foreign language specialistsmight prove useful to all concerned.

One of the outcomes of such a

crossdisciplinary interchange mightbe to provide a new structure forteaching foreign languages in Amer-ica, the focus of which would bemore heavily on cultivating attitudesand developing value systems thatrelate to a pluralistic world. As

Michael Hakalis has expressed it:

Our efforts in the realm of human under

L:...,flding will be Iutile if we are umahlo .0

in students an empathy for th, dif

ferences in people, not only in the IlLi.ed

Stites, but in other eulturu'i as well. It in

extremely important that we understand the

reasons for human behavior that is different

from our own even though we do not choose to

adopt that behavior. As we strive to appre

ciate the differences in people, we must also

perceive the ways they are similar.?

An approach which has biculturalunderstanding as a basic purposeneed not preclude the learning oflanguage as a communicative skill.On the contrary, such an approachcould add relevance and purpose tolanguage learning which--as drop-ping enrollments show--may present-ly be on shaky ground. However, acultural approach would cast seri-ous doubts upon much of the presentpractice in foreign language teach-ing that tends to orient instruc-tion at the secondary school levelto the needs of a relatively smallnumber of literary specialists in

higher education. In combinationwith various factors (includingthe students' socioeconomic back-ground), this elitist focus of theforeign language program has tend-ed to exclude a majority of American

73

International/ Intercultural Education Reports

students from the study of a sec-ond language. However, if it istrue, as many have claimed, thatforeign languages have an essentialcontribution to make to life inmulti-ethnic America, then foreignlanguage study of the right.sortmust be available to everyone. As

Robert Mead has expressed it:

I believe that foreign languages are for

all students, from FLES through graduate

school, and that all students should have an

opportunity to study them to the limit of

th,,ir ability. I believc that a liberal edu-

eaLion consists in helping the student to gain

scme understanding of each of the great fields

of human knowledge and of their interrelations,

and I believe that all students should strive

to:gird thin goal. Since foreign language study

is a key to the understanding of another way of

life as well as the best means of ending one',,

own cultural parochialism, and since better

intercultural understanding is, in my opinion,

a vital ingredient of a liberal education in

today's unquiet world, it follows that len-

7,w3e study is an essential part of such a

1. cral education, and one which should not

denied to any student.3

be

Ave

These are, indeed, fine words.But over the past half century wehave heard many such statementsabout the potential contributionsof foreign language study to inter-national understanding and to de-veloping empathy for other peoples.A former Commissioner of Educationhas stated:

This argument, that wider cultural exposure

will help our international relations, stress..

es both national purposes and international

amity. Perhaps the most important reason for

bicultural programs, however, is not inter-

national but domestic--our relations with each

other here at home. The entire history of

discrimination is based on the that

because someone else is different he is somm-

hos worse. If we could teach all our child -ren--lack, white, brow, yellow and ill the

74

Am,ric,1 shades in between--th,, diversity i!

not to be feared or suspected, but enjoyed and

valued, we woulo be well on the way toward

achieving the equality we have always pro-

claimed as a national characteristic.4

The questioh might well beraised as to whether foreign lan-guage stvey does in reality haveanything co contribute to suchnoble ends. Is it not possible todo the job just as well in the reg-ular social studies program? Afterall, there are more than 3,000identified world languages. Clear-ly, it is futile to attempt toteach on a broad scale even a smallsampling from much of the majorlanguage families. On the otherhand, it may be shortsighted ofAmericans (and it may even appearchauvinistic to other nations) tocontinue teaching internationaleducation solely by means of amonolingua) social studies program.Just as the social studies special-ist may be able to provide a con-ceptual dimension which 1 nowlacking in many foreign languageprograms, perhaps the foreign lan-guage specialist can add a dimen-sion that is almost totally neg-lected in the usual social studiesprogram.

The well-designed foreign lan-guage program does have somethingto offer. It can provide theAmerican student with a directexperience in the language ofanother culture. The lack ofthis element in the social studiescurriculum may be a serious formof student deprivation. Sapir hassuggested that language is

the most significant and colosal work that the

human spirit has evolved--nothing short, of a

finished form of expression for all communi-

cable experience... Language is the most mas-

sive and inclusive art we know, a mountainous

snd anonymous work of unconscious generations.5


If this is true, surely somesignificant contact with a secondlanguage is an important educationalexperience for all young people.The question today is how to makethat experience relevant and ac-cessible to all American students.At present, the trend is in theother direction: students are, inincreasing numbers, tending toavoid the study of language. Per-haps it is time now to begin re-fining and implementing some of themodels which already exist for acultural approach to foreign lan-guage instruction. These emergingmodels do not omit literature Andlanguage acquisition. However, incontrast to traditional practiceamong foreign language curriculummakers, the new models tend totreat these aspects of culture asimportant threads in the fabric ofthe target culture rather than asthe chief goal and culminating ex-perience of the instructional pro-gram. The appended reading listprovides a list of suggestedsources for the reader who wishesto have access to some of the newideas and suggested approaches fora cultural approach to foreign lan-guage instruction.

FOOTNOTES

'Edward Sapir. Language: AnInttoduction to the Study o6 Speech.New York: Harcourt, Brace andWorld, 1921. pp. 218-19.

2H. Ned Seelye, ed. Teachingeuttuicat Concepts in Spani4hCta44e4. Springfield, Ill.: Officeof the Superintendent of PublicInstruction, 1972. p. 5.

3Robert Mead, Jr., cited inAtkanha4 Foteign Language Nem-tettek, Vol IV, No. 1.

4 Harold Howe II, cited in FrankM. Grittner. "Pluralism in ForeignLanguage Education: A Reason forBeing," The Btitannica Review o6Foteign Language Education, Vol. 3,Dale L. Lange, ed. 1971. p. 16.

5Sapir. op. At. p. 222.

SELECTEE READINGS

Anthropological Curriculum StudyProject (kCSP). Hiztoty as CuttuteChange: An Overview: Teaching Plan.New York: Macmillan, 1968.

Barrutia, Richard. "OvercomingCultural Barriers," FOtum 6, Decem-ber 1967. Available from ERICDocumentation Service, Office ofEducation, U.S. Department of Health,Educationoand Welfare, Washington,D.C. 20202. (ED 019 901).

Brooks, Nelson. "Teaching Culturein the Foreign Language Classroom,"Foteign Language AnnuatA. 1968,1:204-17.

Burger, Henry G. Ethno-Pedagogy:A Manual in Cuttmat Senzitivity,with Technique4 bon Imptoving C4044-CuttuAat Teaching by Fitting UhnicPattehn4. Southwestern EducationalLaboratory, Albuquerque, N. Mex.1968. Available only from ERICDocumentation Service, Office ofEducation, U.S. Department ofHealth, Education and Welfare, Wash-ington, D.C. 20202. (SP 001 971).

Carroll, John B., ed. Language,Thought and Reality: Selected

75


Wkiting4 cy6 Benjamin Lee Whaq.Cambridge: Massachusetts Instituteof Technology Press, 1956.

Grittner, Frank M. "Pluralism inForeign Language Education: A Reasonfor Being," The Bkitannica Reviewcy6 Fokeign Language Education, Vol.3, Dale L. Lange, ed. 1971.

Hoijer, Harry, ed. Language £nCuttuAe: Conlimence on the InteA-ketation4 ol5 Language and OthertA4pect4 CultuAe. University ofChicago Press, 1954.

Howe, Harry II. "Cowboys, Indiansand American Education," TESOLNemtettelt. May 1968, 2:iii:3-6.

Ledo, Robert. LingUidtie4 AC/064Cuttuhe4: Apptied Lingui4tic4 ionLanguage TeileheAd. Ann Arbor,Mich.: University of Michigan Press,1957.

76

Ladu, Tora T. et al. TeachingCcss-CultuAat Undeutandig.Raleigh, N.C.: Department of PublicInstruction, 1968.

Morain, Genelle Grant. "FrenchFolklore: A Fresh Approach to theTeaching of Culture," The ftenchReview. April 1968. 41:675-81.

Sapir, Edward. Language: An /ntAo-duction to the Study ol5 Speech.New York: Harcourt, Brace andWorld, 1921.

Seelye, H. Ned, ed. Teaching Cut-taut Concept4 in Span-all Ctazse.6.Springfield, Ill.: Office of theSuperintendent of Public Instruction,1972.

Singer, Milton. "On UnderstandingOther Cultures and One's Own."The Jouknat of Geneltat Education.1967, 19:1-23.

AACTE'S COMMISSION ON MULTI-CULTURAL

EDUCATION

R1CHikk'r L. JAMES

ha4 been A4eociatePiAectoq 04 the

Ameqican A44ocia-Non o6 Cottege4bon Teachers Educa-

tion 4ince 196$.

He 4eAve4 a4 4:446o6154ceit 60k the

AACTE Comm4444onon MulticuttukatEducation, a aeven-

membet panet concmned with teacheAeducation pbleme aa6ecting kacialand ethnic minoti2 4e4 in the UnitedState4. DR. Jame4 Aeceived hi4 Ed. P.in M64ic Education 154om the Univet-44ty o6 MaAgland. Since 1961, he ha4taught instumentat and vocal mu4icand ha4 atio been M64ic DepaktmentChaikman 15o aeveut Martyland achoot4.Pt. Jane's 44 the author oi "Mat.i-culturtal Education - An rE 1/44.04-

ity," AACTE Bulletin, Nov. .oelt 1971;and the editors and compile* u 6

Nutt4catuut Natalie in Teache*raucation.

in May 1970 the American Asso-ciation of Colleges for TeacherEducation (AACTE), in an action de-signed to strengthen its commitmentto the principle of equal education-al opportun:ty for all citizens,,stablisheo a Commission on Multi-enaral Education. The Associationcharged the Commission to provideleadership to MIS and its 859member oolleged and universities in

Intercrltural Education

efforts to make teacher educationprograms more responsive to the edu-cational needs of a culturally plu-ralistic society. To meet thischarge, it recommended that the com-mission's aims include the following:

1. To stimulate and motivate AACTEand its member institutions to makemulticultural education a major con-cern in teacher preparation, and toprovide information concerning multi-cultural education.

2. To increase partii:ipation ofpredominantly black member institu-tions and substantive involvement ofindividual educators from minorityethnic groups in t., work of AACTE.

3. To encourage member institutionsto include in their teacher educationprograms components aimed at produc-ing an understanding of the multi-cultural nature of American life andthe strength that comes from diver-sity.

4. To facilitate the establish-ment and functioning of cooperativeinstitutional programs designed topromote intercultural understanding.

From its first meeting, the Com-mission felt an obligation to clari-fy the principal ideas and conceptsof multicultural education. Whileit proceeded with efforts concerningthe four aims previously mentioned,substantial attention was devotedto developing a statement that wouldclarify the nature of multiculturaleducation and indicate its implica-tions for teacher preparation.

At its October 1972 meeting,MCTE's board of Directors adoptedthe statement prepared by the Comis-

77

InternationalLIntercultural Education Reports

Rion as AAC-E policy. It is hopedthat this statement will serve as aguide for AACTE and its member insti-tutions in dealing with the issue ofmulticultural education.

Excerpts from the Commission'sstatement are presented belowil

Multicultural education is educa-tion which values cultural pluralism.Multicultural education rejects theview that schools should seek to meltaway cultural differences, or thatschools should merely tolerate cul-tural pluralism. Instead, multi-cultural education affirms thatschools should be oriented towardthe cultural enrichment of all chil-dren and youth, through programsrooted to the preservation and exten-sion of cultural alternatives....

