Emulsion sósur

Contents

1 Emulsion 11.1 Appearance and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1.1 Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1.2 Monitoring physical stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1.3 Accelerating methods for shelf life prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.2 Emulsifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3 Mechanisms of emulsification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.4 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.4.1 In food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.4.2 Health risks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.4.3 In firefighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Lecithin 62.1 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2.2.1 Hydrolysed lecithin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.2.2 Genetically modified crops as a source of lecithin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2.3 Properties and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.3.1 Food additive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.3.2 Dietary supplement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.3.3 Compatibility with special diets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.3.4 Possible link to heart disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.3.5 Religious restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 Hollandaise sauce 103.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103.2 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103.3 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

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3.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4 Mayonnaise 134.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134.2 Anecdotal origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144.3 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4.3.1 Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154.4 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

4.4.1 Chile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154.4.2 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154.4.3 North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154.4.4 Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.4.5 Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.4.6 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.4.7 As a base for other sauces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

4.5 Nutritional aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

5 Beurre blanc 195.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195.2 Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195.3 Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

6 Ranch dressing 216.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216.2 Popularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

7 Aioli 237.1 Basic recipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237.2 Other forms of aioli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

7.2.1 Allioli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237.2.2 Aillade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

7.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

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7.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247.6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

7.6.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257.6.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277.6.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Chapter 1

Emulsion

IUPAC definition

Fluid system in which liquid droplets are dispersed in aliquid.Note 1: The definition is based on the definition in ref.[1]

Note 2: The droplets may be amorphous, liquid-crystalline, or anymixture thereof.Note 3: The diameters of the droplets constituting thedispersed phaseusually range from approximately 10 nm to 100 μm; i.e.,the dropletsmay exceed the usual size limits for colloidal particles.Note 4: An emulsion is termed an oil/water (o/w) emul-sion if thedispersed phase is an organic material and the continuousphase iswater or an aqueous solution and is termedwater/oil (w/o)if the dispersedphase is water or an aqueous solution and the continuousphase is anorganic liquid (an “oil”).Note 5: A w/o emulsion is sometimes called an inverseemulsion.The term “inverse emulsion” is misleading, suggesting in-correctly thatthe emulsion has properties that are the opposite of thoseof an emulsion.Its use is, therefore, not recommended.[2]

An emulsion is a mixture of two or more liquids that arenormally immiscible (unmixable or unblendable). Emul-sions are part of a more general class of two-phase sys-tems of matter called colloids. Although the terms col-loid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably,emulsion should be used when both the dispersed andthe continuous phase are liquids. In an emulsion, oneliquid (the dispersed phase) is dispersed in the other(the continuous phase). Examples of emulsions includevinaigrettes, milk, mayonnaise, and some cutting fluidsfor metal working.The word “emulsion” comes from the Latin word for “tomilk”, as milk is an emulsion of fat and water, among

other components.Two liquids can form different types of emulsions. Asan example, oil and water can form, first, an oil-in-water emulsion, wherein the oil is the dispersed phase,and water is the dispersion medium. Second, they canform a water-in-oil emulsion, wherein water is the dis-persed phase and oil is the external phase. Multipleemulsions are also possible, including a “water-in-oil-in-water” emulsion and an “oil-in-water-in-oil” emulsion.[3]

Emulsions, being liquids, do not exhibit a static inter-nal structure. The droplets dispersed in the liquid matrix(called the “dispersion medium”) are usually assumed tobe statistically distributed.The term “emulsion” is also used to refer to the photo-sensitive side of photographic film. Such a photographicemulsion consist of silver halide colloidal particles dis-persed in a gelatin matrix. Nuclear emulsions are similarto photographic emulsions, but used in particle physics todetect high-energy elementary particles.

1.1 Appearance and properties

Emulsions contain both a dispersed and a continuousphase, with the boundary between the phases called the“interface”. Emulsions tend to have a cloudy appearancebecause themany phase interfaces scatter light as it passesthrough the emulsion. Emulsions appear white when alllight is scattered equally. If the emulsion is dilute enough,higher–frequency and low-wavelength light will be scat-tered more, and the emulsion will appear bluer – this iscalled the "Tyndall effect". If the emulsion is concen-trated enough, the color will be distorted toward compar-atively longer wavelengths, and will appear more yellow.This phenomenon is easily observable when comparingskimmed milk, which contains little fat, to cream, whichcontains a much higher concentration of milk fat. Oneexample would be a mixture of water and oil.Two special classes of emulsions – microemulsions andnanoemulsions, with droplet sizes below 100 nm – ap-pear translucent.[4] This property is due to the fact thatlightwaves are scattered by the droplets only if their sizesexceed about one-quarter of the wavelength of the inci-

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dent light. Since the visible spectrum of light is com-posed of wavelengths between 390 and 750 nanometers(nm), if the droplet sizes in the emulsion are below about100 nm, the light can penetrate through the emulsionwithout being scattered.[5] Due to their similarity in ap-pearance, translucent nanoemulsions and microemulsionsare frequently confused. Unlike translucent nanoemul-sions, which require specialized equipment to be pro-duced, microemulsions are spontaneously formed by “sol-ubilizing” oil molecules with a mixture of surfactants,co-surfactants, and co-solvents.[4] The required surfac-tant concentration in a microemulsion is, however, sev-eral times higher than that in a translucent nanoemulsion,and significantly exceeds the concentration of the dis-persed phase. Because of many undesirable side-effectscaused by surfactants, their presence is disadvantageousor prohibitive in many applications. In addition, the sta-bility of a microemulsion is often easily compromised bydilution, by heating, or by changing pH levels.Common emulsions are inherently unstable and, thus, donot tend to form spontaneously. Energy input – throughshaking, stirring, homogenizing, or exposure to powerultrasound[6] – is needed to form an emulsion. Overtime, emulsions tend to revert to the stable state of thephases comprising the emulsion. An example of thisis seen in the separation of the oil and vinegar compo-nents of vinaigrette, an unstable emulsion that will quicklyseparate unless shaken almost continuously. There areimportant exceptions to this rule – microemulsions arethermodynamically stable, while translucent nanoemul-sions are kinetically stable.[4]

Whether an emulsion of oil and water turns into a “water-in-oil” emulsion or an “oil-in-water” emulsion dependson the volume fraction of both phases and the type ofemulsifier (surfactant) (see Emulsifier, below) present. Ingeneral, the Bancroft rule applies. Emulsifiers and emul-sifying particles tend to promote dispersion of the phasein which they do not dissolve very well. For example,proteins dissolve better in water than in oil, and so tendto form oil-in-water emulsions (that is, they promote thedispersion of oil droplets throughout a continuous phaseof water).The geometric structure of an emulsion mixture of twolyophobic liquids with a large concentration of the sec-ondary component is fractal: Emulsion particles unavoid-ably form dynamic inhomogeneous structures on smalllength scale. The geometry of these structures is frac-tal. The size of elementary irregularities is governed bya universal function which depends on the volume con-tent of the components. The fractal dimension of theseirregularities is 2.5.[7]

1.1.1 Instability

Emulsion stability refers to the ability of an emulsion toresist change in its properties over time.[8] There are four

types of instability in emulsions: flocculation, creaming,coalescence, and Ostwald ripening. Flocculation occurswhen there is an attractive force between the droplets, sothey form flocs, like bunches of grapes. Coalescence oc-curs when droplets bump into each other and combineto form a larger droplet, so the average droplet size in-creases over time. Emulsions can also undergo creaming,where the droplets rise to the top of the emulsion underthe influence of buoyancy, or under the influence of thecentripetal force induced when a centrifuge is used.An appropriate “surface active agent” (or "surfactant")can increase the kinetic stability of an emulsion so thatthe size of the droplets does not change significantly withtime. It is then said to be stable.

1.1.2 Monitoring physical stability

The stability of emulsions can be characterized usingtechniques such as light scattering, focused beam re-flectance measurement, centrifugation, and rheology.Each method has advantages and disadvantages.

1.1.3 Accelerating methods for shelf lifeprediction

The kinetic process of destabilization can be rather long– up to several months, or even years for some products.Often the formulator must accelerate this process in or-der to test products in a reasonable time during productdesign. Thermal methods are the most commonly used- these consist of increasing the emulsion temperature toaccelerate destabilization (if below critical temperaturesfor phase inversion or chemical degradation). Temper-ature affects not only the viscosity but also the interfa-cial tension in the case of non-ionic surfactants or, on abroader scope, interactions of forces inside the system.Storing an emulsion at high temperatures enables the sim-ulation of realistic conditions for a product (e.g., a tube ofsunscreen emulsion in a car in the summer heat), but alsoto accelerate destabilization processes up to 200 times.Mechanical methods of acceleration, including vibration,centrifugation, and agitation, can also be used.These methods are almost always empirical, without asound scientific basis.

1.2 Emulsifiers

An emulsifier (also known as an “emulgent”) is a sub-stance that stabilizes an emulsion by increasing its kineticstability. One class of emulsifiers is known as “surfaceactive agents”, or surfactants.Examples of food emulsifiers are:

1.4. USES 3

• Egg yolk – in which the main emulsifying agent islecithin. In fact, lecithos is the Greek word for eggyolk.

• Mustard – where a variety of chemicals in themucilage surrounding the seed hull act as emulsifiers

• Soy lecithin is another emulsifier and thickener• Pickering stabilization – uses particles under certaincircumstances

• Sodium phosphates• Sodium stearoyl lactylate• DATEM (Diacetyl Tartaric (Acid) Ester of Mono-glyceride) – an emulsifier used primarily in baking

Detergents are another class of surfactants, and will phys-ically interact with both oil and water, thus stabilizing theinterface between the oil and water droplets in suspen-sion. This principle is exploited in soap, to remove greasefor the purpose of cleaning. Many different emulsifiersare used in pharmacy to prepare emulsions such as creamsand lotions. Common examples include emulsifying wax,cetearyl alcohol, polysorbate 20, and ceteareth 20.[9]Sometimes the inner phase itself can act as an emulsifier,and the result is a nanoemulsion, where the inner statedisperses into "nano-size" droplets within the outer phase.A well-known example of this phenomenon, the "Ouzoeffect", happens when water is poured into a strong al-coholic anise-based beverage, such as ouzo, pastis, arak,or raki. The anisolic compounds, which are soluble inethanol, then form nano-size droplets and emulsify withinthe water. The resulting color of the drink is opaque andmilky white.

1.3 Mechanisms of emulsification

A number of different chemical and physical processesand mechanisms can be involved in the process of emul-sification:

• Surface tension theory – according to this theory,emulsification takes place by reduction of interfacialtension between two phases

• Repulsion theory – the emulsifying agent creates afilm over one phase that forms globules, which re-pel each other. This repulsive force causes them toremain suspended in the dispersion medium

• Viscosity modification – emulgents like acacia andtragacanth, which are hydrocolloids, as well as PEG(or polyethylene glycol), glycerine, and other poly-mers like CMC (carboxymethyl cellulose), all in-crease the viscosity of the medium, which helps cre-ate and maintain the suspension of globules of dis-persed phase

1.4 Uses

1.4.1 In food

Oil-in-water emulsions are common in food products:

• Crema (foam) in espresso – coffee oil in water(brewed coffee), unstable emulsion

• Mayonnaise and Hollandaise sauce – these are oil-in-water emulsions that are stabilized with egg yolklecithin, or with other types of food additives, suchas sodium stearoyl lactylate

• Homogenized milk – an emulsion of milk fat in wa-ter and milk proteins

• Vinaigrette – an emulsion of vegetable oil in vinegar.If this is prepared using only oil and vinegar (i.e.,without an emulsifier), an unstable emulsion results

Water-in-oil emulsions are less common in food but stillexist:

• Butter – an emulsion of water in butterfat

1.4.2 Health risks

When an emulsifier commonly used in ice cream,polysorbate-80, and another emulsifier calledCarboxymethyl cellulose, were fed to mice, themice developed various health problems. Chroniccolitis, intestinal inflammation, and a metabolic disorderthat caused them to eat more, which in turn made thembecome obese, hyperglycemic, and resistant to insulin.[10]

In pharmaceutics, hairstyling, personal hygiene, andcosmetics, emulsions are frequently used. These are usu-ally oil and water emulsions but dispersed, and which iscontinuous depends in many cases on the pharmaceuticalformulation. These emulsions may be called creams,ointments, liniments (balms), pastes, films, or liquids, de-pending mostly on their oil-to-water ratios, other addi-tives, and their intended route of administration.[11][12]The first 5 are topical dosage forms, and may be usedon the surface of the skin, transdermally, ophthalmically,rectally, or vaginally. A highly liquid emulsion may alsobe used orally, or may be injected in some cases.[11]Popular medications occurring in emulsion form includecalamine lotion, cod liver oil, Polysporin, cortisol cream,Canesten, and Fleet.Microemulsions are used to deliver vaccines and killmicrobes.[13] Typical emulsions used in these techniquesare nanoemulsions of soybean oil, with particles that are400-600 nm in diameter.[14] The process is not chemical,

4 CHAPTER 1. EMULSION

as with other types of antimicrobial treatments, but me-chanical. The smaller the droplet the greater the surfacetension and thus the greater the force required to mergewith other lipids. The oil is emulsified with detergents us-ing a high-shear mixer to stabilize the emulsion so, whenthey encounter the lipids in the cell membrane or enve-lope of bacteria or viruses, they force the lipids to mergewith themselves. On a mass scale, in effect this disin-tegrates the membrane and kills the pathogen. The soy-bean oil emulsion does not harm normal human cells, orthe cells of most other higher organisms, with the excep-tions of sperm cells and blood cells, which are vulnerableto nanoemulsions due to the peculiarities of their mem-brane structures. For this reason, these nanoemulsionsare not currently used intravenously (IV). The most ef-fective application of this type of nanoemulsion is forthe disinfection of surfaces. Some types of nanoemul-sions have been shown to effectively destroy HIV-1 andtuberculosis pathogens on non-porous surfaces.

1.4.3 In firefighting

Emulsifying agents are effective at extinguishing fireson small, thin-layer spills of flammable liquids (Class Bfires). Such agents encapsulate the fuel in a fuel-wateremulsion, thereby trapping the flammable vapors in thewater phase. This emulsion is achieved by applying anaqueous surfactant solution to the fuel through a high-pressure nozzle. Emulsifiers are not effective at extin-guishing large fires involving bulk/deep liquid fuels, be-cause the amount of emulsifier agent needed for extin-guishment is a function of the volume of the fuel, whereasother agents such as aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF)need cover only the surface of the fuel to achieve vapormitigation.[15]

1.5 See also• Emulsion dispersion

• Microemulsion

• Miniemulsion

• Nuclear emulsion

• Photographic emulsion

• Pickering emulsion

• Water-in-water emulsion

1.6 References[1] IUPAC (1997). Compendium of Chemical Terminology

(The “Gold Book”). Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publica-tions.

[2] “Terminology of polymers and polymerization processesin dispersed systems (IUPAC Recommendations 2011)"(PDF). Pure and Applied Chemistry 83 (12): 2229–2259.2011. doi:10.1351/PAC-REC-10-06-03.

[3] Multiple emulsions: an overview. Khan AY, TalegaonkarS, Iqbal Z, Ahmed FJ, Khar RK, Curr Drug Deliv. 2006Oct;3(4):429-43.

[4] Mason TG, Wilking JN, Meleson K, Chang CB, GravesSM, “Nanoemulsions: formation, structure, and physicalproperties”, Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter, 2006,18(41): R635-R666

[5] Leong TS, Wooster TJ, Kentish SE, Ashokkumar M,“Minimising oil droplet size using ultrasonic emulsifica-tion”, Ultrason Sonochem. 2009, 16(6):721-7.

[6] The use of ultrasonics for nanoemulsion preparation

[7] Ozhovan M.I. Dynamic uniform fractals in emulsions. J.Exp. Theor. Phys., 77, 939-943 (1993).

[8] “Food emulsions, principles, practices and techniques”CRC Press 2005.2- M.P.C. Silvestre, E.A. Decker, Mc-Clements Food hydrocolloids 13 (1999) 419-424

[9] Anne-Marie Faiola (2008-05-21). “Using EmulsifyingWax”. TeachSoap.com. TeachSoap.com. Retrieved2008-07-22.

[10] http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nature14232.html

[11] Aulton, Michael E., ed. (2007). Aulton’s Pharmaceu-tics: The Design and Manufacture of Medicines (3rd ed.).Churchill Livingstone. pp. 92–97, 384, 390–405, 566–69, 573–74, 589–96, 609–10, 611. ISBN 978-0-443-10108-3.

[12] Troy, David A.; Remington, Joseph P.; Beringer, Paul(2006). Remington: The Science and Practice of Phar-macy (21st ed.). Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams &Wilkins. pp. 325–336, 886–87. ISBN 0-7817-4673-6.

[13] “Adjuvant Vaccine Development”. Retrieved 2008-07-23.

[14] “Nanoemulsion vaccines show increasing promise”. Eu-rekalert! Public News List. University of Michigan HealthSystem. 2008-02-26. Retrieved 2008-07-22.

[15] Principles of Fire Protection Chemistry and Physics ByRaymond Friedman ISBN 0-87765-440-9

• Handbook of Nanostructured Materials and Nan-otechnology; Nalwa, H.S., Ed.; Academic Press: NewYork, NY, USA, 2000; Volume 5, pp. 501-575

1.7 External links

• Oil in Water Reverse Emulsions and Effects onSAGD

1.7. EXTERNAL LINKS 5

• A Three Part Video Series Explaining the ScienceBehind Culinary Emulsions

• New generation of Leaner Label Emulsifiers

• Emulsifiers

A

B

C

D

I

II

A. Two immiscible liquids, not yet emulsifiedB. An emulsion of Phase II dispersed in Phase IC. The unstable emulsion progressively separatesD. The surfactant (outline around particles) positions itself on theinterfaces between Phase II and Phase I, stabilizing the emulsion

Chapter 2

Lecithin

Not to be confused with Lectin.Lecithin is a generic term to designate any group

An example of a phosphatidylcholine, a type of phospholipid inlecithin. Red - choline and phosphate group; Black - glycerol;Green - unsaturated fatty acid; Blue - saturated fatty acid

of yellow-brownish fatty substances occurring in an-imal and plant tissues composed of phosphoric acid,choline, fatty acids, glycerol, glycolipids, triglycerides,and phospholipids (e.g., phosphatidylcholine,phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylinositol).Lecithin was first isolated in 1846 by the French chemistand pharmacist Theodore Gobley.[1] In 1850, he namedthe phosphatidylcholine lécithine.[2] Gobley originallyisolated lecithin from egg yolk—λέκιθος lekithos is “eggyolk” in Ancient Greek—and established the completechemical formula of phosphatidylcholine in 1874;[3] inbetween, he had demonstrated the presence of lecithin ina variety of biological matters, including venous blood,bile, human brain tissue, fish eggs, fish roe, and chickenand sheep brain.Lecithin can easily be extracted chemically (usinghexane, ethanol, acetone, petroleum ether, benzene, etc.)or mechanically. It is usually available from sources suchas soybeans, eggs, milk, marine sources, rapeseed, cot-tonseed, and sunflower. It has low solubility in water,but is an excellent emulsifier. In aqueous solution, itsphospholipids can form either liposomes, bilayer sheets,micelles, or lamellar structures, depending on hydrationand temperature. This results in a type of surfactant thatusually is classified as amphipathic. Lecithin is sold as a

food supplement and for medical uses. In cooking, it issometimes used as an emulsifier and to prevent sticking,for example in nonstick cooking spray.

2.1 Biology

Lecithin, as a food additive, is also a dietary source ofseveral active compounds: Choline and itsmetabolites areneeded for several physiological purposes, including cellmembrane signaling and cholinergic neurotransmission,and is a major source for methyl groups via its metabolite,trimethylglycine (betaine). Phosphatidylcholine occurs inall cellular organisms, being one of the major componentsof the phospholipid portion of the cell membrane.While lecitihin is also a rich source of a variety of typesof dietary fats, the small amounts of lecithin typicallyused for food additive purposes mean it is not a signif-icant source of fats.

2.2 Production

Commercial lecithin, as used by food manufacturers, is amixture of phospholipids in oil. The lecithin can be ob-tained by water degumming the extracted oil of seeds. Itis a mixture of various phospholipids, and the composi-tion depends on the origin of the lecithin. A major sourceof lecithin is soybean oil. Because of the EU requirementto declare additions of allergens in foods, in addition toregulations regarding genetically modified crops, a grad-ual shift to other sources of lecithin (e.g., sunflower oil)is taking place. The main phospholipids in lecithin fromsoya and sunflower are phosphatidyl choline, phosphatidylinositol, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, and phosphatidicacid. They often are abbreviated to PC, PI, PE, andPA, respectively. Purified phospholipids are produced bycompanies commercially.

2.2.1 Hydrolysed lecithin

To modify the performance of lecithin to make it suit-able for the product to which it is added, it may be hy-

6

2.3. PROPERTIES AND APPLICATIONS 7

drolysed enzymatically. In hydrolysed lecithins, a por-tion of the phospholipids have one fatty acid removed byphospholipase. Such phospholipids are called lysophos-pholipids. The most commonly used phospholipase isphospholipase A2, which removes the fatty acid at the C2position of glycerol. Lecithins may also be modified by aprocess called fractionation. During this process, lecithinis mixed with an alcohol, usually ethanol. Some phos-pholipids, such as phosphatidylcholine, have good solu-bility in ethanol, whereas most other phospholipids do notdissolve well in ethanol. The ethanol is separated fromthe lecithin sludge, after which the ethanol is removedby evaporation to obtain a phosphatidylcholine-enrichedlecithin fraction.

2.2.2 Genetically modified crops as asource of lecithin

As described above, lecithin is highly processed. There-fore, genetically modified (GM) protein or DNA fromthe original GM crop from which it is derived oftenis undetectable – in other words, it is not substantiallydifferent from lecithin derived from non-GM crops.[4]Nonetheless, consumer concerns about genetically mod-ified food have extended to highly purified derivativesfrom GM food, such as lecithin.[5] This concern led topolicy and regulatory changes in the European Union in2000, when Commission Regulation (EC) 50/2000 waspassed[6] which required labelling of food containing ad-ditives derived from GMOs, including lecithin. Becauseit is nearly impossible to detect the origin of derivativessuch as lecithin, the European regulations require thosewho wish to sell lecithin in Europe to use a meticuloussystem of identity preservation (IP).[4][7]

2.3 Properties and applications

Lecithin has emulsification and lubricant properties, andis a surfactant. It can be totally metabolized (see Inositol)by humans, so is well tolerated by humans and nontoxicwhen ingested; some other emulsifiers can only be ex-creted via the kidneys.The major components of commercial soybean-derivedlecithin are:[8]

• 33–35% Soybean oil

• 20–21% Inositol phosphatides

• 19–21% Phosphatidylcholine

• 8–20% Phosphatidylethanolamine

• 5–11% Other phosphatides

• 5% Free carbohydrates

• 2–5% Sterols

• 1% Moisture

Lecithin is used for applications in human food, animalfeed, pharmaceuticals, paints, and other industrial appli-cations.Applications include:

• In the pharmaceutical industry, it acts as a wetting,stabilizing agent and a choline enrichment carrier,helps in emulsifications and encapsulation, and is agood dispersing agent. It can be used inmanufactureof intravenous fat infusions and for therapeutic use.

• In animal feed, it enriches fat and protein and im-proves pelletization.

• In the paint industry, it forms protective coatingsfor surfaces with painting and printing ink, hasantioxidant properties, helps as a rust inhibitor, is acolour-intensifying agent, catalyst, conditioning aidmodifier, and dispersing aid; it is a good stabiliz-ing and suspending agent, emulsifier, and wettingagent, helps in maintaining uniform mixture of sev-eral pigments, helps in grinding of metal oxide pig-ments, is a spreading and mixing aid, prevents hardsettling of pigments, eliminates foam in water-basedpaints, and helps in fast dispersion of latex-basedpaints.

• Lecithin also may be used as a release agent forplastics, an antisludge additive in motor lubricants,an antigumming agent in gasoline, and an emulsifier,spreading agent, and antioxidant in textile, rubber,and other industries.