...Cultural pluralism is more thana temporary accommodation to placateracial and ethnic minorities. It isA concept that aims toward a height-ened sense of being and of wholenessof the entire society based on theunique strengths of each of itsparts.

Cultural pluralism rejects bothassimilation and separatism as ulti-mate goals. The positive elementsof a culturally pluralistic societywill be realized only if there is ahealthy interaction among the di-verse groups which comprise the na-tion's citizenry. Such interactionenables all to share in the richnessof America's shalticulturel heritage.Suoh interaction provides a meansfor coping with intercultural ten-

sions that arc natural and cannot heavoided in a growing, dynamic so(i-ety. To Accept cultural pluralismis to recognize that no group livesin a vacuum- -that each group ixif;ts;as part of an interrelated whole.

a a

Educational institutions play amajor role in bhaping the attitudesand beliefs of the nation's youth.These institutions bear the heavy

task of preparing each generation toassume the rights and responsibil-ities of adult life. In helping thetransition to a society that valuescultural pluralism, educational in-stittions mast provide leadershipfor the development of individualcommitment to a social system whereindividual worth and dignity arefundamental tenets....

Colleges and universities engagedin the preparation of teachers havea central role in the positive devel-opment of our culturally pluralisticsociety. If cultural pluralism is tobecome an integral part or the edu-cational process, teachers and per-sonnel must be pr'pared in an envi-ronment where the commitment tomulticultural education is evident.Evidence of this commitment includessuch factors as a faculty and staffof multiethnic and multiracial char-acter, a student body that is repre-sentative of the culturally diversenature of the community being served,and a culturally pluralistic curric-ulum that accurately represents thediverse multicultural nature ofAmerican society.

NOTESAO COMmOIS

MARVANN FISHER i4

an honct4 degreeoaduate of; PvinityCvetege, Washington,D.C., whooe majokwas wolld histokyand Ameticanie4. She t4 cuAncnt-ty wokking in the()Wee o6 the

Intelcuttultat Edu-cation Speciati4t,

Institute ol5 Inteknationat Studie4.

LINCOLN-FILENE INTERGROUPRELATIONS CURRICULUM

The Intergroup Relations Curri-

culum is designed to orient the ele-mentary school child into a plural-istic society. It is the product ofmore than 6 years of research, devel-opment, teacher education, and

evaluation by the Lincoln-Filene

Center for Citizenship and PublicAffairs, Tufts University, Boston.

The cardinal feature of the Inter-group Relations Curriculum is its

methodology, which incorporatesinductive learning through activepupil participation in role playing,discovery, inquiry, gaming, and

similar classroom activities. This

inductive methodology is based on

awareness that classroom participa-tion helps a child to learn better,tolearn more, and probably to become amore effective participant in the

broader community. It is also basedon the belief that it is not enoughto increase a child's intellectualknowledge of similarities and dif-

ferences in the American civic

Intercultural Education

culture; he must also experiencebehavioral orientation and change,which can only come from the feel-ings induced by the teaching-learn-ing process.

The Intergroup Relations Curri-culum has the following specificobjectives that focus on helping achild become an effective citizen inthe American society:

To advance a child's positiveself-concept.

To help a child reduce bothstereotypic and rejudicial think-ing and also overt discriminationwith respect to all groups of humanbeings.

To assist a child toward reali-zing that there are many differencesamong people even within groups.

To give a child a realistic un-derstanding of the past and the pre-sent, including the many contribu-tions to America's development bypeople from a wide variety of groupsand nations.

To encourage a child to partic-ipate actively in the teaching-learning process in the school.

To suggest eays in which allindividuals may contribute towardclosing the gap between the realitiesand the ideals of the democraticcivic culture.

It is hoped that the IntergroupRelations Curriculum and its objec-tives will contribute to the devel-opment of democratic human relationsin our society through the educa-tional process.

Fr further information contactMajor Morris, Lincoln Filene Centerfor Ci`izenship and Public Affairs,Tufts University, Medford, Mass.

79


MOBILE COUNTY INTERCULTURALPROGRAM

In 1970, the County School Boardin Mobile, Ala., directed that a

crosscultural educational program beestablished in the schools through-out the country. Because the Boardbelieved that educators are prob-ably in the best position to aid stu-dents in gaining knowledge, develop-ing attitudes, and attaining skillsnecessary for rational and creativeliving in an interdependent world,it requested that the Office ofInternational and Special Projects,College of Education, University ofAlabama, work with the Superinten-dent's Office in Mobile to develop acomprehensive crosscultural educationprogram. The goals developed included(1) promoting crosscultural under-standing and cooperation _.. a nation-al and international level and (2)harmonizing cultural differencesamong the racial and ethnic groupswithin the Mobile area.

Projected for 5 years, the pro-gram has now completed its firstactive year. During that time mart'

concrete steps were initiated. Acitizens' advisory board represent-ing the cultural groups within theMobile area was estatlished. Asurvey of elementary and secondaryteachers was conducted to find thosecapable of a special contributionto the program, on the basis ofprevious training and/or experience.A continuing assessment of curricu-lum was started to discern the typeand quality of the crossculturalmaterial being used at all gradelevels. Teachers were encouraged tnparticipate in a special summer pro-gram in Mexico that affordedfamiliarization with present politi-cal and cultural trends. And final-ly a plan was being designed for aninservice training program for social

80

studies coordinators that will 1,e

tested early in 1973 and late:- offer-ed to appropriate teachers: through-out the county school system.

INTERNATIONAL PROGRAMS INOHIO SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Miami University's Department ofEducational Administration, undergrant from the Kettering Foundation,surveyed international education pro-grams in the 534 accredited secondaryschools in Ohio during the fall of1971. Conducted through the chairmenof social studies departments, thesurvey achieved an 80 percent return.International education was consid-ered to include any school-sponsoredactivities or courses that bringdents into contact with people andcultures other than their own.

The survey showed that Ohio highschools do generally offer inter-national education in some form. Thegreat majority of schools' respond-ents stated that the internationalcomponent of their present programsis provided within existing coursessuch as foreign language and worldhistory courses. Less than half theschools offer separate courses suchas international relations or an areastudy. One-quarter reported thatover 75 percent of their studentbody participated in well-definedinternational education programs thatdo include such separate courses.At the other end of the scale, one-fifth Of the schools responded thatunder 25 percent of their studentstake any courses with internationalcontent.

Few Ohio secondary teachers havetraveled overseas. Of the 422 schoolsresponding, 329 indicated that lessthan 25 percent of their staff havebeen overseas. Of those who had,most visited Europe, with Canadaand Latin America next in popularity.

Very few have been to Africa, Asia,Australia, or New Zealand.

Study abroad was named by 28 per-cent of the respondents as part ofthe background of those staff memberswho are teaching in internationaleducation programs. Work experienceabroad was very limited, with only12 percent indicating any generalexperience by their staff.

Despite agreement by 87 percent ofthe respondents that more internation-ally oriented materials and activi-ties are offered today than 5 yearsago, more than half thought that Ohiohigh schools are not giving studentsan adequate knowledge of internation-al affairs. When questioned aboutwhat prevented 'their schools fromhaving the international educationprograms they thought advisable,70 percent of the respondents namedlack of money as the major faCtor.The next most frequent response (44percent) was lack of suitable mate-rials. When asked about ways to

strengthen and expand existing pro-grams, respondents put first on thelist emphasizing teaching about non-Western cultures.

With the nature of the responsesin mind, the survey offers the fol-lowing general recommendations for

improving the State-wide picture:

1. Strengthen and support programs which

prupare Ohio' teachers.

2. Support efforts to train urgently

needed teachers in non-Western areas.

3. Set up workshops, summer institutes,

seminars for college and university pre-

assors who prepare secondary aid elumen-

Lary school teachtrs.

4. Establish at an Ohio university a

cc ter to support the development of 4

gA4lity international education curricu-

lum in Ohio schools and provide consul-

tants to schools; curriculum materials

te 6 410 C S

Illy f,,r fere ), r,1

,0rvice

nior, contlrlU it or 11' f

f r,, ur t it s 1 , 1. ' { r v

in )4 in 1 0.1

,hle inservice int,Tnationd eJuc, i

f-rograms for teaeher.

Change Ohio's tAte stodieF

requirements for hioh schools

to in-ludc a required our:o., with pr,

dominantly internAional content.

Promote international educstior,

through use of the popular pre rkroo!h

prufesioell education or ',oil? 0 lor., udjournals, and ly ).lining support .f tf,

:,uperintendentbl offices.

Convene a i:tatewide internati,nal

education meeting for :social !_;tudie ten,-ers in Ohio to introduce them to new ide,.;

and materials, and to generate state-wid,

enthusiasm for international Aucation.

The pamphlet in which these rec-commendations appear is entitledBuilding Wonid SensitivityFact anFiction? It may be obtained from Dr.James R. Showkeir, Department of Ed-ucational Administration, Miami Uni-versity, Oxford, Ohio 45056.

COUNCIL FOR INTERCULTURALSTUDIES AND PROGRAMS

The National Council of Associa-tions for International Studies( NCAIS), formed in 1967, was recentlyreorganized as the Council for In-tercultural Studies and Programs(CISP). The new Council plans toexpand the work of NCAIS in encourag-ing study of critical world probleMs,particularly at the undergradua'televel.

Whereas NCAIS consisted of associ-ations and regional centers, CISPwill extend this membership to in-clude individual colleges and uni-versities concerned with strengthen-

81.


ing international and foreign areastadies on their own campuses byworking cooperatively with otherinstitutions. It also plans, whilecontinuing and expanding its pastactivities,to embark on new programsthat will seek to anticipate majorworld problems and their consequencesfor American higlu education.Faculty seminars and workshops willbe held to broaden the background ofcollege teachers on world areas andinternational issues. Related acti-vities will be planned to developteaching and study materials in suchfields as population, Asian philos-ophies and religions,and comparativeurban studies. Consultative serviceswill be provided to higher educationconsortia and individual institutionsthat are developing new programs inintercultural studies. Opportunitieswill also be provided for students toshare their intercultural experiences.

Organizations and institutionsinterested in becoming associatedwith the Council may write to theMembership Committee 1. care of Prof.George T. Little, Vernmont Council ofWorld Affairs, Trinity College, Bur-lington, Vt. 05401. Further informa-tion may be obtained from Ward More-house, President, Council for Inter-cultural Studies and Programs, 60 E.42d St., New York, N.Y. 10017.

INTERNATIONALIZING SWEDISH HIGHEREDUCATION

The Office of the Chancellor ofthe Swedish Universities has set upa committee to study ways to inter-nationalize Swedish higher educationmore fully. The committee's appoint-ment is to be seen in the context of

82

the debate on educational policy inSweden,during which iuternationaliza-tion has been cited as one of theimportant objectives of education--elementary, seconlary, and 1-)os t-

secondary. The committee has beendirected to produce d coordinatedpicture of the various aspects ofinternationalization at the highereducation level and to organize itsstudy under three main to ics:

Specific training in preparationfor international or other foreignposts (e.g., in the Swedish Develop-ment Aid Program, international or-q.ization, or Swedish business).

Study of conditions in othercountries and of international prob-lems in preparation for specifickinds of jobs in Sweden, such aspositions in teaching, journclism,or public administration and privateenterprise that involve foreigncontacts.

International orientation thatwould attempt to increase understanding of issues and problems in othercountries, and to impart a greatersense of international responsibility.Swedish officals believe this willbecome increasingly important in the1970's and 1980's.

The committee has begun to prepareconcrete proposals and is interestedin comparing its efforts to those ofother countries. Co-respondence maybe addressed to Int( malization

Committee, Office of .-e ncellorof the Swedish Universiti,! ( 'KA),

Box 16 334, S-103 26 StA. 16,

Sweden.

INTERNATIONAL CURRENTS

PAKISTAN'S NEW EDUCATION POLICY:

1972-1980

HAKIM I. KHAN ha4been the InAtituteo6 IntanationatStudied' 4peciat-i4t in compakativeeducation on theMiddte Ea4t, NotthAlitica, and SouthAAia since 1966. Anative India,

he attended Luck-now Univeuity and

became a member ol5 the stak5 in the

DepahtmentA oA PAychotogy and Eeuca-tion in 1947-48. He then came to

the United State4 on a GovernmentIndia AchotakAhip to 4tudy apptiedpAychotogy at Teachaz College, Cot-umbia Univeuity, where he keceivedhi4 M.A. and did po4toaduate urIlk

lion 2 yealo. Mh. Khan (waked witAUSIA aA an intiotmation 4peciati4tbkoadca4ting cuttunat and education-at ptogtaft in Wtdu to PakiAtan andIndia until 1966.

On March 29, 1972, the Governmentof Pakistan issued The EducationPoticy 1972-1980, a statement outlin-ing its overall aducational objectivesand general guidelines for reform andJevelo2ment. The policy, prepared inrespiAlse to a directive given 3 monthsearlier by President Zulfigar Ali

Bhutto, was produced under the leader-ship of Minister of Education Abdul

Hafiz Pirzada. It includes contribu-tions from a wide variety of concernedgroups ranging from univeroity officialsand Provincial educational authoritiesto teachers and students leaders.

In general terms, The EducationPoticy aims to construct an educationalprocess geared not only to preserveand promote "the basic ideology ofPakistan," 1 but also to foster socialand cultural harmony compatible withthis ideology. It emphasizes develop-ing the total personality of theindividual and producing citizens whowill both be able to comprehend thesocial and technical changes takingplace in their society ,ncl also beprepared to assume leaG, :.hip roles.

More specifically, Tice EducationPaticy aims to:

Eradicate throughuniversalizing elementary educationand massively expanding adult educa-tion programs.

Equaliz3 access to educationby providing special facilities towomen, the underprivileged, and thementally and physically handicapped,particularly in backward areas.

Make curriculums more responsiveto the country's economic and socialneeds.

Integrate seneral and technicaleducation through comprehensive pro-grams that will allow students totransfer from one course of special-ization to another.

83


Enhance the welfare, dignity,and sense of responsibility of bothteachers and students by ensuringtheir active participation, as wellas that of the community at large,in educational matters, and by provid-ing academic freedom to educationalinstitutions within the framework ofnational objectives.

It is the purpose of this articleto report on some of the more signif-icant elements of this recent policystatement and the way in which theseelements affect educational adminis-tration and elementary, secondaryand intermediate, higher, and adultand continuing education.

ADMINISTRATION

Current System

Educational administration of alllevels is basically a responsibilityof the individual Provinces wi_h theCentral Government providing leader-ship, guidance, coordination, andfinancial assistance. The CentralMinistry of Education is 1-:aded by aMinister of Education appointed bythe President. The former is assistedby a Secretary and, since 1972, byeight Deputy Secretaries who arespecialists in the particular areasfor which they are responsible.

Each of the four Provinces--Punjab,Sind, Frontier, and Baluchistan--hasa Division of Education, headed by aMinister appointed by the President.The Minister in turn is supported bya Director of Public Instruction andseveral other directors. At the low-est bureaucratic level, districtinspectors handle the day-to-dayoperations of the school system.

Theoretically, at least, education-al planning has been conducted by theCentral Government in consultationwith the appropriate Provincial au-thorities. The most prominent Central

84

agency that assist,. in this proce:-:,is the Advisory Board of Education,which includes both Central andProvincial educational officials,directors of public institutions,vice chancellors of tie universities,leading educators and academics, andmembers of the Provincial Assemblies.Also in-yolved to some degree in plan-ning are the Council of TechnicalEducation, the Inter-University Board,and the Council of Scientific andIndustrial Research. In addition, asmall group of educators was assignedto the National Planning Commissionto prepare the educational componentsof the previous National DevelopmentPlans.

Despite this longstanding commit-ment to the principle of decentrali-zation in educational policymaking,planning, and administration, thecentral Government had assumed agreat deal of power and control inthe past decade. Perhaps, recogniz-ing that edncati.on plays a key rolein national develot.,ment, the Govern-ment ..ssumed more direct control andresponsibility so as to ensure effi-cient, coordinated planning. Whateverthe explanation, during the sixtiesthe Central Government established,financed, and operated several insti-tutions of higher learning (e.g., theUniversity of Islamabad) and severalmodel secondary schools in thc. Isla-mabad metropolitan area.

Policy Guidelines

Althougl. administrativ, machineryhas existed tc involve regional lev-els in the formulation and implemen-tation of educational policy, tholeindividuals r' consible for The Edu-cation PAicy apparently felt that itwas necessary to stream]. .J education-al administration and to involve morepeople at the Provincial and districtlevels in educational planning andadministration. To this end, the new

Pakistan's New Education Policy: 1972-1980

policy states that "Education Councils"will be set up at the National, Pro-vincial, district, and institutionallevels. Members of these councilswill be drawn from "elected repres-entatives of National and ProvincialAssemblies and Local Bodies, citizensof various shades of opinion fromdifferent walks of life [who are] in-terested in education, and reiresen-tatives of teachers, students, and..eievant government departments ando 'ler agencies." The Education Coun -.moils will not on4 formulate andimplement educational policy, but willalso (1) evaluate educational progressin their respective spheres, (2) ini-tiate and support research in educa-tion, and (3) harness and mobilizethe latest educational techniquesand resources to improve education.

Another major feature of the Cen-tral Government's new policy -- spells,out in detail in Martial Law Regula-tion No. 118, 2 also dated March 29,1972--is the nationalization of pri-vate institutions at all levels.Apparently this regulation is aimedpr'marily at profitmaking institu-tions, because The Education Poticystates that private institutions willbe exempt from any or all of theregulations if they can satisfy Gov-ernment authorities that they are

"run on a genuinely benevolant, phil-anthropic, and non-commercial basis."

On September 1, 1972, all private"colleges"--institutions with classesat the intermediate (grades 11 and 12),undergraduate, or postgraduate level- -were affected by this regulation.Private schools at the lower levelswill be converted in stages, the firstof which took place in October 1972.The regulation calls for nationalizingall sthools within 2 years.

During this nationalization process,owners of private schools and collegeswill not be compensated in any form,nor will they be allowed to close,

sell, or transfer their inst. 'ionsto any other individual or group. rho

regulations further prohibit relets-ing or hiring any teachers or otherpersonnel. Finally, teachers in theseinstitutions will have their salariesand service conditions raised to alevel equal to that of their counter-parts in Government-run schools.

Nationalized institutions locatedin the Islamabad Capital Districtwill be financed and administered bythe Central Government; and thoie inthe Provinces, by the relevant provin-cial Governments.

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION

The Current System

In Pakistan, the educational systemhas three distinct stages: Elementary,secondary and intermediate, anr" higher.Pre-elementar schools exist only in

large cities like Karachi, Lahore,Islamabad, and Peshawar.

Elementary education spans 8 years,including 5 years in primary school(grades 1-5) and 3 in middle school(grades 6-8). Students passing thefinal examination at the end of grade8 are channeled either into collegepreparatory or into vocational /technicalprograms, largely on the basis oftheir scores.

In 1972, the approximate numberand percent of primary and middleschool-age children enrolled ingrades 1 to 5 and grades 6 to 8,respectively, were as follows:

Primary

Number Percent

All pupils 4,600,000Boys 3,500,000Girls 1,100,000

487025

85


Middle

Number Percent

All pupils 1,000,000 20Boys 750,000 30Girls 250,000 11

The dropout rate at the elementarylevel has been estimated as high as70 percent. 3

The current curriculum of the pri-mary grades includes the followingsubjects:

Language:Urdu, Sindhi, or Pushto

MathematicsGeneral scienceSocial studiesReligious educationPhysical educationPractical arts

In the middle grades (6-8), oneof the following subjects may beadded:

ArabicFine artsHome economicsPersianPushtoSindhi

Policy Guidelines

Free and universal education.- -The Eaucation Paacy declares thateducation is to be free and universalthrough grade 10; but, because oflimited economic resources, thispolicy is to be implemented in twophases. The first phase began onOctober 1, 1972, when education be-came free from grades 1 to 8 for allboys and girls in both private andGovernment schools. The secondphase is to begin on October 1, 1974,when free educat 1 is to be extendedthrough grade 1, n all schools. The

86

Government will provide monetarysupport to the private schools thatare permitted to continue operationsto compensate for loss of the feesthat they will no longer be able tocharge because of the nationalizationprogram.

The issue of making educationcompulsory was left open for furtherdi..cussion and debate by the Provin-cial Assemblies, because of its "far-reaching implications in the socio-economic structure as constitutedtoday."

Enrollment.--It is estimated that,under the new plan, primary schoolenrollment by 1980 will have increas-ed by about 5 million. The Govern-ment plans to build 38,000 additionalclassrooms to acoommodate thesepupils, and Government policy requiresthat the new schools be functional indesign and low in cost. The presentplan, outlined in the new policy,indicates that for each pupil primaryschool should be within walking dis-tance. Further, it is estimatedthat primary education under thistwo-phase plan will become universalfor boys by 1979 and for girls by1984. The approximate number andpercent of primary school-age chil-dren expected to be enrolled in 1980are estimated as follows:

Number Percent

All pupils 9,600,000 85Boys 5,800,000 100Girls 3,800,000 70

Enrollment increases in middleschools are expected to reflect theextension of universal free educa-tion through grade 8 that began inOctober 1972. The anticipatedincrease at this level is 2,300,000by 1980. The approximate numberand percent of riddle school childrenexpected to be t rolled in 1980 areas follows:

Number Percent

All pupils 3,300,000 55

Boys 2,200,000 70

Girls 1,100,000 40

stan's New Education Policy: 1972-1980

The dropout problem.--The mostcrucial factor in the high elemen-tary dropout rate may be the exist-ing examination system, in bhich asingle annual school examinationprovides the sole basis for deter-mining whether or not a student will

be promoted. The new policy urgesthat an essentially automatic promo-tion plan be adopted through grade 9.In place of the annual exam in thesegrades, evaluations will now be madeseveral times during the school yearand cumulative records will be kept.These records will be used to helpplace the student in a program suit-ed to his or her particular needsand capabilities.

A second major factor influencingthe dropout rate--more difficult tocome to grips with--is the attitudeabout education that prevails amongurban working-class and rural parents.The Education Policy suggests thatthe Government initiate a mass planto persuade parents of the value offormal schooling; and in fact hasasked Provincial Assemblies to dev-elop systems of incentives andawards in their respective areas thatwill encourage parents in lower socio-economic g'J,ps to keep their chil-dren in school.

Curriculum.--The new policysuggests curricular changes at theelementary level that will equipchildren with salable skills:

The system of elementary education will

so designed that the knowledge and skills

imparted, attitudes tmplanted, and the

learning methods employed will ensure that

those not preceding to secondary education

can be usefully absorbed into the economy

of the local community. For those leaving

school after class VIII, special courses of

training in the skills of their vocational

interest will be provided in the school

workshops....