2.3.1 Food additive

The nontoxicity of lecithin leads to its use with food, as anadditive or in food preparation. It is used commerciallyin foods requiring a natural emulsifier or lubricant.In confectionery, it reduces viscosity, replaces more ex-pensive ingredients, controls sugar crystallization and theflow properties of chocolate, helps in the homogeneousmixing of ingredients, improves shelf life for some prod-ucts, and can be used as a coating. In emulsions and fatspreads, it stabilizes emulsions, reduces spattering duringfrying, improves texture of spreads and flavour release. Indoughs and bakery, it reduces fat and egg requirements,helps even distribution of ingredients in dough, stabilizesfermentation, increases volume, protects yeast cells indough when frozen, and acts as a releasing agent to pre-vent sticking and simplify cleaning. It improves wettingproperties of hydrophilic powders (e.g., low-fat proteins)and lipophilic powders (e.g., cocoa powder), controlsdust, and helps complete dispersion in water.[9] Lecithinkeeps cocoa and cocoa butter in a candy bar from separat-ing. It can be used as a component of cooking sprays to

8 CHAPTER 2. LECITHIN

prevent sticking and as a releasing agent. In margarines,especially those containing high levels of fat (>75%),lecithin is added as an 'antispattering' agent for shallowfrying.Lecithin is approved by the United States Food and DrugAdministration for human consumption with the status"generally recognized as safe". Lecithin is admitted bythe EU as a food additive, designated as E322. Researchstudies show soy-derived lecithin has significant effectson lowering serum cholesterol and triglycerides, while in-creasing HDL (“good cholesterol”) levels in the blood ofrats.[10][11][12]

2.3.2 Dietary supplement

Because it contains phosphatidylcholines, lecithin is asource of choline, an essential nutrient.[13][14] Clini-cal studies have shown benefit in acne, in improvingliver function, and in lowering cholesterol, but clini-cal studies in dementia and dyskinesias have found nobenefit.[14][15][16] An earlier study using a small sample(20 men divided in 3 groups) did not detect statisticallysignificant short term (2-4 weeks) effects on cholesterolin hyperlipidaemic men.[17]

La Leche League recommends its use to prevent blockedor pluggedmilk ducts which can lead to mastitis in breast-feeding women.[18]

2.3.3 Compatibility with special diets

Egg-derived lecithin is not usually a concern for those al-lergic to eggs since commercially available egg lecithinis highly purified and devoid of allergy-causing eggproteins.[19] Egg lecithin is not a concern for those onlow-cholesterol diets, because the lecithin found in eggsmarkedly inhibits the absorption of the cholesterol con-tained in eggs.[20]

2.3.4 Possible link to heart disease

A growing body of evidence indicates lecithin isconverted by gut bacteria into trimethylamine-N-oxide(TMAO), which is released into circulation, andmay with time contribute to atherosclerosis and heartattacks.[21][22][23]

2.3.5 Religious restrictions

Soy-derived lecithin is considered by some to be kitniyotand prohibited on Passover for Ashkenazi Jews whenmany grain-based foods are forbidden, but not at othertimes. This does not necessarily affect Sephardi Jews,who do not have the same restrictions on rice and kitniyotduring Pesach/Passover.[24]

Muslims are not forbidden to eat lecithin per se; how-ever, since it may be derived from animal as well as plantsources, care must be taken to ensure this source is halal.Lecithin derived from plants and egg yolks is permissible,as is that derived from animals slaughtered according tothe rules of dhabihah.[25]

2.4 References[1] Gobley, Theodore (1846). “Recherches chimiques sur le

jaune d'œuf” [Chemical researches on egg yolk]. Journalde Pharmacie et de Chemie. 3rd series (in French) 9: 81–91.

[2] Gobley, Theodore (1850). “Recherches chemiques sur lesœufs de carpe” [Chemical researches on carp eggs]. Jour-nal de Pharmacie et de Chemie. 3rd series (in French)17: 401–430. Je propose de donner au premier le nom deLécithine (de λεκιθος, jaune d'œuf), parce qu'on le ren-contre en grande quantité dans le jaune d'œuf...

[3] Gobley, Theodore (1874). “Sur la lécithine et lacérébrine”. Journal de Pharmacie et de Chimie. 4th se-ries (in French) 19: 346–353.

[4] Gertruida M Marx, Dissertation submitted in fulfillmentof requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy inthe Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the FreeState, South Africa. December 2010. MONITORINGOF GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD PRODUCTSIN SOUTH AFRICA

[5] Staff, FoodNavigator.com, July 1, 2005. Danisco emulsi-fier to substitute non-GM soy lecithin as demand outstripssupply

[6] Regulation (EC) 50/2000

[7] John Davison, Yves Bertheau (2007) EU regulations onthe traceability and detection of GMOs: difficulties in in-terpretation, implementation, and compliance CAB Re-views: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science,Nutrition, and Natural Resources 2(77)

[8] Scholfield, C.R. (October 1981), “Composition of Soy-bean Lecithin”, Journal of the American Oil Chemists’Society 58 (10): 889–892, doi:10.1007/bf02659652, re-trieved 2014-08-21 – via USDA

[9] Supplier’s website with lecithin applications

[10] Iwata T, Kimura Y, Tsutsumi K, Furukawa Y, Kimura S(February 1993). “The effect of various phospholipidson plasma lipoproteins and liver lipids in hypercholes-terolemic rats”. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol. 39 (1): 63–71.doi:10.3177/jnsv.39.63. PMID 8509902.

[11] Jimenez MA, Scarino ML, Vignolini F, Mengheri E(July 1990). “Evidence that polyunsaturated lecithin in-duces a reduction in plasma cholesterol level and favor-able changes in lipoprotein composition in hypercholes-terolemic rats”. J. Nutr. 120 (7): 659–67. PMID2366101.

2.5. EXTERNAL LINKS 9

[12] Kaayla T. Daniel, PhD, CCN (Winter 2003). “SoyLecithin: FromSludge to Profit”. Wise Traditions in Food,Farming, and the Healing Arts 4 (4).

[13] Zeisel SH; da Costa KA (November 2009). “Choline: anessential nutrient for public health”. Nutrition Reviews 67(11): 615–23. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00246.x.PMC 2782876. PMID 19906248.

[14] Staff, Alternative Medicine Review (2002)Phosphatidylcholine Altern Med Rev. 7(2):150-4.

[15] Jackie Dial, PhD and Sandoval Melim, PhD, ND. June2000, updated June 2003. “Lecithin” in AltMedDex®Evaluations. Truven Health Analytics.

[16] Higgins JP, Flicker L. Lecithin for dementia andcognitive impairment Cochrane Database Syst Rev.2003;(3):CD001015

[17] Oosthuizen W, Vorster HH, Vermaak, WJ, et al. Lecithinhas no effect on serum lipoprotein, plasma fibrinogenand macro molecular protein complex levels in hyperlipi-daemic men in a double-blind controlled study. Eur J ClinNutr. 1998;52:419-424.

[18] Diane Wiessinger, Diana West, and Teresa Pitman.Dealing with Plugs and Blebs from Chapter 20, “Tearsheets” in The Womanly Art of Breastfeeding. La LecheLeague. 2010. ISBN 0345518446

[19] Discussion Forum: American Academy of Allergy,Asthama, and Immunology

[20] Unisci.com, Why Eggs Don't Contribute Much Choles-terol To Diet.

[21] Wendy R Russell WR et al. (2013) Colonic bacterialmetabolites and human health (Review). Current Opin-ion in Microbiology 16(3):246–254

[22] Tang, WH; Wang Z; Levison BS; Koeth RA; Britt EB;Fu X; Wu Y; Hazen SL (Apr 25, 2013). “Intestinal mi-crobial metabolism of phosphatidylcholine and cardio-vascular risk.”. N Engl J Med. 368 (17): 1575–84.doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1109400. PMC 3701945. PMID23614584.

[23] Mendelsohn, AR; Larrick JW (Jun 2013). “Dietarymodification of the microbiome affects risk for cardio-vascular disease.”. Rejuvenation Res. 16 (3): 241–4.doi:10.1089/rej.2013.1447. PMID 23656565.

[24] (Reb Yehonatan Levy, Shomer Kashrut Mashgiach -based upon halachic rulings of CRC - Chicago RabbinicCouncil, and from shiurim/lessons by Rabbi D. Raccahon “Pesach Preparations” following commentary from for-mer Rishon-LeTzion Rav Ovadia Yosef). OK KosherCertification, Keeping Kosher for Pesach. Retrieved onSeptember 10, 2008.

[25] Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America FAQ,IFANCA: Consumer FAQ. Retrieved on July 7, 2010.The practice of consuming Halal products is notwidespread among Muslims, the practice is common withMuslims who follow Sharia laws.

2.5 External links• Introduction to Lecithin (University of Erlangen)

• FDA Industry guideline for soy lecithin labeling bro-ken link

• Phosphatidylcholine info

• Use of lecithin for recurrent plugged ducts

• European Lecithin Manufacturers Association offi-cial website

• The International Lecithin & Phospholipid SocietyWebsite

Chapter 3

Hollandaise sauce

Hollandaise sauce (/hɒlənˈdeɪz/ or /ˈhɒləndeɪz/; French:[ʔɔ.lɑ̃.dɛz]) is an emulsion of egg yolk and liquid butter,usually seasoned with lemon juice, salt, and a little whitepepper or cayenne pepper. In appearance, it is light yel-low and opaque, smooth and creamy. The flavor is richand buttery, with a mild tang added by an acidic compo-nent such as lemon juice, yet not so strong as to overpowermildly flavored foods.Hollandaise is one[1] of the five sauces in the Frenchhaute cuisine mother sauce repertoire. It is so named be-cause it was believed to have mimicked a Dutch saucefor the King of the Netherlands' state visit to France.Hollandaise sauce is well known as a key ingredient ofEggs Benedict, and is often paired with vegetables suchas steamed asparagus.

3.1 History

There is debate as to who originally developed hol-landaise sauce. Some historians believe that it was in-vented in the Netherlands then taken to France by theHuguenots. A recipe for hollandaise sauce appears in aDutch cookbook by Carel Baten, which dates from 1593.In 1651, François Pierre La Varenne describes a saucesimilar to hollandaise in his groundbreaking cookbook LeCuisinier François: “avec du bon beurre frais, un peu devinaigre, sel et muscade, et un jaune d’œuf pour lier lasauce” (“with good fresh butter, a little vinegar, salt, andnutmeg, and an egg yolk to bind the sauce”). Alan David-son notes a “sauce à la hollandoise” fromFrançoisMarin'sLes Dons de Comus (1758), but since that sauce includedflour, bouillon, herbs, and omitted egg yolks, it may not berelated to the modern hollandaise.[2] However, LarousseGastronomique states that, “in former times fish 'à la hol-landaise' was served with melted butter” (implying thatat one time egg yolks were not a part of the designa-tion, hollandaise).[3] Davidson also quotes from HaroldMcGee (1990), who explains that eggs are not needed atall and proper emulsification can simply be created withbutter. He also states that if one does wish to use eggs theyare not needed in so great a quantity as normally calledfor in traditional recipes.The sauce using egg yolks and butter appeared in the 19th

century. Although various sources say it was first knownas “sauce Isigny" (a town in Normandy said to have beenrenowned for the quality of its butter), Isabella Beeton'sMrs Beeton’s Book of Household Management has recipesin the first edition (1861) for “Dutch sauce, for fish”[4]and its variant on the following page, “Green sauce, orHollandaise verte”. Her directions for hollandaise were to"[p]ut all the ingredients, except the lemon-juice, into astew-pan; set it over the fire, and keep continually stirring.When it is sufficiently thick, take it off, as it should notboil...”[5]

Robert Farrar Capon suggests that hollandaise is “not onebit less a marvel than the Gothic arch, the computer chip,or a Bach Fugue.”[6]

3.2 Preparation

Hollandaise requires some skill and practice to prepareand hold. Properly made, it will be smooth and creamywith no hint of separation. The flavor will be rich andbuttery, with a mild tang from the flavorants (e.g. lemonjuice). It is best prepared and served warm, but not hot.There are several methods for preparing a hollandaisesauce. All preparation methods require near-constant ag-itation, usually with a wire whisk.One family of methods involves acidifying the egg yolksto aid in the formation of an emulsion, either with lemonjuice or vinegar. Escoffier[7] uses a reduction of vine-gar and water. Others[8][9] use lemon juice or sherry.[10]The acidified yolks are whisked gently over simmeringwater[11] until they thicken and lighten in color (144 °F/62°C). Then, as with a mayonnaise,[12] the emulsion isformed by slowly whisking melted butter into it. Use ofclarified butter is common. Some varieties of this prepa-ration use water of various volumes and temperatures.[10]

Alton Brown espouses quite a different method.[13] Theyolks, without acid, are cooked as above. Then the upperpan is removed from heat and cold cubed butter (unclar-ified) is whisked in, a few cubes at a time. The emul-sion forms as the cubes melt. The pan is returned toheat only when the emulsion cools too much to meltmore cubes. Lemon is used as a finishing flavor. This

10

3.4. NOTES 11

method takes more time than traditional methods, but ismore reliable in that it is difficult to overheat the formingemulsion.[14][15]

The above methods are known as "bain marie methods”.Another family ofmethods uses a blender.[9][16] Yolks areplaced in a blender, then - at a temperature higher thanappropriate for bain marie methods - butter is drizzledinto the blender. Heat from the butter cooks the yolks.Blender methods are much quicker, although temperaturecontrol is difficult. The products of blender methods maybe acceptable, but are generally considered to be inferiorto the products of bain marie methods.Joy of Cooking[10] describes a preparation unlike all theabove, using whole eggs, and slowly adding the eggmixture to melted butter over direct heat. It also in-cludes variations incorporating sour cream and paprika,or cream and nutmeg.[10]

Note that in all methods the temperature must be closelycontrolled. Too much heat and the yolks will curdle (180°F/82 °C) or an emulsion break (separate).[17] Too littleheat and an emulsion will fail to form, or (once formed),will solidify.[17] Once the yolks are prepared, the sauceshould be not much warmer than required to maintain thebutter in a liquid state, that is, a little warmer than bodytemperature. A finished sauce may be “held” in its emul-sified state for several hours by keeping it warm. Successwith freezing hollandaise has been reported,[18][19] but itis not widely practiced.A normal ratio of ingredients is 1 egg yolk : 4-6 Tbs.(55g-85g) butter. Flavorings may include lemon juiceand salt to taste.[20]

3.3 Derivatives

Being a mother sauce, hollandaise sauce is the foundationfor many derivatives created by adding or changing ingre-dients. The following is a non-exhaustive listing of suchminor sauces.

• The most common derivative is Sauce Béarnaise. Itcan be produced by replacing the acidifying agent(vinegar reduction or lemon juice) in a prepara-tion with a strained reduction of vinegar, shallots,fresh chervil, fresh tarragon and (if to taste) crushedpeppercorns.[21][22][23] Alternatively, the flavoringsmay be added to a standard hollandaise. Béarnaiseand its children are often used on steak or other “as-sertive” grilled meats and fish.

• Sauce Choron is a variation of béarnaise with-out tarragon or chervil, plus added tomatopurée.[23][24]

• Sauce Foyot (a.k.a. Valois) is béarnaise withmeat glaze (Glace de Viande) added.[23][25]

• Sauce Colbert is Sauce Foyot with the additionof reduced white wine.[26]

• Café de Paris sauce is béarnaise with currypowder added.

• Sauce Paloise is a version of béarnaise withmint substituted for tarragon.[27]

• Sauce au Vin Blanc (for fish) is produced byadding a reduction of white wine and fish stock tohollandaise.[28]

• Sauce Bavaroise is hollandaise with added cream,horseradish, and thyme.[29]

• Sauce Crème Fleurette is hollandaise with crèmefraîche added.

• Sauce Dijon, also known as Sauce Moutarde orSauce Girondine, is hollandaise with Dijon mustard.

• Sauce Maltaise is hollandaise to which blanchedorange zest and the juice of blood orange isadded.[23][30]

• Sauce Mousseline, also known as Sauce Chan-tilly, is produced by folding whipped cream intohollandaise.[23][31]

• If reduced sherry is first folded into thewhipped cream, the result is Sauce Divine.

• Madame Benoît's recipe for Mousseline useswhipped egg whites instead of whipped cream.

• Sauce Noisette is a hollandaise variation made withbrowned butter (beurre noisette).[32]

3.4 Notes[1] The family is sometimes referred to as “mayonnaise

sauces” as they are, like mayonnaise, based on the emul-sion of an oil in egg yolk.

[2] Marin, François. Les Dons de camus, ou l'art de la cuisine,reduit en pratique, Paris, 1750. Online copy at the InternetArchive

[3] Larousse Gastronomique, Crown Publishers (1961)

[4] Beeton, Isabella. Mrs Beeton’s Book of Household Man-agement, p.405.

[5] Beeton, Isabella. Mrs. Beeton’s Book of Household Man-agement, p.406.

[6] Capon, Robert Farrar (2002). The Supper of the Lamb.The Modern Library. p. xxvii.

[7] Escoffier: 119

[8] Carême

[9] Julia Child

12 CHAPTER 3. HOLLANDAISE SAUCE

[10] Joy of Cooking p.358

[11] That is, in the upper pan of a double boiler or bain marie.The pan should be over, but not in contact with, the sim-mering water. Room temperature is too low; stovetopburners and even most double boilers are too hot, thoughskilled sauciers are able to prepare their mixtures over anopen burner!

[12] The samemethod—with no heat, replacing the butter withoil, and adding some ground mustard—is used to makemayonnaise.

[13] Hittin' the Sauce

[14] In Eggs Benedict, AB demonstrates a variation of themethod, working directly over a burner.

[15] This method is often preferred in high-end kitchens, espe-cially with the advent and widespread use of siphon guns,as the milk solids in whole butter lend a fuller and rounderflavor to the finished sauce. - citation needed-

[16] Cookwise, pp.302-3

[17] Once solidified, a sauce is almost impossible to recoverfully. Try adding heat and a little warm water. A brokensauce may sometimes be recovered by cooling the sauce,adding a tsp. or two of cool water, and whisking vigor-ously.

[18] Cookwise, p.301

[19] Joy of Cooking p.357

[20] Whether for acidification of flavor, the total mount oflemon juice can vary according to taste, but 1 tsp. juiceper yolk is a fair limit - more than that (e.g. Cookwise,p.301) tends to produce a sauce with a pronounced lemonnote.

[21] Escoffier: 89

[22] Cookwise, pp.304-5

[23] Joy of Cooking p.359

[24] Escoffier: 90

[25] Escoffier: 91

[26] Escoffier: 41

[27] Escoffier: 141

[28] Escoffier: 163

[29] Escoffier: 88

[30] Escoffier: 128

[31] Escoffier: 132

[32] Escoffier: 138

3.5 References• Host: Alton Brown (16 June 2004). "Hittin' theSauce". Good Eats. Season 8. Episode 1. 12:15minutes in. Food Network.

• Host: Alton Brown (17 June 2010). "Little BigLunch: Eggs Benedict". Good Eats. Season 14.Episode 4. Food Network.

• Carême, Marie-Antoine (1833–1847). L'Art de lacuisine française au XIXe siècle. completed by Ar-mand Plumerey. Paris.

• Child, Julia; Louisette Bertholle; Simone Beck(1961). Mastering the Art of French Cooking. NewYork: Knopf.

• Corriher, Shirley (1997). “Ch. 4: sauce sense”.Cookwise, the Hows andWhys of Successful Cooking(1st ed.). New York: WilliamMorrow&Company,Inc. ISBN 0688102298.

• Escoffier, Auguste (1982) [Trans. fm 4th French(Flammarion) ed. 1921]. “Ch. 1: Sauces”. LeGuide Culinaire [The Complete Guide to the Art ofModern Cookery] (in French). English translation byH.L. Cracknell and R.J. Kaufmann (First Americaned.). New York: Mayflower Books. ISBN 0-8317-5478-8.

• Rombauer, Irma S.; Rombauer Becker, Marion(1975). Joy of Cooking. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. (MacMillan). ISBN 0-02-604570-2.

3.6 External links• Mrs. Beeton, The book of household Management,1861: Project Gutenberg e-text

• History of Sauces

• History of Hollandaise

• How ToMake Hollandaise Sauce Step-by-step tuto-rial from About.com (generally good, but a glass orceramic bowl is not recommended as they make ittoo difficult to control the heat)

• Free Culinary School Podcast Episode 8 A podcast(audio) episode that talks about the proper classicaltechnique for making Hollandaise and the sciencebehind the method.

Chapter 4

Mayonnaise

For other uses, see Mayonnaise (disambiguation).Mayonnaise (/ˌmeɪəˈneɪz/, /ˈmeɪəneɪz/ or /ˈmæneɪz/,

Fresh homemade mayonnaise

Standard ingredients and tools to make mayonnaise

French: [majɔnɛz]), often abbreviated as mayo,[1] is athick, creamy sauce often used as a condiment. It is astable emulsion of oil, egg yolks and either vinegar or

lemon juice,[2] with many options for embellishment withother herbs and spices. Lecithin in the egg yolk is theemulsifier.[3]

Mayonnaise varies in color, but is often white, cream, orpale yellow. It may range in texture from that of lightcream to a thick gel. In countries influenced by Frenchculture, mustard is also a common ingredient, but the ad-dition of mustard turns the sauce into a remoulade witha different flavor and the mustard acts as an additionalemulsifier.[4][5] In Spain, Portugal, Italy and Greece, oliveoil is used as the oil and mustard is never included.Commercial egg-free mayonnaise-like spreads are avail-able for people who want to avoid animal fat andcholesterol, or who are allergic to eggs.[6]

4.1 History

The word mayonnaise is not used for a sauce before thestart of the nineteenth century. The earliest referenceappears to be by Alexandre Viard (1806), who howevernever quite gives a recipe for the sauce itself.[7] At thatpoint, the sauce was made with aspic or jelly, rather thanan egg emulsion. In 1815, Louis Eustache Ude wrote:

No 58.—Mayonnaise.Take three spoonfuls of Allemande, six ditto ofaspic, and two of oil. Add a little tarragon vine-gar, that has not boiled, some pepper and salt,and minced ravigotte, or merely some parsley.Then put in the members of fowl, or fillets ofsoles, &c. Your mayonnaise must be put to ice;neither are you to put the members into yoursauce till it begins to freeze. Next dish yourmeat or fish, mask with the sauce before it bequite frozen, and garnish your dish with what-ever you think proper, as beet root, jelly, nas-turtiums, &c.[8]

In a 1820 work, Viard describes something like the morefamiliar emulsified version:

This sauce is made to “take” in many ways:with raw egg yolks, with gelatine, with veal or

13

14 CHAPTER 4. MAYONNAISE

veal brain glaze. The most common method isto take a raw egg yolk in a small terrine, witha little salt and lemon juice: take a woodenspoon, turn it while letting a trickle of oil falland stirring constantly; as your sauce thickens,add a little vinegar; put in too a pound of goodoil: serve your sauce with good salt: serve itwhite or green, adding green of ravigote orgreen of spinach.This sauce is used for cold fish entrees, or saladof vegetables cooked in salt water.[9]

The aspic version and the emulsified version would co-exist for some time before the more familiar emulsifiedversion became standard.In 1808, Grimod de La Reynière referred to a “bayon-naise” sauce: “But if one wants to make from this coldchicken, a dish of distinction, one composes a bayon-naise, whose green jelly, of a good consistency, formsthe most worthy ornament of poultry and fish salads.” [10]Some authors have claimed that this was the original term,thus tracing the sauce to Bayonne.

4.2 Anecdotal origins

A number of tales have been put forth as “origins” formayonnaise. All however are based on the (undocu-mented) premise that the sauce existed before the nine-teenth century; nor can any of these explanations them-selves be found before the nineteenth century.One of the most common places named as the origin ofmayonnaise is the town ofMahón inMenorca, Spain, andthen it was taken to France after Armand de Vignerotdu Plessis's victory over the British at the city’s port in1756. According to this version, the sauce was originallyknown as salsa mahonesa in Spanish and maonesa (latermaionesa) in Catalan (as it is still known in Menorca),later becoming mayonnaise as it was popularized by theFrench.[11]

The Larousse Gastronomique suggests: “Mayonnaise, inour view, is a popular corruption of moyeunaise, derivedfrom the very old French word moyeu, which means yolkof egg.”[12] The sauce may have been christened mayen-naise after Charles de Lorraine, duke of Mayenne, be-cause he took the time to finish his meal of chicken withcold sauce before being defeated in the Battle of Ar-ques.[13]

Nineteenth-century culinary writer Pierre Lacam issometimes cited as suggesting that in 1459, a Londonwoman named Annamarie Turcauht stumbled upon thiscondiment after trying to create a custard of some sort.However, no specific citation has been provided for thisclaim.[14]

According to Trutter et al.: “It is highly probable thatwherever olive oil existed, a simple preparation of oil and

egg came about — particularly in the Mediterranean re-gion, where aioli (oil and garlic) is made.”[11]

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the termmayonnaise was in use in English as early as 1823 in thejournal of Lady Blessington.[15]

4.3 Preparation

Making mayonnaise with a whisk.