The policy also makes the study ofIslamiyat compulsory for students upto grade 10.

SECONDARY ANDINTERMEDIATE EDUCATION

The Current System

In Pakistan, what is generallytermed "secondary education" is div-ided into two stages, secondary(grades 9 and 10) and intermediate(grades 11 and 12) . The medium ofinstruction is =many Urdu, although,as in elementary schools, regionallanguages are used in certain sec-tions of the country where ties tothe local language are particularlystrong. 4

Enrollment statistics for the1972-73 schoc., year reveal thatsecondary and intermediate educationis still highly selective, servingonly 8 percent of the eligible age

group. Moreover, among those study-ing at this level, from 60 to 70percent are following the preuniver-sity arts curriculum whereas only5 percent are enrolled in technicalor vocational programs.

Students who conti-ue their edu-cation beyond the 8th grade arechanneled into one of two streams,largely on the basis of their scoreson the grade 8 final examination.Those who receive the highest gradesand who intend to continue to inter-mediate and higher education enter aprogram of general studies. The restenroll in vocational or occupationalprograms, usually offered in separateschools.

In the secondary-level generalstudies program, which is designedalmost exclusively to prepare stu-

87

International Intercultural Education Resorts

dents for eventual university study,all students take a required corecurriculum and three elective sub-jects each year. The requiredcourses are Urdu, English, mathemat-ics, general science, Islamic studiesand physical education. The elec-tives may be selected from any oneof the following subject areas:(1) Agriculture, (2) commerce,(3) home economics, (4) humanities,(5) industrial arts, and (6) science.At the ld of grade 10, students areconfronted with a final examinationwhich leads to the MatriculationCertificate. These exams are exter-nal, being set and administered bythe Boards of Intermediate and Secon-dary Educatioi. of the various Provin-cial Ministries of Education. Again,on the sole basis of the score attainedon this examination, students areselected for places in either the liberalarts, sciences, or commercial sectionsof intermediate "colleges." Thosewho are not entering one of theseprograms but who wish to continuetheir education may enroll either ina technical course or a teacher-training institute.

Vocational schools at the secon-dary level emphasize training in awide range of crafts and trades in1- or 2-year programs that are design-ed to prepare individuals for employ-ment either as trained factory workers,clerks, or apprentices in a particulartrade. Students who successfullycomplete the 2-year program leadingto a diploma in a particular areamay seek admission to technicalschools at the intermediate level.Grade 8 graduateF may also enter a1-year teacher education programoffered in normal schools. (For afuller discussion of teacher educa-tion programs, see the section onTeacher Education.)

At the intermediate level, schoolsfor general studies are termed"intermediate colleges." Here a

88

student takes 2 compulsory courses- -Urdu and Englishand selects 3 ad-ditional courses each year from thoseoffered in the particular section inwhich he is enrolled. The followingcourses are available:

Liberal Arts

is

CivicsEconomicsGeneral history

BiologyChemistryMathematics

H me economicsIslamic historyLogicMathematics

Sciences

PhysicsPsychologyStatistic-

Commerce

Ac-countingBankingBookkeepingBusiness methods

Commercialgeography

Shorthand andtyping

Technical education at the inter-mediate level is provided in "poly-technics." The programs offered inthese institutions, normally 3 yearsin duration, are designed to prepare::.ndividuals for the midlevel manpowerpositions needed for national devel-opment. The program includes a basiccore of science, mathematics, andlanguage studies as well as coursesin speqalized fields such as draft-ing, deiign, electronics, and metal-lurgy. Part-time programs in avariety of specializations are alsoavailable for workers with industrialexperience. Graduates of the poly-technics are awarded a Diploma ofAssociate Engineers and are eligibleto compete for admission to one ofthe universities or engineeringColleges.


Policy Guidelines

The Lducati Peticy addressesmany of the major shortcomingscurrently found in education at tutsecondary and intermediate stages.It outlines reforms intended to(1) increase overall enrollmentsand, at the same time, reduce theheavy concentration of students inthe liberal arts sections of theintermediate colleges; (2) inte-rategeneral and technical/occupationalstudiet; at both the secondary andintermediate stages; and (3) providestudents in all programs with a morecomprehensive and diversified edu-cation. The police framers also makeit clear that the existing evaluationsystem, with its sole reliance onyearly external examinations, willhave to be revised.

Enrollments.--The new policy'sdirective extending free educationthrough grade 10 for all students andthrough grade 12 for the academicallygifted 5 will bring about an immediateincrease in enrollments in both thesecondary schools and the intermediatecclleges. By 1980 it is expectedthat enrollments will have more thandcubled at these stages and that anoverall enrollment ratio of at least 15percent will nave been achieved.

The Education Pot icy is explicitin its call for a "massive shift fromenrollments in arts toward enrollmentsin science and technical subjects;from an aimless general education toa more p......voseful agro-technical edu-

cation." It is pea that by 1980 theenrollment breakdown by stream willbe technical as follows; Technical/occupational--33 percent; sciences- -30 percent, and liberal arts--27 per-cent. To achieve this balance, newfacilities for science and technical/occupation courses will be constructedon a major scale and enrollments inthe liberal arts section will be care-fully controlled.

Integration of streams.--In heview )f the framers of the new policy,technical and vocational education atthe secondary and intermediate stageshas failed to produce efficient indus-trial workers. The programs gener-al:;, have been unable either to devel-op the specialized skills requiredfor such employment or to providestudents with the general educationthey need to function effectivelyand responsibly in Pakistan's rapidlychanging society. Therefore the newplan is to expand technical educationand move toward progressive integra-tion of general and technical studies.Explaining this recommendation, thepolicy states:

...In the past. the general tendency

has been to establish separate institu-

tions for technical education. These

in,titutions have not always produced

efficient industrial workers. The edu-

cation given in them also lacked OIL

necessary cultural content and, in

Dractice, they cats -, ,.d for the reject:

of the general stream and a certain

_tigma was attached to their programmes.

The new programme will provide for pro-

gressive integration of general and tech-

nical education.

Equal recognition is shown in thenew policy of certain shortcomingsin the general studies programs.Most serious is the fact that manystudents who terminate their studiesat either the secondary or intermedi-ate stage have great difficultysecuring meaningful employment.

In an attempt to imp, )ve bothprograms, The Education Policy callsfor developir, a program that willattract greats numbers of morecapable students to technical andvocational studies and will providestudents in general studies withmore marketable skills. The newprogram wil. integrate technical/occupational and general studies sothat all students will receive amore comprehensive and diversified

89


education. Graduates will then hat'the broad background necessary toenter a wider variety of specializedstudies at various higher education.institutions. Moreover, those whoseek immediate employment will possessa broader range of marketable skills.While the new policy does not set outa detailed plan for establishing sucha program, it does mention severalspecific reforms:

Technical and occupationalcourses (such as teacher education,distributive education, electronics,and agriculture) will be added tothe general stream at both thesecondary and intermediate stages.

An integrated science course(including mathematics and biologicaland physical sciences) will be offer-ed to all students in all streams.

Matriculation Certificates inindustrial arts and agriculture andIntermediate Certificates in indus-trial arts, agriculture, and homeeconomics will be awarded.

Evaluation.--Although the annualexaminations through grade 9 havebeen eliminated, the decisive exami-natioranow given at the end of grades10 and 12 will be continued at leastfor the present. The new policyindicates, however, that a differentevaluation system eventually must bedeveloped. More recent discussionsindicate a greater role for class-room teachers in the evaluationprocess. One specific suggestionbeing considered is that the finalexams be continued, but that they beused to determine only 60 percent ofthe students' grades and that teachers'evaluations be used for the remain-ing 40 percent. 6

90

TEACHER EDUCATION

Current System

There are at present 12 teacher-

training colleges acrd a tota: of 55normal schools and teacher-traininginstitutes. Most of these schoolsare not coeducational.

Teachers for the elementary grades(1-8) are trained in 1-year programsat either normal schools or teacher-training institutes. These programsinclude introductory courses in ped-agogy--e.g., educational psychology,learning theory, and teaching methods--as well as a 4-month period ofpractice teaching.

Normal schools accept holders ofthe Matriculation Certificate receiv-ed at the end of grade 10. Studentswho successfully complete the programat these schools are awarded aJunior Vernacular Certificate andare eligible for teaching positionsin the primary schools (grades 1-5).

At the next level are the teacher-training institutes. Students whopass the grade 12 final examinationleading to an Intermediate Certificateare eligible for admission. Institutegraduates receive the Senior Vernac-ular Certificate, which qualifiesthem for teaching positions in themiddle schools (grades 6-8).

Teacher-training colleges requirea barhf,lor's degree for admission.The r program leads to a Licen-tia- .eacher's Certificate, whichenables its holders to teach in thesecondary schools (grades 9 and 10).

Teachers completing any of theseprograms may take further studyleading to higher credentials througha system of external examinationsoffered by many of the universities.

Finally, to qualify to teach inthe intermediate colleges, a fulluniversity degree (received after 4years of schooling beyond the Inter-


mediate Certificate) is required. Noadditional training is necessary forteaching courses related to a fieldof specialization.

Higher degrees in education areoffered at the Institute of Educationat Lahore and in several universities.The minimum requirement for entranceis a bachelor's degree. Three degreesare available: A B.Ed., requiring1 year of study; a MEd., requiring2 years; a Ph.D., requiring 3 yearsof independent study and researchafter the master's. Study at theselevels emphasizes educational theoryand philosophy and is heavily research-oriented. There are no practiceteaching components in any of theprograms.

Policy Guidelines

A continuing issue concerningeducation in Pakistan is the acuteshortage of adequately trained teach-ers. It is estimated by the framersof the new policy that implementationof the reforms they have suggestedwill require an additional 2,35C,000elementary and secondary schoolteachers and 3,000,000 adult andcontinuing education instructorsduring the next 8 years. The exist-ing teacher education system has thecapacity to produce only 1,040,000during this period. In order tomeet the expected demand, The Educa-tion Poky proposed the followingactions:

Teacher education be introducedas a subject of study at the secon-dary, intermediate, and bachelor'slevels. Students who,pass thissubject on their Matriculation Certif-icate, Intermediate Certificate, orbachelor's degree examinations willbe eligible to teach in primary,middle, and secondary schools respec-tively without any further training.

It is anticipated that in the next 8years an additional 75,000 teacherswill be added to the system Lnroughthis arrangement.

e The Government establish aNational Literacy Corps, drawingpersonnel from both locally availableunemployed persons (such as retiredcivil servants and exservicemen) anduniversity and college students whoare members of the National ServiceCorps. 7 It is expected that another75,000 teachers will be added to thesystem through this program.

o An effort be made to recruitmore women into the teaching profes-sion, especially at the primary schoollevel. It is hoped that the presenceof more women teachers at this levelwill make Muslim parents less reluc-tant to send their daughters to school.In order to prepare women for suchpositions, some of the existing normalschools and teacher-training instituteswill be converted from men's schoolsto women's. In addition, basic aca-demic and training qualifications forwomen will, when necessary, be relaxedto insure that more women can enterthe system.

Specific actions be taken toimprove the prestige and financialstatus of teachers. Among the mostimportant are (1) establishing aliberal sabbatical leave policy thatwill provide full pay for teacherswilling to undertake further trainingwithin the country, (2) constructingrent-free houses for teachers, and(3) adjusting salaries to raise thepay scale of teachers to the levelof their counterparts in otherGovernment services.