Mayonnaise can be made by hand with a mortar and pes-tle,[16] whisk or fork, or with the aid of an electric mixeror blender. Mayonnaise is made by slowly adding oil toan egg yolk, while whisking vigorously to disperse theoil. The oil and the water in yolks form a base of theemulsion, while lecithin and protein from the yolks arethe emulsifiers that stabilize it.[17] Additionally, a bit ofa mustard may also be added to sharpen its taste, andfurther stabilize the emulsion. Mustard contains smallamounts of lecithin.[18] If vinegar is added directly tothe yolk it can emulsify more oil, thus making moremayonnaise.[19]

For large-scale preparation of mayonnaise where mixingequipment is being employed the process typically be-gins with the dispersal of eggs, either powdered or liquid,into water. Once emulsified, the remaining ingredientsare then added and vigorously mixed until completely hy-drated and evenly dispersed. Oil is then added as rapidlyas it can be absorbed. Though only a small part of the to-tal, ingredients other than the oil are critical to proper for-mulation. These must be totally hydrated and dispersedwithin a small liquid volume, which can cause difficul-ties including emulsion breakdown during the oil-addingphase. Often a long agitation process is required toachieve proper dispersal/emulsification, presenting one of

4.4. USES 15

the trickiest phases of the production process.[20] Though,as technology in the food industry advances, process-ing has been shortened drastically allowing roughly 1000liters to be produced in 10 minutes.[21]

4.3.1 Composition

Homemade mayonnaise can approach 85% fat before theemulsion breaks down; commercial mayonnaise is moretypically 70% to 80% fat. “Low fat” mayonnaise prod-ucts contain starches, cellulose gel, or other thickeners tosimulate the texture of real mayonnaise.Commercial producers either pasteurize the yolks, freezethem and substitute water for most of their liquid, oruse other emulsifiers. They also typically use soybean orrapeseed oil, for its lower cost, instead of olive oil. Somerecipes, both commercial and homemade, use the wholeegg, including the white.

4.4 Uses

Mayonnaise from the Zaan district, North-Holland, Netherlandsand French fries.

4.4.1 Chile

Chile is the world’s third major per capita consumer ofmayonnaise and first in Latin America.[22] Since mayon-naise became widely accessible in the 1980s[22] Chileanshave used it on locos, completos, French fries, and onboiled chopped potatoes, a salad commonly known as“papas mayo”.

4.4.2 Europe

In European countries, especially Belgium and theNetherlands, mayonnaise is often served with pommesfrites, French fries, or chips. It is also served with coldchicken or hard-boiled eggs in France, Poland, the UK,

Benelux, Hungary, Austria, the Baltic States and EasternEurope.Guidelines issued in September 1991 by Europe’s Fed-eration of the Condiment Sauce Industries recommendthat oil and liquid egg yolk levels in mayonnaise shouldbe at least 70% and 5% respectively. The Netherlandsincorporated this guideline in 1998 into the law “Waren-wetbesluit Gereserveerde aanduidingen” in article 4.[23]Most available brands easily exceed this target.[24]

4.4.3 North America

Mayonnaise in a jar

Commercial mayonnaise sold in jars originated inPhiladelphia in 1907 when Amelia Schlorer decidedto start selling her own mayonnaise recipe originallyused in salads sold in the family grocery store. Mrs.Schlorer’s Mayonnaise was an instant success with lo-cal customers and eventually grew into the Schlorer Del-icatessen Company.[25] Around the same time in NewYork City, a family from Vetschau, Germany, at RichardHellmann’s delicatessen on Columbus Avenue, featuredhis wife’s homemade recipe in salads sold in their deli-catessen. The condiment quickly became so popular thatHellmann began selling it in “wooden boats” that wereused for weighing butter. In 1912, Mrs. Hellmann’s may-onnaise was mass-marketed and later was trademarked in1926 as Hellmann’s Blue Ribbon Mayonnaise.[26]

At about the same time that Mrs. Schlorer’s and Hell-mann’sMayonnaise were thriving on the East Coast of theUnited States, a California company, Best Foods, intro-duced their own mayonnaise, which turned out to be verypopular in the western United States. In 1932, Best Foodsbought the Hellmann’s brand. By then, both mayonnaiseshad such commanding market shares in their own half ofthe country that it was decided that both brands be pre-served. The company is now owned by Unilever.In the southeastern part of the United States, Mrs. Eu-genia Duke of Greenville, South Carolina, founded theDuke Sandwich Company in 1917 to sell sandwiches tosoldiers training at nearby Fort Sevier. Her homemademayonnaise became so popular that her company began

16 CHAPTER 4. MAYONNAISE

to focus exclusively on producing and selling the mayon-naise, eventually selling out to the C. F. Sauer Companyof Richmond, Virginia, in 1929. Duke’s Mayonnaise re-mains a popular brand of mayonnaise in the Southeast,although it is not generally available in other markets.In addition to an almost ubiquitous presence in Americansandwiches, mayonnaise forms the basis of northern Al-abama’s signature white barbecue sauce. It is also usedto add stability to American-style buttercream and occa-sionally in cakes as well.

4.4.4 Japan

Japanese mayonnaise is typically made with apple cidervinegar or rice vinegar and a small amount of MSG,which gives it a different flavor from mayonnaise madefrom distilled vinegar.[27][28] It is most often sold in softplastic squeeze bottles. Its texture is thicker than mostWestern commercial mayonnaise.[29] A variety contain-ing karashi (Japanese mustard) is also common.Apart from salads, it is popular with dishes such asokonomiyaki, takoyaki and yakisoba and may also ac-company katsu and karaage.[30] It is sometimes servedwith cooked vegetables, dabbed on sushi or mixed withsoy sauce, hot/spicy chili oil or wasabi and used as dips.In the Tōkai region, it is a frequent condiment on hiyashichūka (cold noodle salad). Many fried seafood dishes areserved with a side of mayonnaise for dipping. It is alsocommon in Japan to use mayonnaise on pizza. Mayon-naise is also often used for cooking where it can replacebutter or oil when frying vegetables or meat.Kewpie (Q.P.) is the most popular brand of Japanesemayonnaise, advertised with a Kewpie doll logo. It ismade with egg yolks instead of whole eggs, and thevinegar is a proprietary blend containing apple and maltvinegars.[31]

4.4.5 Russia

Mayonnaise is very popular in Russia where it is madewith sunflower seed oil which gives it a very distinctiveflavor. A 2004 study showed that Russia is the onlymarket in Europe where mayonnaise is sold more thanketchup by volume. It is used as a sauce in the most pop-ular salads in Russia, such as Russian salad, or Oliviersalad (оливье, read [o-liv-yeh], from FrenchOlivier), anddressed herring and also many others. Leading brands areCalve (marketed by Unilever) and Sloboda (marketed byEfko).[32]

Furthermore, in many eastern European countries (Rus-sia, Ukraine, Belarus, etc.), one can find different com-mercial flavors of mayonnaise, such as olive, quail-egg,and lemon.

4.4.6 China

There are many terms for mayonnaise in China. Whileimported brands would be labeled as mayonnaise in En-glish, some terms used in China are the phonetic spelling

, (egg yolk sauce), (salad oil) and(salad dressing). Imported brands of mayonnaise andwhipped dressing can often be found at multicultural su-permarkets in China such as Carrefour.One reason that mayonnaise is called salad oil ( ) isbecause it is commonly found in potato salad and Oliviersalad, which may have become popularized in Chinathrough Soviet cuisine.

4.4.7 As a base for other sauces

Mayonnaise is the base for many other chilled sauces andsalad dressings. For example:

• Fry sauce is a mixture of mayonnaise, ketchup oranother red sauce (e.g. Tabasco sauce, Buffalowing sauce, or one of many smoky barbecue saucespopular in the Northwestern United States), spices,and sometimes a strong tasting salty liquid (such asWorcestershire or soy sauce) is added to balance outthe sweeter red sauces. Commonly eaten on Frenchfries in Utah, Idaho, eastern Washington and ruralOregon.

• Marie Rose sauce combines mayonnaise withtomato sauce or ketchup, cream, flavorings andbrandy. In North America, a processed version ofMarie-Rose, called "Russian dressing" sometimesuses mayonnaise as a base. However, most home-made varieties and nearly all commercial brands of“Russian dressing” use little or no mayonnaise asa base. They are very dark red and sweet dress-ings made with vegetable oil, tomato paste, vinegar,sugar, and a variety of herbs and spices (often in-cluding mustard).

• Ranch dressing is made of buttermilk or sour cream,and minced green onions, along with other season-ings, and is sometimes mixed with mayonnaise al-though that is not a traditional ingredient.

• Rouille is aïoli with added saffron, red pepper orpaprika.

• Salsa golf created in Argentina is mayonnaise withketchup as well as spices such as red pepper ororegano.

• Sauce rémoulade, in classic French cuisine is may-onnaise to which has been added mustard, gherkins,capers, parsley, chervil, tarragon, and possiblyanchovy essence.[33] An industrially made variety ispopular in Denmark and Sweden with French friesand fried fish. It is quite different from most of

4.6. SEE ALSO 17

the remoulade sauces that are frequently found inLouisiana and generally do not have a mayonnaisebase.

• Tartar sauce is mayonnaise spiced with pickled cu-cumbers and onion. Capers, olives, and crushedhardboiled eggs are sometimes included. A simplerrecipe calls for only pickle relish to be added to themayonnaise.

• Thousand Island dressing is a salmon-pink dressingthat combines tomato sauce and/or tomato ketchupor ketchup-based chili sauce, minced sweet pick-les or sweet pickle relish, assorted herbs and spices(usually including mustard), and sometimes in-cluding chopped hard-boiled egg—all thoroughlyblended into a mayonnaise base.

• Certain variations of honey mustard are based onmayonnaise and are made by combiningmayonnaisewith plain mustard, brown sugar, and lemon juice.

4.5 Nutritional aspects

Commercially made mayonnaise may contain sucrose,high fructose corn syrup, citric acid, thickeners, emul-sifiers, EDTA, flavor enhancers, and water. Such mix-tures allow for the production of products that are low infats and/or sugars. Commercial mayonnaise is also read-ily available without these additional ingredients.A typical formulation for commercially made mayon-naise (not low fat) can contain as much as 80% vegetableoil, usually soybean but sometimes olive oil. Water makesup about 7% to 8% and egg yolks about six percent. Someformulas use whole eggs instead of just yolks. The re-maining ingredients include vinegar (4%), salt (1%) andsugar (1%). Low-fat formulas will typically decrease oilcontent to just 50% and increase water content to about35%. Egg content is reduced to 4% and vinegar to 3%.Sugar is increased to 1.5% and salt lowered to 0.7%.Gums or thickeners (4%) are added to increase viscos-ity, improve texture and ensure a stable emulsion.[34]

There are several ways to prepare mayonnaise, but onaverage mayonnaise is approximately 700 kilocalories(2,900 kJ) per 100 grams of product. This makes may-onnaise a calorically dense food.There are egg-free mayonnaise-like spreads available forpeople who want to avoid animal fat and cholesterol,or who have egg allergies. These are also suitable forvegans, and for religious vegetarians who abstain fromegg consumption, such as followers of Hindu vegetari-anism. Well-known brands include Nayonaise and Ve-genaise in North America, and Plamil Egg Free in theUK.[6]

• For Vegeniase, also see Katherine Goldstein,[35]

Vegetarian taro veggie burger with relish, tomato, salad and Ve-genaise.

• For Plamil, see Plamil Foods.[36] A popular sub-stitute for mayonnaise is a mashed avocado with asqueeze of lemon; for example, tuna salads and eggsalads are often made using avocado instead of may-onnaise.

4.6 See also• Baconnaise

• Egg

• Fritessaus

• Hellmann’s and Best Foods

• Joppiesaus

• Just Mayo

• List of common dips

• List of condiments

• List of sauces

• Miracle Whip

• Salad cream

4.7 References

Notes

[1] “Mayo - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary”. Merriam-webster.com. Retrieved2015-02-14.

[2] “Mayonnaise is an emulsion of oil droplets suspended in abase composed of egg yolk, lemon juice or vinegar, whichprovides both flavor and stabilizing particles and carbohy-drates.” On Food and Cooking, Harold McGee, Scribner,New York, 2004 page 633.

18 CHAPTER 4. MAYONNAISE

[3] “Science of Eggs: Egg Science”. Exploratorium.edu. Re-trieved 2011-11-17.

[4] “Emulsifiers — Experiments”. Practical Chemistry. Re-trieved 2011-11-17.

[5] “Making an Emulsion”. Science Project Ideas. 2010-10-01. Retrieved 2011-11-17.

[6] Main Street Vegan: Everything You Need to Know to EatHealthfully and Live ... - Victoria Moran, Adair Moran- Google Books. Books.google.com. 2012-04-26. Re-trieved 2015-02-14.

[7] “Le cuisinier impérial, n.”. Le cuisinier impérial. Barba(1806). Retrieved 24 November 2014.

[8] “The French Cook, Or, The Art of Cookery: Developedin All Its Branches”. http://books.google.com/books?id=xYwEAAAAYAAJ&dq=aspic%20mayonnaise&pg=PA34#v=onepage&q&f=false''. Author(1815).Retrieved 25 November 2014.

[9] “Le cuisinier royal, n.”. Le cuisinier royal. Barba (1820).Retrieved 24 November 2014.

[10] Manuel des amphitryons. Capelle et Renand (808). Re-trieved 26 November 2014.

[11] M. Trutter et al., Culinaria Spain p. 68 (H.F. Ullmann2008)

[12] Dictionnaire de l'Académie française, neuvième édition,“3. Anciennt. Le jaune de l'œuf.”

[13] Johnny Acton, et al. Origin of Everyday Things, p. 151.Sterling Publishing (2006). ISBN 978-1-4027-4302-3

[14] The page reference has not been identified; the passageappeared either in Lacam’sMémorial historique et géogra-phie de la pâtisserie (privately printed, Paris 1908), in hisNouveau pâtissier glacier français et étranger (1865) or hisGlacier classique et artistique en France et en Italie, (1893)

[15] “mayonnaise, n.”. Oxford English Dictionary. OUP. Re-trieved 21 April 2011.

[16] Randall, Theo. “perfect mayonnaise recipe: Recipes:Good Food Channel”. Retrieved 26 December 2012.

[17] Magnusson, E. and Nilsson, L., Emulsifying properties ofegg yolk In Eggs: Nutrition, Consumption and Health,Eds. Segil, W. and Zou, H., Nova Science Publishers,New York, 2012

[18] “Good Eats Season 4 Episode 10 - EA1D10:The MayoClinic”. Good Eats Fan Page. Retrieved 8 January 2012.

[19] Gladding, Jody; Hervé This (2010). Kitchen Mysteries:Revealing the Science of Cooking (Arts and Traditions ofthe Table: Perspectives on Culinary History). New York:Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-14171-8. Re-trieved 2012-05-31.

[20] “Food Industry Application Reports - Sauces & Dress-ings”. Silverson Mixers. Retrieved 3 October 2013.

[21] “IKA - 1000 liters Mayonnaise in only 10 minutes!".Ikaprocess.com. Retrieved 2015-02-14.

[22] http://www.latinamerican-markets.com/chile---consumo-de-mayonesa

[23] “wetten.nl - Wet- en regelgeving - Warenwetbesluit Gere-serveerde aanduidingen - BWBR0009499”. wetten.nl.1998-03-24. Retrieved 2014-01-30.

[24] “Mayonnaise sales in Europe”. Foodanddrinkeu-rope.com. 2004-04-29. Retrieved 2009-06-23.

[25] http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1499&dat=19570829&id=aDEaAAAAIBAJ&sjid=-CUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=7076,5069512

[26] The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink -Google Books. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2015-02-14.

[27] Hachisu, Nancy Singleton (2012). Japanese Farm Food.

[28] “Kewpie mayo wins the condiment game”. Food Repub-lic. Retrieved 2014-06-30.

[29] “What Is Japanese Mayonnaise and How Is It Differ-ent from American Mayo? | POGOGI Japanese Food”.Pogogi.com. 2012-07-31. Retrieved 2015-02-14.

[30] “Okonomiyaki ingredients”. Okonomiyaki World. Re-trieved 2014-06-30.

[31] " | ". Kewpie.co.jp. Retrieved2011-11-17.

[32] “Moscow’s particular taste in sauces”. FoodNaviga-tor.com. Retrieved 2013-03-27.

[33] See, for example, Larousse Gastronomique, 2003, ISBN0-600-60863-8, page 1054.

[34] “Mayonnaise Manufacture Case Study” (PDF). Silverson.Retrieved 3 October 2013.

[35] Goldstein, Katherine (2013-12-27). “Vegenaise vs. May-onnaise: Why Vegan-substitute mayo is better than regu-lar mayonanaise”. Slate.com. Retrieved 2015-02-14.

[36] “Plamil: Egg Free Mayonnaise”. Plamilfoods.co.uk. Re-trieved 2015-02-14.

4.8 External links• Blender Mayonnaise Recipe

• Science Channel’s The Making Series: #2 Makingof Mayonnaise (video in Japanese)

• NPR’s Report on the 250th Birthday of Mayonnaiseand its history

Chapter 5

Beurre blanc

Seared ahi tuna in a beurre blanc sauce

Beurre blanc—literally translated from French as “whitebutter”— is a hot emulsified butter sauce made witha reduction of vinegar and/or white wine (normallyMuscadet) and grey shallots into which cold, whole butteris blended off the heat to prevent separation. The smallamounts of lecithin and other emulsifiers naturally foundin butter are used to form an oil-in-water emulsion. Al-though similar to hollandaise in concept, it is not consid-ered either a classic leading or compound sauce.[1] Thissauce originates in Loire Valley cuisine.

5.1 Origin

The chef Clémence Lefeuvre (née Clémence Prau) in-vented beurre blanc, apparently by accident, some timearound the beginning of the 20th century. She servedthis sauce at her restaurant “La Buvette de la Marine”in the hamlet of “La Chebuette” in the village of Saint-Julien-de-Concelles situated on the banks of the LoireRiver a few kilometers upstream from Nantes.[2] Legendholds that she intended to prepare a béarnaise sauce togo with pike but forgot to add the tarragon and egg yolks.Some sources claim that this invention occurred while sheworked as a cook for the Marquis de Goulaine at Châteaude Goulaine.[3] Aristide Briand, long-time Prime Min-ister of France and Nobel Peace Prize laureate, said ather death in 1932 that her death “was a bit like nationalmourning”.[2]

5.2 Preparation

A good beurre blanc is rich and buttery, with a neutralflavor that responds well to other seasonings and flavor-ings, thereby lending itself to the addition of herbs andspices. It should be light and airy yet still liquid, whilethick enough to cling to food.Beurre blanc is prepared by reducing wine, shallots, andherbs, if used, until it is nearly dry. Although not neces-sary, cream can be added at this point to act as a stabilizerto the sauce. Lemon juice is sometimes used in place ofvinegar, and stock can be added as well.[4] Cold, one-inchcubes of butter are then gradually incorporated into thesauce as the butter melts and the mixture is whisked. Thesauce can separate by either overheating or cooling. If itheats past 58 °C (136 °F), some of the emulsifying pro-teins will begin to break down and release the butterfatthey hold in emulsion. If the sauce cools below 27 °C (80°F), the butterfat will solidify.[1]

5.3 Derivatives

Beurre Rouge, a variant of the beurre blanc sauce, ismadeby substituting a dry red wine for the white wine and redwine vinegar for the white wine vinegar.

5.4 See also

• Beurre monté

• Beurre noir

• Beurre noisette

5.5 References[1] (1995), "On Cooking", Sarah R. Labensky, Salan M.

Hause, Priscilla A. Martel

[2] St-Julien-de-Concelles OfficialWebsite Retrieved 24May2008.

19

20 CHAPTER 5. BEURRE BLANC

[3] Nantes’ Quiz Retrieved 24 May 2008.

[4] Julia Child (1961), Mastering the Art of French Cooking,Alfred A. Knopf

Chapter 6

Ranch dressing

Ranch dressing is a type of salad dressing made ofsome combination of buttermilk, salt, garlic, onion, herbs(commonly chives, parsley, and dill), and spices (com-monly black pepper, paprika, and ground mustard seed),mixed into a sauce based on mayonnaise or another oilemulsion. Sour cream and yogurt are sometimes used asa substitute by some home cooks or to create a lower-fatversion. Ranch dressing has been the best-selling saladdressing in the United States since 1992, when it over-took Italian dressing.[1] It is also popular as a dip.

6.1 History

In the early 1950s, Steve Henson developed what is nowknown as ranch dressing while working as a plumbingcontractor for three years in the remote Alaskan bush.In 1954, he and his wife Gayle opened Hidden Val-ley Ranch, a dude ranch near Santa Barbara, California,where they served it to the guests. It became popular, andthey began selling it in packages for guests to take home,both as a finished product and as packets of seasoning tobe mixed with mayonnaise and buttermilk. They incor-porated Hidden Valley Ranch Food Products, Inc. andopened a factory to manufacture it in larger volumes, dis-tributed first to supermarkets in the Southwest, and laternationally. In October 1972, the Hidden Valley Ranchbrand was bought by Clorox for $8 million.[1]

Kraft Foods and General Foods began selling similar dryseasoning packets labeled as “ranch style”. This resultedin a trademark infringement lawsuit against both fromthe Waples-Platter Companies, the Texas-based manu-facturer of Ranch Style Beans (now part of ConAgraFoods), even though Waples-Platter had declined to en-ter the salad dressing market itself out of fear that thetendency of such products to spoil rapidly would damageits brand. The case was tried before federal judge EldonBrooks Mahon in Fort Worth, Texas, in 1976. Judge Ma-hon ruled in favor of Waples-Platter in a lengthy opin-ion which described the various “ranch style” and “ranch”products then available, of which many had been createdto compete against Hidden Valley Ranch.[2] JudgeMahonspecifically noted that Hidden Valley Ranch and Waples-Platter had no dispute with each other (though he also

noted that Hidden Valley Ranch was simultaneously su-ing General Foods in a separate federal case in Califor-nia). The only issue before the Texas federal district courtwas that Waples-Platter was disputing the right of othermanufacturers to compete against Hidden Valley Ranchby using the label “ranch style”.Meanwhile, Clorox reformulated the Hidden ValleyRanch dressing several times to try to make it more con-venient for consumers. The first change was to includebuttermilk flavoring in the seasoning so that it requiredadding standard milk rather than buttermilk.[1] In 1983,Clorox developed a more popular non-refrigerated bot-tled formulation. As of 2002, Clorox subsidiary HiddenValley Ranch Manufacturing LLC produces ranch pack-ets and bottled dressings at two large factories, in Reno,Nevada, and Wheeling, Illinois.[3]

During the 1980s, ranch became a common snack foodflavor, starting with Cool Ranch Doritos in 1987, andHidden Valley Ranch Wavy Lay’s in 1994.[1]

During the 1990s Hidden Valley had three kid-orientedvariations of ranch dressing: pizza, nacho cheese and tacoflavors.

6.2 Popularity

Ranch dressing is common in the United States as a dipfor vegetables such as broccoli and carrots, as well as forchips and “bar foods” such as french fries and chickenwings. It is also a common dipping sauce for fried foodssuch as fried mushrooms, fried zucchini, jalapeno pop-pers, onion rings, chicken fingers, and hushpuppies. Inaddition, ranch dressing is used on pizza, pickles, bakedpotatoes, wraps, tacos, pretzels, and hamburgers.While popular in the United States and Canada, ranchdressing is virtually unknown in many parts of theworld.[4][5][6] In places where ranch seasoning is used toflavor snack foods, the flavor may be described as “Amer-ican” flavor.[7]

Ranch dressing is produced by many manufacturers, in-cluding Hidden Valley, Ken’s, Kraft, Marie’s, Newman’sOwn, and Wish-Bone.[8]

21

22 CHAPTER 6. RANCH DRESSING

6.3 See also• Food portal

6.4 References[1] Slate magazine Ranch Dressing. Why do Americans love

it so much? - August 5, 2005

[2] Waples-Platter Companies v. Gen. Foods Corp., 439F.Supp. 551 (N.D. Tex. 1977).