91

International/Intercultural Education\ Reports\

\HIGHER EDUCATION

The Current System

There are currently eight univer-sities in Pakistan--six offeringstudy in a broad range of fields andtwo offering specialized studies.The former include the University ofBaluchistan in Quetto, the Universityof Islamabad in Rawalpindi, the Uni-versity of Karachi in Karachi, theUniversity of the Panjab in Lahore,the University of Peshawar in Pesha-war, and the University of Sind inHyderabad. The specialized institu-tions are the Agricultural Univer-sity in Lyallpur and the Universityof Engineering and Technology inLenore. The oldest, the Universityof the Panjab, was founded in 1862.

In addition, there are 280 collegesthat have 2- and 4-year programsleading to the bachelor's and mas-ter's degrees respectively. Each

these institutions is affiliatedwith a university which exercisessupervisory control over it. Thesesupervising universities set curric-ular and personnel. standards, admin-ister all examinations, and awardall degrees and diplomas for theiraffiliates.

The nominal head of a universityis the chancellor who is the Govern-

/or of a Province. The chief admin-istrator, however, is the vicechancellor, who is appointed by thechancellor in all universities exceptthe University of Islamabad (wherehe is appointed by the Central Govern-ment). The vice chancellor presidesover the University Senate, composedof the representatives from both thefaculty and the various prOfessions,and chairs the smaller ExecutiveCouncil or Syndicate. The Senatemeets several times a year to discussmajor policy matters such as thebudget, while the Executive Council

92

determines tuition, appoints faculty,sets and administers examinations,and handles the day-to-day adminis-tratiVe chores.

The Central Government providesthe major portion of funding forhigher education, and, in recentyears, has been heavily involved ininternal university affairs. Onnumerous occasions this involvementhas been viewed by students andfaculty as a threat to universityautonomy and some friction betweenthe Central Government and thesegroups has resulted.

At present, the Pakistan systemof higher education enrolls only 2percent of the appropriate age group(18-21), a figure substantiallylower than that found for most othercountries in the region. Moreover,as in the secondary and intermediatestages, most students in higher edu-cation institutions are enrolled inprograms in the arts (in the univer-sities--80 percent; in the affiliatedcolleges--60 percent).

To enter a university or one ofits affiliated colleges, a studentmust possess an Intermediate Certifi-cate. Only students who receiveFirst, Second, or high Third Classgrades on the grade 12 final examina-tion leading to this certificate arelikely to be admitted. Admission tothe professional colleges and univer-sity faculties. (such as those ofmedicine and engineering) is moreselective, as many require applicantsto sit for competitive entranceexaminations.

The universities and collegesoffer programs leading to bachelor'sand master's degrees in the arts andscience fields. Generally, the B.A.and B.Sc. degrees require 2 years ofcourse work, and the M.A. and M.Sc.,an additional 2 years. To earn aPh.D., a student must completeapproximately 3 years of research


and independent study in a specificfield beyond the master's degree.

Technical educat4.on at the uni-versity level is offered in the twospecialized institutions previouslymentioned and in a number of tech-nical and agriculthral colleges.Similar degrees ars: offered in theseprograms.

Policy Guidelines

The Education Poticy includes a

number of specific recommendationsaimed at increasing the effectivenessof higher education and, at the sametime, extending opportunities forhigher study to a b1,-)ader segment ofthe population. It also announcesseveral important reforms designedto strengthen and expand higher tech-nical studies and establishes anational body to coordinate univer-sity reform and development.

Quantitative expansion.--The newpolicy calls for providing 100,000additional places in higher educationinstitutions by 1980 in order toincrease the enrollment ratio atthis level to 3 percent. The speci-fic steps proposed to achieve thisgoal include the following:

New universities be establishedin regions of the country wherecurrently none exists. Initial siteswill be Multan in the Panjab, SaiduSharif in the Northwest Frontier,and Sukkur in Sind.

e A number of existing collegesbe converted into full-fledged uni-versities beginning with JamiaIslamia, in Bahawalpur.

The University of. Islamabadadd undergraduate (bachelor's-degree)facilities.

Specialized colleges and theAgricultural University at Lyallpur

expand their programs to includecourses in other subject fields.

Qualitative improvements.--Toproduce the high level manpowerrequired for national developmentand to foster greater national co-hesion, certain qualitative improve-ments will be introduced.

The new policy directs itself firstto eliminating imbalance in univer-sity enrollments between the fieldsof arts and of science. Restrictionswill be placed on enrollments infaculties in the arts so that theannual increase will not exceed 5percent. On the other hand, facultiesin the sciences will be allowed toincrease their annual enrollments ata rate of 10 percent each year. Inaddition, programs in commerce andhome economics will accept 100 and50 more students per year respectively.In the affiliated colleges, enroll-ments in technology aid science willbe expanded so that, by 1980, 40 per-cent of the student body will bestudying in technical fields and 30percent in the sciences. To providethe necessary facilities for theseprograms, science curriculums willbe developed in all colleges wherenone currently exists and all tech-nical and occupation courses will beupgraded to bachelor's-degree status.

To make teaching and researchpositions in the universities moreattractive, two special programs willbe initiated. "National Professor-ships" will be instituted so-that themost highly qualified scholarsandscientists can continue their:workas teachers and researchers at asalary level that comparOs favorablywith the highest administrativeposts. Hopefully, this will reversethe previous tendency for suchscholars and teachers to seek admin-istrative positions in order to im-prove their income. Moreover,"National Research Fellowships" will

93


be awarded to encourage outstandingscholars and scientists to continuetheir study and research efforts.Universities and other institutionsof higher education will be grantedspecial funds so that they, in turn,will be able to provide such indi-viduals with the facilities theyneed for their work.

Another major initiative outlinein The Education Paicy is establish-ment of the University Grants Commis-sion. The Commission's major fun-ctions will be to coordinate theprograms and expansion of the univer-sity system and thus eliminate dup-lication and wastage; and to channelCentral Government funds to the variousinstitutions. Among its initialtasks will be to determine, in con-sultation with the staffs of thevarious universities, the subjects ofspecialization for the "Centers ofExcellenceto be established in theuniversities (see discussion follow-ing). More generally, it will serveas a buffer between the CentralGovernment and the university admin-istration, thus preserving institut-ional autonomy.

For the same objective, the newpolicy directs repeal of the Univer-sity Ordinances, which have servedas the basis of much of the CentralGovernment's involvement in theinternal affairs of the universities.These Ordinances will be replaced by"enlightened and progressive legis-lation that will democratize theworking of the universities andensure full participation by therepresentatives of teachers, studentsand parents in their affairs."

A number of other actions areannounced that are designed to fur-ther qualitative improvements:

"Centers of Excellence" areto be created in various universitiesto develop a high level of special-ization in certain scientific, tech-

94

nical, and agricultural fields. TheseCenters, whose cost will be borne bythe Central Government, will be openon the basis of merit to gifted stu-dents from parts of the country.

"Area Study Centers" and "Pakis-tan Study Centers" will be establishedin many of the institutions. Theformer will concentrate on advancedstudy and research on contemporarysocieties, particularly those ofspecial national interest to Pakistan.The latter will focus on the lan-guages and _.literature of the differentregions of the country.

Undergraduate programs in allinstitutions will include coursesdesigned to enable individuals fromone region to understand the languageand literature, social structure andcustoms, attitudes and motivationsof people in other parts of thecountry.

A National Institute of Pakis-tan Studies will be established atIslamabad University "for researchand post-graduate studies of thelanguage, literature and culture ofthe people of Pakistan."

ADULT EDUCATION

Current System

Adult education programs inPakistan have addressed for the mostpart the problem of illiteracy.While many of these efforts havebeen substantial, they have oftenlacked a stable organizational baseand, therefore, have been unable togenerate the sustained programsneeded to have'an effective impacton the target populations.

The most significant of theseattempts was initiated in the fiftiesas part of the Central Government's

Pakistan's New Education Policy:: 1972-1980

Village Agricultural and Industrial)rogram. Under its auspices, anumber of literacy schools, wereconstructed in rural areas. Theywere staffed with specially trainedteachers who utili%ed material pre-pared with UNESCO assistance specif-ically for adult illiterates. Inadditiori, literacy programs havebeen conducted in local mosques andin traditional Islamic schools.

Although enrollment in such lit-eracy PrograMs grew considerably inthe sixties, the overall illiteracyrate in Pakistan increased from 86to 90 percent since independence in1947.

Policy Guidelines

The. Education PoZicy outlines anew program more extensive in scopethan any past efforts. As before,the major thrust of this effort willbe directed toward the rural popula-tion, particularly rural women.These centers will be staffed byteachers specially trained in inten-sive, short courses and by membersof the National Literacy Corps (seethe section on Teacher. Education).By 1980, it is expected that 276,000literacy centers will have been es-tablished in schools, factories,union council halls, and variouscommunity centers throughout thecountry, and that training will havebeen provided to more than 11 millionilliterates.

A second major adult educationeffort announced in the policy is acontinuing education program design-ed to introduce individuals to thenew technology and skills needed intheir careers. Initially, prioritywill be given to programs for fac-tory workers, farmers, unemployedyouth, and rural women. Among thesethe largest number of centers willbe established for women "seeking

to become better housewives byequipping themselves with the artsof reading the Holy Quran and withskills such as sewing, knitting,embroidery, child care, nutrition,poultry keeping, etc."

The new policy indicates that theCentral Government expects both theliteracy and continuing educationprograms to be supported to someextent by local volunteers and byprivate agencies. To encouragesuch cooperation, moreover, the

Central Government will undertake anationwide "motivational campaign"utilizing the mass media.

Finally, continuing educationopportunities will be offered on apart-time basis in a People's OpenUniversity. This institution ini-tially will offer a program to enableindividuals to gain elementary schoolteachers' credentials through a com-bination of correspondence courses,tutorials, seminars, workshops, andtelevision and radio programming.

OTHER REFORMS

Several additional important re-forms outlined in The. Education Poe-icy can be only briefly mentionedhere. First, extensive efforts willbe made to enhance the general Wel-fare of students. The most importantof these include awarding a greatnumber of merit scholarships; grant-ing interest-free loans to needystudents, especially those enrolledin professional institutions; estab-lishing book banks in universitiesand colleges where texts can be bor-rowed free for stipulated periods;providing low-cost transportationfacilities and free medical checkups;and improving and expanding specialeducation programs for the handi-

a,

capped;+.

95


Second, a National Service Corpswill be created which all IntermediateCertificate holders between the ages17 and 23 will be encouraged to joinfor a period of 1 year. In additionto military training, the volunteerswill have an opportunity to work insocial action programs. Incentiveswill include a monthly honorarium, auniform allowance, and preferencefor admission to institutions ofhigher education and for selectionfor jobs in both the public andprivate sectors.

CONCLUSION

The Education PotLcy is an ambi-tious document, and may be viewed asindicative of the aspirations of theGovernment of Pakistan for dramaticimprovement in education opportunitu-nities in Pakistan. The degree towhich specific reforms can be imple-mented is a subject for furtherobservation and analysis. However,President Zulfigar Ali Bhuttorecently pointed out in a pressconference that during his adminis-tration he has been most pleased withthe implementation of the new policy.An impressive beginning has at leastbeen made.

FOOTNOTES

1Unless indicated otherwise in

a footnote, all quotations and sta-tistics in this article may be found.In: Government of Pakistan, Ministryof Education. The Education Pot icy1972-1980'. 1972.

2The full text of this regula-

tion may be found in The EducationPoticy 1972-1980. pp. 43-45.

96

3 A recent article points outthat "out of every 100 students thatenter Class I [grade 1] only 38 reachClass V." Anthony Lobo, "Teach More,Spend Less," Pain Stan EducationReview. 1972. p. 80. While thisdata apparently represents the sit-uation in the mid-sixties, there isconcern among many Pakistan educators'that in more recent years the drop-out rate has been even higher.

4 In a report published in theUrdu daily, Jang, Nov. 12, 1972, itwas announced that the ProvincialAssembly of Sind had passed a res-olution allowing both Urdu and Sindito be used in the schools at thislevel.

5 Many of the intermediatecolleges and special comprehensiveschools now wholly or substantiallyfunded by the Central Governmentwill be designated schools for thegifted and talented. Students willbe selected on the basis of meritfor these schools and will not berequired to pay any fees. The

eventual aim of the Government isto establish at least one suchresidential school in each district.

6Personal communications with

Pakistan educational officials.

7 For a brief discussion of theNational Service Corps, see thesection on "Other Reforms."

8 At present less than 30 percentof elementary teachers are women.

9 The Deve4pment o6. Education inPakistan. Government of Pakistan,

Ministry of Science and Research.Islamabad: 1971. p..12.


SELECTED READINGS

Ahmed, Aziz. Iaamic Mode4niom inIndian and Pakisan, 1857-1964.London: Oxford University Press,1967.

Bhutto, Zulfiqar Ali. The Myth o6Independence. London: Oxford Univer-sity Press, 1969.

Binder, Leonard. Religion andPaiticz in Pakiz tan. Berkeley:University of California Press, 1963.

Curle, Adam. Educational PubZem4o6 Deoetoping Societim. New York:Praeger Special Studies in Inter-national Development, 1969.

. Harming 6o/f Education inPakistan. A Peuonat Case Study.Cambridge: Harvard University Press,1966.

Government of Pakistan. FiAzt Five-VeaA Han, 1955-1960.

. Second Five-yeah P-Lan,1960-1965.

1970.. Thind-Five-Vean Han, 1965-

Ministry of Education.Cuvficutum !on Rt.i.maify Schoot2 iPPaWtan. 1960.

. The Education.Pot icy 1972 -1980. 1972.

Finzt EdacationatConk/fence Repot. 1947.

. ;

POaCy. 1970.

. The New Educationat

. Repo/ft o6 the Com-

mizzion on National Education. 1959.

mizzion onWe4ane.

Culf/ficutum

Education.

. Repoitt oti the. Com-

Student lkobZemz and1964.

Repo/it o6.theCommittee bon Secondary1960.

Ikram, S.M. and Percival Spear, eds.The Catmat Heititage o6 Pakatan.London: Oxford University Press,

1955.

Myrdal, Gunnar. A.5Lan 0/Lama, 3 vols.

New York: Random House, 1968.

Nurulla,Syed and J.P. Naik. Hiistoity

o6 Education in India., rev. ed.

London: Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1951.

Papenek, Gustav Fritz. Pa12,bstan'

. Devetopment. Cambridge: Harvard

University Press, 1967.

97


U.S. AND FRENCH EDUCATION: SOME

REFLECTIONS OF A FRENCH JOURNALIST

CLAUDE GAMB1E2 i4

the education edit-oft o6 the Pani,siandaLey Le Figa/to.

He ha, made twopnoiceisisionat tnip

to the UnitedState's, one in Sep-tembek 1971 az awanking ftepontek

with the pAmekFrench Education

Minizten aeivien Guichand and theothe,'L in Apnit. 1972 az a panticipant

in the Intennational Vizitanz pftognamo6 the U.S. Depafttment o6 State. A6enie4 a4 attic-Ea on hips impne/s6ion4a6 Amenican education appeared inliate 1972 i66uez o6 Le Figao_. M.

Gambiez *az az() written Guide Mane.Votke En6ant a VEcae Matcnnette

erFliaine, and hoe the poisition

(16 Vice Pnaident with both the A660-ciation de's Jounnatizte's Univenzit-aine4 and the A66aciation Pne46 In-

lionmation jeunes6e.

When I returned in the beginningof May from my second trip to theUnited States, France Ti7as experi-encing a kind of revolution in itsschool life. Olivier Guichard, thenMinister of National Education, hadjust decided that the weekly holidayfor French school children wouldhenceforth be on Wednesday and not,as tradition had had it, on Thursday.

This somewhat minor happeninghelped me to understand the essential

98

difference between the American andFrench systems of education. The Amer-ican system is liberal and decentral-ized and is founded on the principleof local autonomy; ours is authoritar.-ian and super-centralized to enableit to respond to the fundamentalprinciple of the equality of allFrench citizens, a principle whichhas become dogmatized and reinforcedby many years of administrative prac-tice.

In America--and I am convinced ofthis because I saw examples of itmyself--so minor a problem wouldhave been resolved within an hour bythe administrative councils of theindividual schools or local schoolboards. And very likely they wouldhave taken the initiative for such achange in the first place. In France,this would not be the case. In acountry where public education hasfor many years been more highly devel-oped than private education morethan 10 million pupils are enrolledin public education and only 2 millionin private), such a decision would ofnecessity take on a binding and na-tional character.

To change the Thursday holiday,not only had it been necessary tohave long consultations with parentsand teachers but also to have a fulldebate on the subject by the Councilof Ministers in the presence of thePresident of the Republic. This isillustrative of the rigidity of oureducational system and of the dif-ficulties which impede its evolution.It is a result, very likely, of theweight of cultural tradition inEurope and especially in France.

Quite possibly, Americans will re-act with surprise at the suggestionthat the French school children needa day of rest in the middle of theweek. They should be told that this

is made necessary by the fact thatthe students' academic programs areoverloaded--from 29 to 40 hours per.-,sek plus homework, and this exces-sive load is not relieved by suchindispensible activities as sportsand recreation. The French schoolchild, intellectually the most"occupied" in the world, has asmuch work in school as his parentsdo at the office or factory. As ayoung American who was attendingschool in Paris once said to me,"The eqcee is a prison:"

It was Montaigne who said, "It ispreferable to have a well-formedhead than a well-filled one" (Mieuxvain une tOte bier que bienpeeine), and in this, his nativeland, our heads are brimming over!From the 16th century on, we havebeen content simply to repeat thiswise maxim without ever putting itinto effect, while nost of ourEuropean neighbors and Anglo-Saxonfriends have been doing just theopposite. No one is a prophet inhis own land.

The case of the Thursday holidayrepresents also the "psychologicalblocks" which slow down the pace ofour educational system's evolution.Every effort that is made to loosenthe system somewhat, to give a cer-tain autonomy to individual schools,comes up against this obstacle.Frenchmen do not like to change theirways, and the new and the unknown area source.of anxiety and fear. Andabove all, in their mind educationalautonomy would result in the abandon-ment of certain principles to whichthey are deeply committed: The guar-anty of equality of instruction that.all of our public institutions cannow offer since they must all reflectthe standards of a national model,and the prestige and value that na-tionally recognized diplomas givethroughout the country. A considerable

U.S. and French Education; SomeReflections of a French Journalist

amount of time will have to pass be-fore people's attitudes change.

I am aware of the fact, and it isfreely admitted, that in the UnitedStates, too, there are comparableblockages and the same uneasinessface to face with what is new. Butthe big difference is that this doesnot stop the process of change. Whena modification of some kind is plan-ned (be it related to curriculum,methodological experimentatiOn, orsome more general aspect of schoollife), it is discussed and a decisionis quickly made. Innovation is notdelayed by the3pecter of having thewhole scholastic system placed inquestion should the desired goals notbe attained. The excitement, the rich-ness, and the variety of Americaneducational experimentation bear elo-quent witness to this fact.

There is another significant dif-.ference. Decisions are made on a levelwhere those most directly affectedcan be involved -as the Thursday holi-day decision was not. Local autonomyallows parents and teachers to workeffectively together toward a commoneducational goal. Here, everythingcomes "from on high" and is appliedadministratively to the local situa-tion for better or for worse. Onlyprivate schools, which are less re-stricted in their initiatives, havethe reas3nable possibility of organi-zing themselves into true "education-al communities". And even they must

follow the state curriculums sincetheir pupils must take state-con-trolled examinations to obtainofficial national diplomas.

The psychological blocks surfaceagain and quite seriously in the areaof technical education. As heir to along tradition of deep humanisticculture, French education was intend-ed for an elite. Despite the de 6aCtodemocratization of the schools thathas been in progress since the 19th

99


century, French education has notbeen able to rid itself completely ofthis orientation. The "classical"and"modern" tracks of the upper secon-dary school are still designed forthe children of middle class orwealthy families, while the techni-cal education absorbs large numbersof the children from more modestlevels of society.

It is not without significancethat technical and academic educationare still physically separated. In

France, there are very few schoolsthat are truly "polyvalent" andprovide, as in America, both generaland vocational education. And therehas been very little experience withthe elective system, which is ingeneral usage on the other side ofthe Atlantic.

These two kinds of education arealso kept quite distinct on the high-er education level. While in the

.United States higher technical educa-tion is offered at the university inspecialized institutes or collegesafter several yearS of general educa-tion, in France itis offered in theG/Landez Ecolez, which are highlyselective, typically French institu-tions outside the university system.In the scientific fields, the univer-sity trains only professors and re-searchers and has set up only a lim-ited number of engineering institutes.

100

On the middle levels cf education,one must admit that our system stillrepresents a certain form of "educa-tion by social class." PierreBillecocq, former Secrt_tary of Statefor Education, expressed the situa-tion rather accurately when he said,"In the mind of most Frenchmen,technical education is for otherpeople's children."Unfortunately, theefforts he has made to promote tech-nical education represented especial-ly by the Orientation Laws* which hehad passed in 1971 to reform andrenew technical education, have notyet borne fruit. Families have notyet understood the advantages ofconsciously choosing this kind ofeducation even though it offersgreater job opportunities than tra-ditional education, whose "royalways" lead often to vocational deadends, despite their intrinsic value.

France--and its citizens--mustcreate a new technological humanism.How it responds to this challengewill determine, in the final analysis,whether or not its education willsurvive.

*Ed.See Raymond E. Wanner's "A FrenchApproach to Career Education," in thesection "wlucation for Career Develop-ment."

ORGANIZATION FOR REHABILITATION

THROUGH 1RAINING (ORT): A

WORLDWIDE PROGRAM

TIMOTHY KING is

Ch Leh o6 the Facit-

: itative SenviceASection in the In-istitute oiS IrLtert-nationaL Studiez.One Oilctionthis 'section 4:4 to

pan itinuLakiez6ok viziting edu-

ca_to)L4 Plom atepoi, oi the woVtd.

Ki4became tnteke6ted in ORT

when ptoviamming viAit0AZ morn theGloried ORT Union, and ta4t zummekited -the 'z. headquakteu in Geneva.

He keceived hiis B.A. in Spanah OLom

the Univuusity q the Amekicaz in

Mexico. Ftuent in Spani/sh and FAench,

he ha's taken MuMehota gkaduate COCA'S-

m in the 6ietd o6 language's and

tinguisticz.

In the spring of 1970, the Ameri-can ORT Federation asked the U. S.

Office of Education to make arrange-ments for the visit of a team of ORTofficials from Israel interested inthe latest developments in vocationaland technical education. OE's Insti-tute of International Studies, whichplans such visits for many foreign

educators, observed that this groupcaused more initial puzzlement thanmost. U. S. educators who receivedthe group frequently asked, "What is

ORT?" Such a reaction seems surpris-ing and argues for broader dissemin-ation of information about ORT,

because OFT is not only one of the

International Currents

largest vocational training organi-zations in the world, but has beenoperating long enough to have recent-ly celebrated its 90th anniversary.