[3] Brown, Gerald, et al. “Optimizing Plant-Line Schedulesand an Application at Hidden ValleyManufacturing Com-pany,” Interfaces 32, no. 3 (May–June 2002), 1-14.

[4] de la Vina, Mark (28 June 1995). “Hold On To YourTongue! 'RealWorld' Lashes Out”. Daily News. Philadel-phia. ... there is no ranch dressing ... in Britain.

[5] Supine, John (22 January 2010). “Germany doesn’t beatChampaign”. Peoria Journal Star. Retrieved 24 June2013. ... he misses ranch dressing [in Germany].

[6] Layden, Tim (18 March 2010). “Saint Mary’s shakes offpundits, travel to score first-round upset”. Sports Illus-trated. Retrieved 24 June 2013. They don't have ranchdressing in Australia.

[7] Blazenhoff, Rusty (18 April 2013). “Cool AmericanDoritos”. Laughing Squid. Retrieved 3 May 2015.

[8] Calorie counter - ranch dressing

6.5 External links• Hidden Valley Ranch Dressing history

Chapter 7

Aioli

Aioli of garlic, salt, egg, and olive oil in a mortar

Aioli with olives

Aioli or aïoli (/aɪˈoʊli/; Provençal Occitan: alhòli [aˈʎɔli]or aiòli [aˈjɔli];[1] Catalan: allioli [ˌaʎiˈɔɫi]) is a Provençalsauce made of garlic, olive oil, usually egg yolks, andseasonings.[2] The proper recipe did not include lemonjuice, thoughmany people add it. [3] There aremany vari-ations, such as the addition ofmustard. It is usually servedat room temperature. The name aioli (alhòli) comes fromProvençal alh 'garlic' (< Latin allium) + òli 'oil' (< Latinoleum).Aioli is, like mayonnaise, an emulsion or suspension ofsmall globules of oil and oil-soluble compounds in waterand water-soluble compounds. Egg yolk can be used asan emulsifier and is generally used in making aioli today.

However, mustard and garlic both emulsify oil, and somevariants such as Valencia allioli, and Maltese aljoli omitthe egg.

7.1 Basic recipe

Egg yolks, garlic, and seasonings are whisked together,then the oil and the lemon juice are added, initially veryslowly, whisking to emulsify. Once the emulsion hasstarted to form, the oil can be added faster.In Occitan cuisine, aioli is typically served with seafood,fish soup, and croutons, in a dish called merluça amb al-hòli. In Malta, arjoli or ajjoli is commonly made withthe addition of either crushed galletti or tomato. In theOccitan Valleys of Italy it is served with potatoes[4] boiledwith salt and bay laurel.In Provence, aioli or, more formally, Le Grand Aïoli, alsodesignates a complete dish consisting of various boiledvegetables (uniformly carrots, potatoes, and green beans),boiled fish (normally soaked salt cod), other seafood, andboiled eggs, served with the aioli sauce. Other commonlyused vegetables are cauliflower and raw tomato.[2]

7.2 Other forms of aioli

Similar sauces are found elsewhere in the region.

7.2.1 Allioli

Allioli (pronounced: [ˌaʎiˈɔɫi], also spelled alioli[ˌaɫiˈɔɫi]), from all i oli, Catalan for "garlic and oil”, isa typical paste-like cold sauce of Catalonia, BalearicIslands and Valencia. It is made by pounding garlic witholive oil and salt in a mortar until smooth. It is oftenserved with arròs a banda from Alicante, with grilledlamb, grilled vegetables and arròs negre, and comes inother varieties such as allioli de codony (allioli withboiled quince, not the preserve) or allioli with boiledpear.

23

24 CHAPTER 7. AIOLI

7.2.2 Aillade

Aillade is the name used in southern France for two dif-ferent garlic-based condiments. In Provence, it is a garlic-flavored vinaigrette, while in areas such as Languedoc-Roussillon, it is the name given to aioli.

7.3 See also• Skordalia, a Greek garlic sauce

• Mujdei, a Romanian garlic sauce

• Toum, an Arabic garlic sauce

• List of common dips

7.4 References[1] In Provençal Occitan, the same word is written alhòli ac-

cording to the classical norm or aiòli according to theMis-tralian norm.

[2] Olney, Richard (1994). Lulu’s Provenca̜l table : the exu-berant food and wine from Domaine Tempier Vineyard.New York: HarperCollins. p. 124–5. ISBN 0-06-016922-2.

[3] BBC Food: Aïoli recipe

[4] “La cucina occitana (area cuneese)" (in Italian). Retrieved2009-04-11.

7.5 External links• Video on making Alioli in 2 minutes

7.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 25

7.6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

7.6.1 Text• Emulsion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsion?oldid=654841424 Contributors: MarXidad, Rgamble, William Avery, Heron,

Michael Hardy, Pit~enwiki, Dominus, Jketola, Ronz, Andres, Ineuw, Samw, GRAHAMUK, Ike9898, Furrykef, Samsara, Shizhao, Blood-shedder, PolymerTim, Gentgeen, Robbot, Wjhonson, Ojigiri~enwiki, Wikibot, Xanzzibar, Matt Gies, Christopher Parham, Michael De-vore, Bensaccount, Alvestrand, Erich gasboy, Tom k&e, Eroica, Vbs, Karl-Henner, Sam Hocevar, J0m1eisler, Neutrality, MementoVivere,Deglr6328, Discospinster, Vsmith, Martpol, TerraFrost, Joanjoc~enwiki, Kwamikagami, Ferret face, Svdmolen, Bobo192, Johnkarp, Den-nis Valeev, Kjkolb, HasharBot~enwiki, Still, Alansohn, Coma28, Arthena, Visviva, Demi, Goatboy, Gene Nygaard, Kazvorpal, Galaxiaad,Killing Vector, DanielVonEhren, Nuno Tavares, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Polyparadigm, Pkeck, MONGO, DESiegel, Magister Mathe-maticae, DonSiano, Margosbot~enwiki, Physchim62, Mallocks, Chobot, Banaticus, YurikBot, Borgx, Sneak, Gaius Cornelius, Cambridge-BayWeather, Shaddack, Ihope127, Alex Bakharev, NawlinWiki, ENeville, Wiki alf, RazorICE, VinceBowdren, Moe Epsilon, Voidxor,JHCaufield, Dbfirs, Allens, SmackBot, Sagie, Slashme, InverseHypercube, Lifebaka, WookieInHeat, Delldot, Aaronproot, Shai-kun, Un-forgettableid, Ben.c.roberts, Octahedron80, Nbarth, Hallenrm, Ajaxkroon, Microfrost, FiveRings, Dcamp314, Drphilharmonic, Fatla00,Ashi Starshade, Pilotguy, SashatoBot, AThing, Soap, Spell4yr, LACameraman, Spook`, Hogyn Lleol, Vagary, 10014derek, Matthew-foulkes, Ewulp, Ramehart, Tawkerbot2, Goodparley, 0zymandias, Hippolyte~enwiki, Rifleman 82, Gogo Dodo, Indeterminate, Skittleys,Clovis Sangrail, Christian75, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Marek69, WillMak050389, Nick Number, AntiVandalBot, Infindebula, Julia Rossi,Chill doubt, Res2216firestar, JAnDbot, Deflective, Belg4mit, PhilKnight, Dream Focus, Rothorpe, Cynwolfe, Andreas Toth, VoABot II,LafinJack, Twsx, Froid, Indon, Cgingold, DerHexer, TheRanger, MartinBot, STBot, Ariel., NAHID, R'n'B, J.delanoy, Ali, Bo Basil, Cro-cadog, Jar1974, Forstnert, NewEnglandYankee, Bob, Uhai, Ja 62, Xnuala, VolkovBot, LokiClock, TheGreenFog, Philip Trueman, TXiKi-BoT, Vitund, Cosmic Latte, Qxz, Una Smith, Dawaegel, Raymondwinn, Legoktm, EmxBot, SieBot, Essamfatthy, Lottie69, David101207,Flyer22, Oda Mari, Avnjay, Hello71, C'est moi, Anchor Link Bot, JL-Bot, WikipedianMarlith, Thebiestsc, ClueBot, Stoic Squirrel, TheThing That Should Not Be, Blackangel25, DesertAngel, Drmies, Blanchardb, Dante brevity, DragonBot, AndreiDukhin, Resoru, Eeekster,Panoramix303, JamieS93, Razorflame, PotentialDanger, NJGW, DumZiBoT, Jscg, Imunuri, Dthomsen8, Manfi, MystBot, Freestyle-69,Some jerk on the Internet, TEDMONDS, Elen of the Roads, Tide rolls, ZZWonderBoyZz, ,ماني Gail, Zorrobot, Snaily, Ben Ben, Legobot,Yobot, AnomieBOT, Ciphers, Götz, Colloid07, Kingpin13, Dinesh smita, Crystal whacker, Flewis, Materialscientist, Inthend9, Poleron,Addihockey10, Joebrewin117, Jhbdel, Elmesonero, D'ohBot, Steve Quinn, Jhfortier, Åkebråke, MarcelB612, Tom.Reding, Meaghan,Bloatedyak, Toolnut, Orenburg1, Furygun81, Hdihang, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Mean as custard, Cheiss73, Slon02, Eekerz, Danish Ex-pert, Tommy2010, Uploadvirus, Ahamel, Evanh2008, Zlrivalz, Bongoramsey, Josve05a, Shuipzv3, Tolly4bolly, Erianna, Dereleased,Eng.faria, Donner60, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Lhb1239, MelbourneStar, Mohying, Skoot13, Kier zero, Bloomcounty, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jono-mastic, Wh1teChocolatte, Anofein, ChE Fundamentalist, Grimreaper576, Klilidiplomus, Bootzzee, Peshkovs, StevieWonder&Heskey,ChrisGualtieri, AlanParkerFrance, Prvjani, Webclient101, EleriWall, Bubblerock2, Frosty, Chedder12345, Woaoaoaoao, Telfordbuck,PinkAmpersand, Jodosma, Dcalifornia, SZhangJerry, Austriana32, Amr94, Azeeq97, EtymAesthete, Sileby10, Cosmia Nebula, MotiNoti,Dingsuntil and Anonymous: 380