It all began in Russia in 1880,when a Jewish industrialist peti-tioned Czar Alexander II for permis-sion to create a fund to aid thoseJews who were unable to qualifyfor skilled employment. A circularletter, sent out to thousands ofcommunities throughout the country,brought in innumerable small dona-tions,resulting in the establishmentof a fund td promote handicrafts,industry, and agriculture among theJews. A charter of organizations waseventually granted to the founders,who used the funds to establishschools, courses for 'apprentices,and traveling workshops. The namethey gave this foundation,translatedinto English many years later, became"Organization for Rehabilitationthrough Training.,l'or ORT.

During World War I, when hundredsof thousands of Jews were uprootedand lost their means of livelihood,ORT began to offer assistance to thedisplaced and the oppressed in theprogram of "relief through work"that was to play a central part inits activities for several decades.

Refugees who already possessed skillswere placed in workshops, whileothers were enrolled in crash train-

ing programs. Special instructorsand teachers were prepared, and pro-fessional staff accompanied theevacuees on the road and helped themto resettle in new lands.

The movement continued to spread,and a meeting of-representatives fromeight countries, held in Berlin in1921,1ed to the establishment of theWorld ORT Union, consisting of 54affiliates in Eastern Europe, nine inWestern Europe, and one in the UnitedStates. With support coming from

101


concerned individuals and organiza-tions in many countries, ORT under-

took a greatly expanded program of

vocational training, serving about500,000 people between the two WorldWars.

In 1933 ORT's first programs were

established in Germany. Doctors,lawyers, civil servants, and business-men no longer permitted to engage intheir professions were trained inoccupations. that either were essen-tial to the German economy and thusmight allow them to remain in

Germany, or could help to begin anew life when they emigrated. Duringthe next decade, classes and work-shops were set up in France, Canada,the United States, Switzerland,Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Uruguay,Cuba, and even China. Many who wereunable to flee survived the purgesbecause of their participation in

ORT's activities.When the war in Europe ended in

1945, veteran ORT workers were amongthe first to enter areas that hadbeen under Nazi domination, coopera-ting with the United National Reliefand Rehabilitation Agency (UNRRA)

and other agencies. By the end of1947, they had established a networkof courses in all of the displacedpersons camps of Europe, with over22,000 people enrolled in 50 pro-grams. Because immigration opportu-nities in many countries were limitedto persons possessing skills that

could contribute to development, theORT diploma, recognized by all

governments, became known as a "pass-

port to freedom."In 1949,the largest ORT program

was located in Germany; today it is

in Israel. The network of secondaryschools and technical institutesestablished in that country has beena major factor in its rapid indus-

trial and technical development.Many programs begun by ORT primarily

102

to train displaced persons and

refugees have been'replaced by per-manent ORT school systems in manyparts of the world. :Mile the orig-inal emphasis was on adults and olderpersons, the backbone of the programis now the 3- and 4-year specializedsecondary vocational schools withrelated courses in the sciences,humanities, and cultural subjects.Postsecondary technical institutesand community colleges are also beingadded. And these institutions arekeeping up with the times by introduc-ing audiovisual aids including pro-grammed instruction, television,

and computers.This change over the years in the

philosophy of ORT programs towardsbroader and more advanced trainingwas ably expressed at the 90th Anni-versary Congress of ORT in Geneva in1970, by the President of the WorldORT Union, Dr. William Haber:

The ORT idea was conceived in an age that has

vanished. It took root in the soil of necessity

and spread and grew as It found strength and men

and women who understood its mission....

... And when we in ORT speak of education, we

mean much more than vocational and techtical

training. We seek not to forget that man is

more, much more, than an element of manpower.

We seek to provide the rich culture which is the

byproduct of any good education, even when its

central focus is vocational and technical....

We have eliminated the image of ORT as schools

for the poor, who have no other place to go. The

new technology and the opportunities that are

linked to it are sciencebased, demanling a broad,

comprehemive fund of knowledge....

Nowhere is the implementation ofORT's new philosophy more apparentthan in Israel. In 1969 an agreementwas signed with the Hebrew Universityto set up an ORT Engineering Schoolon the Jerusalem campus that wouldturn out both engineers and techni-

cians. At the same time, four addi-tional postsecondary centers were

established in other parts of thecountry. Also during the same year,in Buenos Aires an ORT ComputerScience- Center was inaugurated --the first in ORT and the first ofits kind in Latin America.

To produce the kinds of teachersneeded to carry out these programsaround the world, the Central ORTInstitute was established in 1949 atAnieres, Switzerland. The first

experimental class of 62 young menfrom 12 countries was graduated thatsame year, ahl its members becamekey instructors and administratorsin ORT programs. Today, after apreparatory year at the Institute, afuture teacher technician may beassigned to the Geneva Institute forHigher Technical Studies, from whichhe would graduate with a Swissdiploma.

Successful in establishing schoolsand in training teachers and techni-cians, ORT has entered the area oftechnical assistance. The AnieresInstitute has set up training pro-

grams for persons from countries in-cluding Argentina, Brazil, Iran,

Ivory Coast, and Uruguay. A strongemphasis is placed on teachers

developing their own teachingmaterials and audiovisual aids frominexpensive sources. Under contractwith the Agency for InternationalDevelopment, the Institute has keenthe headquarters for briefing staffmembers assigned to U.S. Governmentprojects in West Africa and hasoffered training courses for thePeace Corps.

ORT educators have not only as-sisted agencies from other countries,

but have also sought exchange of

ideas with them concerning career

training. For instance, in November1971, the American ORT Federationasked OE's Institute of International

Organization for Rehabilitation ThroughTraining (ORT) A Worldwide Program

Studies to plan an itinerary for agroup of ORT educators and adminis-

trators from Switzerland, France, andIran. They concentrated orb programsoriented towards career training,including the career education modelin Hackensack, N.J. A statement fromthe team's final report on the trip

contains some interesting observa-tions on the contemporary scene:

Everywhere...the team came to understand the

true meaning of the expression to Iarmta young

man life. In the same way that a battleship

is armed to win through the most turbulent en

counters, these young people are truly 'armed?,

with the end that they will be able to overcome

all the difficulties they may meet in profession

al life. When it is remembered that within the

span of a mulls life he has to reorientate him

self at least three times, the importence of

career education, a concept which, happ.,1y, is

spreading more and more throughout the U.S.A.,

can be measured. Europe has been slower in

accepting it But this same mobility is a

positive factor in social and coon( c progress.

ORT has had experience with careerdevelopment in every major area,

beginning with training tor agri-culture and the most basic trades andmoving on through skills training forlight and heavy industry to preparingtechnicians and engineers.

One particularly notable aspectof ORT programs is their adaptabil-ity. ORT has continuously adjustedits educational programs to the needsboth of the participants and of thesocieties in which it has operated,even during the most sudden andextreme changes brought about by warand disaster. ORT administratorshave conducted detailed surveys oflocal economic and manpower needsbefore setting up training programs.Available local materials have beenutilized to the fullest extentpossible to avoid the high cost ofimported machinery and equipment.

103

International/Intercultural Education Resorts

Also of significance is the cul-tural content of ORT programs. Whileimparting the necessary career skillsand providing a good general educa-

tional background, ORT has managedto integrate groups of differingcultural backgrounds into the eco-nomic and social life of many coun-tries without diluting the culturalheritage of these groups. Many of

its students have come from condi-

tions of great poverty in urbanghettos or isolated rural areas,

and the ORT schools have been likea new world to them. Others havecome from different language back-grounds, and they needed to be

taught the cultural and sociallanguage of the country of whichthey were to be a part.

Thus, over the years ORT has devel-oped considerable expertise in prepar-ing people to communicate and workeffectively in a new cultural environ-ment. The exchange of ideas betweenAmerican educators and those workingwith ORT programs might well be re-ciprocal. From ORT's long experiencethere is much to btu learned that ispertinent to developing a career

dimension in edication in this coun-try and around the world.

FOOTNOTES

1. Okt: 1880-1970. A report on the90th Anniversary Congress of ORT in

Geneva, Nov. 14-18, 1970. pp. 31-38.

104

2. Ammtca, vedmation Study

Mizzion. A :eport on the studmission sponsored by the HebrewTechnical Institute, Nov.7-27, 1971.p. 7.

SELECTED READINGS

Amekican ORT Fedenation StudyMi6ZiOH. A. report on the studymission sponsored by the HebrewTechnical Institute,Nov. 7-27, 1971.

Belding, Robert E. "A Private Train-ing Mission in Isrea]," Schootand Soule y. Summer 1972.

100:2342:319-21.

New Yonk Timm. Jan. 21, 1973, p. 5.

ORT Yznaet. Tel Aviv: [c. 1969].

ORT: 1880-1970. A report on the90th Anniversary Congress of ORT inGeneva, Nov. 14-18, 1970.

ORT 90th Annivenzwuj Veakbook 1970.1970. .

Radel-, Jack. By the SkLU oU The-inHands: The Stony o6 ORT. New York:Women's American ORT CommunityService Publications, 1970.

Women's American ORT. The 1-1,1:ghat

Step: The Stony o ()omen's AmmuAnORT. New York: n.d.

International Currents

NOItSANA

COMMAS

MARY PROCTOR haA

been a wpmApeciatiAt in theInteknationat Ongan-izationA Manch o6the InAtituteIntetnationat Stu-dieA Aince 1970.She neceived hetB.A. in intetna-tionat netationis

6/19m the Univeuityos CatiOnnia at Baketey, and took2 yeas c),6 gtadUate study in joutnat-izm at Ametican Univuoity. Hetiono6ezzionat pozitionis in the intek-nationat netatioliA Aietd inctude:Stati6 member 06 the Senate FoteignRetation4 Committee, wtitek Son QRULnadio in New Yank, inPAmation o66i-cek with UNESCO, and inteknationatticaison ApeciatiAt with the Mato timeAdminattation.

NOTE: Invitations to conferences, meetings, sem

inars, and workshops convened by such intergovern

mental organizations as OECD, OAS, and those in

the UN usually are extended to participating Gcv

ernment representatives and other selected officials

or experts. Information about such events may ue

obtained from the organizations' headquarters.

THE TOKYO CONFERENCE ONADULT EDUCATION

Ways in which adult education cancontribute to economic, social, andcultural development in today'sworld were the primary topics at theThird International Conference onAdult Education this summer inTokyo. The Conference, hosted jointlyby the Government of Japan and the

Japanese National ConunissionUNESCO, was the third in a seri of

UNESCO conferences on adult ut.o.(a-

tion that began in 1949 at Elsinoreand convened again in 1960 at Mon-treal.

Over 300 conferees participated,representing individual nations,nongovernmental organizations, andinternational organizations. Theconference reviewed 53 national re-ports on adult education, examinedtrends in adult educatio6 during thelast decade, and anticipated theprospects for adult education as afactor to improving the quality oflife in both developing and devel-oped countries. The conference aimedat identifying suitable ways ofdeveloping, within the framework ofoverall educational systems, adulteducation that would prepare peopleto meet changing situations through-out their lives. In-depth workingsessions covered planning, adminis-tration, and financing of adulteducation; use of communicationmedia; coc-r.erative programs; andmobilizat-ion and training of person-nel.

In respom - to its experience atthe Confereitc the U.S. delegationsuggested that the United States un-dertake extensive follow-up activi-ties in reviewing the programs ofother nations and in effecting in-

tellectual cooperation and informa-tion exchanges with other countries.

Delegates also suggested that UNESCOgive priority attention to adulteducation, sponsor conferences atmore frequent intervals, and supple-ment conferences with regional meet-ings in which information, plans,and research can be shared.

The Conference report is avail-able from the United Nations Publi-cations Sales Section (UNIPUB), Box433, New York, N.Y. 10017. TheUnited States' report to the Confer-

105

International/Intercultural Education.Reports

ence, Peupectiva o.6 Adutt Educationin the U.S. and a Pujection dm theFutuhe (prepared by the U.S. Officeof Education in cooperation with theCoalition of Adult Education Organ-izations), is available fromfSuper-intendent of Documents, U.S. Govern-ment Printing Office, Washington/

D.C. The price is per copy; thecatalog number is HE 5.213:13042.

MEETINGS ON RECURRENT EDUCATION

Recurrent education is the themeof an international meeting to beheld from March 18 to 23, 1973, etGeorgetown University, Washington,D.C. Convened under the joint spon-sorship of the Center for Educa-tional Research and Innovation (CERI)and the Natioual Institute of Educa-tion (NIE), the =inference will beattended by educa:m.L._s from univer-

sity, industry, and government sectorsof Canada,. France, the Netherlands,Norway, Sweden, the United Kingdom,the United States, :and Yugoslavia.

The meeting will focus on thepersonal and economic aspects ofrecurrent education--tentativelydefined for purposes of this meetingas a modular system of educationthat provides the facilities andservices required for a wider choicein timing of education for workersand that is aimed at reducingunemployment and bringing aboutgreater economic stabilization.

Six sessions will explore recur-rent education characteristics andimplications for the present educa-tion system, educatiinnal objectivesand income policy, enlarging thechoices by supply changes, equitythrough recurrent education, andeducational leave and sources offunding.

Both CERI and the Education

106

Committee of the Organization for

Econmic C(OECD)

ing, nd mc

program-

-,ration and Development-,,r1 examining, compar-j recommendations for

recurrent education inmember countries. Recurrent educa-tion was on the agendas of the fifth

session of CERI's Governing Board(in Paris, November 27 to 28, 1972)and of the seventh session of theEducation Committee (in Paris,

December 7 to 8, 1972). .

Further information concerning

the Georgetown University meetingmay be obtained by writing to.: Dr.

Selma J. Mushkin, Director, PublicServices Laboratory, GeorgetownUniversity, Washington, D.C. 20007.

Information concerning the OECD.

session is available from: OECD,

Chateau de la Luette, 2, rue

AndrSe Pascal, 775, Paris 16e,

France.

CONFERENCE FUTURESTRUCTURES OF E,.7ST-SECONDARY

EDUCATION

From June 26 to 29, 1973,theConference on Future Structures ofEost-Secondary Education will be

convened by the Organization for

agonomic Cooperation and Development';BCD) at its headquarters in Paris.

'.17_M is conference will bring together-t-he results of past and ongoing work

one both by OECD'S Education

crnmittee and its Center for Educa-t.Lonal Research and Innovation(CERI). Agenda topics include

accessibility to studies and employ-ment, the organizat4.nn of studies in

mass higher education, and the

planning and financing of mass

higher education.Further information may be

obtained by writing to: OECD,Chateaude la Muette, 2, -rue Andre Pascal,F75, Paris 16e, France.

Note/5 and Commentz

THE CO-OPERATIVE EDUCATIONABSTRACTING SERVICE

The Co-operative Educational

Abstracting Service (CEAS) of the

International Bureau of Education

(IBE) in Geneva provides substantial,

concise, and highly selective sum-

maries of documents concerned with

either educational policy, adminis-tration; and legislation, or with

education research. These summariesare intended primatily to serve the

member states of UNESCO and have

been of particular interest to edu-

cational documentation and research

center.UNESCO launched CEAS as a pilot

project in 1968 to d.sseminate edu-

cational information. The project

was transferred to the IBE early in1970 and placed on a regular basis

the following ear. Over 250 ely-

stracts have been issued on policy

documents representing selections

by more than 60 contributing countries. Criteria for selecting doc-

uments for abstracting are profes-sional authority, relevance to CEAS

topics, originality, regional or

international scope, recency, and

availability. A cumulative index

to abstracts issued since 1968 is

mafrrtained.As a parallel activity, the :BE

Secretariat has pre ,T --red a set of

country education pr. .171 es as part

of the CEAS. The first set of 70profiles has been issued- The entireseries of profiles is planned to

co.vr all member states in a 2-yearperiod, after which the informationwill again be brought_up to date.

The collected profiles will con-stitute a concise guide to nationaleducation systems throughout theworld, helping to form a backgroundagainst which development trendsand innovations in education may be

viewed. Taken individually, theprofiles will provide points of ref-erence fr,)m which to study the CEAS

national policy docu-!ling to any particular

country. The three components ofeach country education profile area descriptive text, essential sta-tistics, and organizational dia-grams. The text contains the fol-lowing elements: General principles;system of admstration, includingstructure, organization, and plan-ning; curriculums for the main cyclesof general education; and teacher

training content and requirements,

including inservice training.A design is in the early stages

to extend CEAS into specialized areascf education 14r*.n.; to the UNESCO

:rogram. The firL such area will be

adult education. The 1972 Interna-

tional Conference on Adult Education:held this past summer in Tokyo) af-firmed the need and probable supportfor such a service. This specializ-

ed service in adult education is

planned to be developed by an insti-tution or nongovernmental body,

although integrated into CEAS (for

language, present- ion, format, and

possibly production and distribution).Further information may be. obtained

from: International Bureau of Edu-

cation, Palais Willson, Geneva,Switzerland..

INTERNATIONAL DIRECTORY FOREDUCATIONAL LIAISON

The Inteknational akectmy ionEducationat. Liaaon has recently

been published by the OverseasLiaison Committee of the AmericanCouncil on Education. It containscurrent information on more than 225organizations dealing with educationin the developing world, universi-

107'


ties in the developing countries,and embassies and consulates in theUnited States and their visarequirements.

The Dikectony is divided intofour sections. The Internationalsection contains descriptions oforganizations with a multiregionalfocus including donor Agencies,foundations, and other non-Profitorganizations. For each organi-zation, information is included onfunding, activities in the field ofeducation,and publications. A head-quarters address to which furtherinquiries may be directed is sclisted. Geographical sections on=Africa, Asia, and Latin America/Caribbean include descriptions ofnational and regional organizationsas well as major research institutes_Universities located in each geo-graphical region are listed bycountry and information is furnishedon administrative personnel,location, departments or facultiesof instruction,. and associatedresearch institutes. Each geograph-ical section also lists embassiesand consulates with their addresses,telephone numbers, and ambassadors'names, as well as entry requirementsfor U.S. nationals for each country.A general index and an index ofacronyms have been compiled for thaconvenience of the reader.

The Overseas Liaison Committeea working corrrFttee of the American.

Council on Education whose 21 member.are selected from administrative,research and teaching positions itU. S. colleges and universities fortheir specialized knowledge of sub-jects related to OLC programs and

for their willingness to devote tipto their design and execution. 4.

108

Secretariat is maintained inWashington,D.C. The OLC concentratesr:n program activities concerned withimproving communication and linkagesbetween higher education in theUnited States and developingcountries; cooperating with overseasuniversities and associations ofuniversities in sponsoring discus-sions on critical issues on highereducation and development; under-taking special studies in collabo-ration with scholars in developingcountries; and providing specializedinformation an higher education indeveloping countries to the Americanaoad.ailic community and donoragencies.

Copies of the 474-page Dit^r-DAymay be obtained from: Public7t-i-ms

Division, American Council on ="i=i-ra-tian, One Dupont Circle, Washil,.u-un,D. C. 20036.

IBE'S COMPARATIVEEDUCATION NEWSLETTER

Th+a:NeW4Stettelt. of the InternFtional

Bean_ of Education's Liaison-. Officefzr Comparative Education, twz-issuesof which haveappearedto date tET.o- 1,December 1971 and No.. 2, April 1972I,as been continued as -the NemtZttn06 the Moktd Counca oE] Compakataiealimation Societim. 72b1. 1, No- 1of this new publication:is dated.NovelE7er 1972. The editor, Mrs.. .Anneaamorl, is assisted by-the secretar-ies of member societies, who .also7.1TV'e as an Editorial Advisory Board.

Nail should be addressed to-the Sec-reariat of the World Council.of1,Aiftipacative Education Societ-ia,

Pslais Wilson, - 1211 Geneva 14,

GSA DC 73.11153

SOME RECENT.. PUBLICATIONS

INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

International Studies in the United States

Mian Studiez in Ame)!i.can,Secondany Edacati.on..- 1972 .119 pp. $.75. 0E-15162..The Dynamics o6 Intenin:stitutibnat CoopeAation n inteAnati.onat Ectucati.on.

1971' 64 pp. $.40. 0E-14160.

Foneign Cunnicul..um Conzuttantz in Action. 1971. 56 pp. $.65. 0E-14159.

Education Systems in Other Countries

A French Approach Careen Education. 1973. I'n' press.

Educ.ati.bnat Devetopmentz in Guinea, Ma.f., Senegat, .a.nd Ivony Cowst. 1972-141 pp. $1. 0E-14163.

Education to Roman,ia: A Decade p.A Change. 1972... 145 pp. $1. 0E-11461.Re4wim and Renewat in Conte.mponan Span.y Spn. 1972. 80 pp. $.70. 0E-14166.

Soviet ',Wog/lams in InteAnationat EducatLon. 1971. 41 pp. $.30.,

OE=14155.The 'Development Peoptez' RaendshLp UAvmsi,ty in MozeoW. 1973. 17 pp.

0E-14169. In presS.

Education in Thailand: Some Thai. Peiuspee-tiyez . 1973 118 pp $1.25. 0 P-i-465

Reference Materials on International Education,

Ames scan' Stadents and TeacheA Abroad: Sources of I n forma...lc:in about 'Oversem.

Study, Teaching, Work, and Travel. -1972. 38 pp; $45. .0E-14174.

Fone-igh Language, Ait.ea StUdiez, and Othen Azpect6 ot; Intenna.onat Educate"List No.-, 7 of Research and InstrUctional Materials Completed under NDEATitle VI,1Section 602 (throUgh' April: 1972). -1973. 60 Pp. 0E-14172. In girez,s

rztennati.ona4 Educati.on-.Rezounc.0 : A,,S.i.imma'ry of OE- Funded Research Proje--rt

.and Reports 'Available thrOugh: the EC:IiidthilOna 1 Research Information Ceni.....1196571. 1972. 486 'pri. . 0E714173.

InteAnati.on4,Teacheic Excliange: Summary of State Regulations, acrdU.S. Office of Education Program., 1973. In press.

Selected Gai.ce oii:EdUcati.on Pub.eicati.Onz and Re,eated Iniwynation on Inta-Educti.on.% 1973 10 pp. $.25.

Grant-4:PrOgrams Administered bY=theOffice of EthicatTori's Institute, of jnternational- Studies

OpPontun4t,Le)s...Abnoad :66A. ;1973-74.Rezecinch' and:.Thaih.i.ng.:OppOnttin4L'ez Abiioadii.0E-1.413,4;14.

-74,. 1972. 20 pri $.20..0E-141-13-7/:.

1972. 28 'pp. '$.25. 0E-14047-74.-1973-74. 1972. 32 'pp.