• Lecithin Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecithin?oldid=658831097 Contributors: Taw, Michael Hardy, Kosebamse, Julesd, EdH,Ike9898, Thue, Gromlakh, RedWolf, Unfree, BenFrantzDale, Jfdwolff, Dflock, St3vo, Finn-Zoltan, Eequor, Deego, SWAdair, Kandar,Manuel Anastácio, Chiu frederick, Iantresman, Positron, Klemen Kocjancic, Karl Dickman, Adashiel, Kate, Reinthal, Mattman723, Ca-cycle, Petersam, Fenice, Pmcm, El C, Dragon76, Cmdrjameson, Arcadian, Scott Ritchie, Mjager, Keflavich, Melaen, HGB, Galaxiaad,Woohookitty, Pol098, Isnow, JohnJohn, BD2412, Canderson7, Rjwilmsi, Ian Pitchford, Gurch, RobyWayne, Iridos~enwiki, King ofHearts, Hatch68, Vmenkov, YurikBot, RobotE, Midgley, Bobby1011, Shaddack, Iambk, Srlevine, JoanneB, A Doon, Lorem~enwiki, Sci-entz, AeroIllini, M Holland, Reedy, Slashme, Eskimbot, Jab843, Edgar181, Diegotorquemada, Likeitsmyjob, RDBrown, Octahedron80,Gruzd, Zymatik, Mike hayes, ShamimMHuq, Dmcg026, Drphilharmonic, DohCam, Clicketyclack, AThing, Liciv, Beetstra, DabMa-chine, T.O. Rainy Day, Buckyboy314, Kkkdc, Lighthead, Cydebot, MC10, Clovis Sangrail, Afinebalance, ,הסרפד Thijs!bot, Siawase,MisterSpike, Spencer, JAnDbot, Stellmach, Jjacobsmeyer, Patrus, VoABot II, KConWiki, Jessicapierce, Wlodzimierz, Bhojrah, MrBell,GoldPseudo, Clarkcol, Rod57, Abidagus, Fabiocosta, Betswiki, HiLo48, Bucinka, 83d40m, Pdcook, Chef Frog, Deor, VolkovBot, Ed-dievos, Una Smith, Gregogil, Yk Yk Yk, Happy5214, !dea4u, Dry dust, SieBot, Callipides~enwiki, Cwkmail, Chmyr, Nite-Sirk, Dr Care-Bear, S2000magician, ClueBot, SalineBrain, Mild Bill Hiccup, PolarYukon, NathanWalther, Eshouthe, Grygiu, Berean Hunter, Big rad,XLinkBot, PSimeon, Central16, Jytdog, Dsarah3, Vanished 45kd09la13, Osarius, HexaChord, Addbot, RogerioLuz, Shashank.gadwe,Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Mundadass, LilHelpa, Obersachsebot, Dawzab, Gigemag76, Jü, Tejaswie, Makeswell, Chanceyvil, Om-nipaedista, RibotBOT, Fxm12, Natural Cut, FrescoBot, Sunflower lecithin, D'ohBot, Weetoddid, Citation bot 1, AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket,Tubifex, Jesse V., Xnn, ErikBFlom, RjwilmsiBot, Thurt, EmausBot, John of Reading, Robiquetgobley, Gfoley4, Seren-dipper, Qrs-dogg, Evasivo, Clive100, Gabithefirst, Erianna, Jay-Sebastos, Donner60, Jinnko, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Akedia1, Whipwire, Widr,Ilikesivan, BG19bot, ELMA2011, BattyBot, Mrt3366, Luckydhaliwal, Ultra Venia, Dexbot, Isarra (HG), Nightlight77, Grassharper1,Makkachin, Monkbot, Qwertyxp2000, Cheminded, Mobitar and Anonymous: 249

• Hollandaise sauce Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollandaise%20sauce?oldid=661002457 Contributors: Markc113, Camembert,Bdesham, SatyrTN, Wetman, Gentgeen, RedWolf, Psychonaut, Ruakh, Xanzzibar, Unfree, Djinn112, Fennec, Slurslee, Gadfium, R. fiend,Zipwow, I8pigeon, Bodnotbod, Valmi, Esperant, Kate, YUL89YYZ, Kwamikagami, Bill Thayer, Jumbuck, SidP, Sfacets, Yurivict, KillingVector, Woohookitty, CyrilleDunant, Bluemoose, Bunchofgrapes, Snafflekid, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Mike Segal, Munahaf, Wanderingtaoist,YurikBot, RobotE, RussBot, Thane, Grafen, Dforest, Raven4x4x, Maunus, Wknight94, Sotakeit, JoanneB, Curpsbot-unicodify, Smack-Bot, KnowledgeOfSelf, RedSpruce, Kintetsubuffalo, Donama, Hmains, Chris the speller, Kurykh, Apankrat, Mike hayes, Underorbit,Dripp, Ment al, A. Parrot, Alessandro57, Rdunn, Dia^, Andrew.george.hammond, Fyrius, Cydebot, Agne27, Arcayne, Cs california, Sain-train, Thijs!bot, Montiederby, Headbomb, Neil916, Oreo Priest, Visik, Deflective, Awien, MegX, SwiftBot, Jerem43, Herbythyme, TyrS,OttoMäkelä, Ricin123, CyBot, Belovedfreak, 83d40m, Wickerpedia, RjCan, Funandtrvl, Vranak, Deor, Tomer T, Patrickcolvin, TXiK-iBoT, Dmforcier, Mark Miller, Clarince63, RichyBoy123, January2007, Tanner-Christopher, Bryce268, StAnselm, Accounting4Taste,NVar, ClueBot, Auntof6, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Aitias, Little Mountain 5, Addbot, Underhills123, Erutuon, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Amirobot,AnomieBOT, Patco070, Kingpin13, In fact, Horrid Henry, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Vinithehat, CWii 3, Daeld1, Suffusion of Yellow,DARTH SIDIOUS 2, TjBot, Solarra, Winner 42, Erpert, ZéroBot, Erianna, Matt bray chef, ClueBot NG, Bped1985, Clearlyfakeusername,Jrfw51, Helpful Pixie Bot, Whodaretoknock, Northamerica1000, Ridcully Jack, Pro-Apocalyptic, BattyBot, Astoria CA-34, Minhnhh,Cenedlaetholwr Cymreig, Ruby Murray, Devinhgaffney, BiffMac, Hoho24, Caitlingoesgrr, Scskygod, 1339861mzb, Monkbot, Gbdmy andAnonymous: 133

• Mayonnaise Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayonnaise?oldid=661520453 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Kpjas, Lee Daniel Crocker,

26 CHAPTER 7. AIOLI

Wesley, Tarquin, Taw, Slrubenstein, Deb, Karen Johnson, Roadrunner, SimonP, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Zoe, Zadcat, Montrealais, Ewen, D,Michael Hardy, Liftarn, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Skysmith, Ahoerstemeier, Angela, Julesd, Marteau, Ec5618, Timwi, JonMoore, Random832,Ike9898, DJ Clayworth, Ghoppe, Wetman, Robbot, RedWolf, Jmabel, Altenmann, Psychonaut, JosephBarillari, Mirv, Rfc1394, AcademicChallenger, Grahhh, Jachim69, Auric, Gidonb, Olpus, Humus sapiens, Victor, Dina, Radagast, Dave6, Nunh-huh, Vfp15, HangingCurve,Zigger, Gus Polly, Gilgamesh~enwiki, SWAdair, Bobblewik, Wmahan, Garryq, Andycjp, Antandrus, Lockeownzj00, Jossi, Dragonfly-Sixtyseven, Edsanville, Exia, MementoVivere, Acsenray, Poccil, Hayford Peirce, Discospinster, Leto~enwiki, Guanabot, Zombiejesus,Mani1, Livajo, El C, Olaf2, Juppiter, C1k3, Sietse Snel, Dennis Brown, MPS, Bill Thayer, Bobo192, Smalljim, Dtremenak, Elipongo,VonWoland, AKGhetto, Dungodung, Palmiro, SpeedyGonsales, Rockhopper10r, Justinsomnia, Thewayforward, Ranveig, 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7.6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 27

mous: 950• Beurre blanc Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beurre%20blanc?oldid=638721894 Contributors: Tarquin, Aezram, Hyacinth, Red-

Wolf, Solipsist, Foobar, Dvavasour, Bodnotbod, Dr.frog, Mani1, Circeus, HasharBot~enwiki, Mceder, Guthrie, Sfacets, Yurivict, Deroravi, DanielVonEhren, Rjwilmsi, FlaBot, Lebha, YurikBot, Stephenb, Catharticflux, Zephalis, SmackBot, Chris the speller, Thumperward,Mike hayes, Hippo43, Compass NW, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Ckatz, BillFlis, Arcanaman, Agne27, Natalie Erin, DCR, Darklilac, MER-C, VoABot II, WhatamIdoing, Hiplibrarianship, Taowind, Bleaney, RichyBoy123, January2007, Tamorlan, LAX, Auntof6, Promethean,XLinkBot, Mabalu, Addbot, CuteHappyBrute, Yobot, Shadowjams, Robersonj430 and Anonymous: 22

• Ranch dressing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranch%20dressing?oldid=661370575 Contributors: Sfdan, Ixfd64, Wetman, Denel-son83, Rfc1394, PBP, Carpathia, DocWatson42, Christopher Parham, Djinn112, Brian Kendig, Slyguy, DemonThing, SarekOfVulcan,Eregli bob, Jossi, Oknazevad, Rakista, Dr.frog, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Spoonboy42, Aecis, Coolcaesar, Mpbx3003, Small-jim, Caeruleancentaur, Geschichte, Alansohn, Interiot, Fuyutski, Wtmitchell, RainbowOfLight, Bsadowski1, Versageek, Bobbyllama,Yousaf465, Weyes, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, WadeSimMiser, Jimbonator, SCEhardt, SDC, John Kenneth Fisher, Buxtehude, BD2412,Mcbarron, Voretus, Ian Pitchford, Ahunt, Spacepotato, Jack Cain, Aaron Walden, Russoc4, Calicore, Bullzeye, Nucleusboy, Zzuuzz, War-freak, Closedmouth, Jaranda, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, BeagleSoldier, Yamaguchi , Cool3, Gilliam, Saros136, Chris the speller,Thatpacokid, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, A. B., JesseRafe, Decltype, Kevlar67, Vedek Dukat, Drphilharmonic, DMacks,BiggKwell, Stewie814, Kuru, Khazar, Mthomasm, Slakr, Riffic, Iridescent, Beardsworth, Fdssdf, Czoller, CmdrObot, Cerdic, Flying-Toaster, Slazenger, Cydebot, Pdxuser, Captiivus, Blindman shady, JonBroxton, Uglyaesthetic, Marek69, Visik, Mentifisto, Quintote,Mathisreallycool, CFang, Dan D. Ric, Acroterion, SmithFred, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Anþony, Face Kicker, Aka042, Fabrictramp,Catgut, Animum, Allstarecho, DerHexer, MartinBot, Etvander, J.delanoy, Geotek, Jesper Jurcenoks, Acalamari, Pompey66, NewEng-landYankee, DogcatcherDrew, Jevansen, Msor504, CardinalDan, Wikieditor06, X!, Derekbd, Rtrace, Philip Trueman, Mercurywoodrose,Lradrama, Hackel, Falcon8765, Monty845, Ferox117, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Triwbe, Flyer22, Harry the Dirty Dog, IdreamofJeanie, Spit-fire19, Maelgwnbot, Escape Orbit, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Deciptamacon, Drew.magoo, SuperHamster, Eggpants, Ash-leykaryn, Excirial, Alexbot, Maser Fletcher, JasonAQuest, XLinkBot, Dark Mage, Stickee, Addbot, Willking1979, Freakmighty, Fyrael,Themud, Novalia, Boomur, Terbula, Sheepech, Boombastic master, Leigh-Stan, Cst17, FCSundae, Elizausten, Tide rolls, Luckas-bot,Fraggle81, Retro00064, AnomieBOT, Tangodelta1, Neptune5000, Piano non troppo, Flewis, Materialscientist, Rtyq2, Me eat muffin, TadLincoln, Locos epraix, Ignoranteconomist, Thehelpfulbot, Weetoddid, Totally maybe, Pinethicket, I EAT NEEBS, Tinton5, Lando Calris-sian, Mono, Aoidh, Tbhotch, Telefunkentelefunken, Enauspeaker, DASHBot, EmausBot, The Blade of the Northern Lights, DeathlyOdd,XoXbeachXbabaayyXoX, John Cline, Anir1uph, Splatterhouse5, Bootsy42, Chocolatejoe, AsmundErvik, Mcmatter, Erianna, Donner60,C51Creations, Nirakka, Petrb, ClueBot NG, This lousy T-shirt, Antiqueight, Mizwasy, Brush Rider, Northamerica1000, Gekijyu, Green-field26, Pastanoodlesfartman, LNCP, Jockphillips, Lugia2453, Frosty, Jasonlechod, PC-XT, Theo’s Little Bot, I am One of Many, CourtAppointed Shrub, Buffbills7701, Jaaron95, Bigboybear27, Skatster, Kendombrowski, Personpo, Rc192804, Vieque, Bfhyudb, Joannemal-colm, Carlyhanson, Teallyy and Anonymous: 331

• Aioli Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aioli?oldid=660312537 Contributors: JHK, Youssefsan, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Perique des Palottes,Hephaestos, Olivier, Ericd, Booyabazooka, Dysprosia, David.Monniaux, Robbot, RedWolf, Nurg, Macrakis, Gadfium, Robert Brockway,Guanabot, Kwamikagami, Bill Thayer, RossenV, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Ross Burgess, Yurivict, Garrison Roo, Richard Arthur Norton(1958- ), Woohookitty, Pol098, SP-KP, Theinsomniac4life, Viktor~enwiki, Katxo, RexNL, Le Anh-Huy, Silversmith, YurikBot, RussBot,KamuiShirou, Howcheng, Garion96, Bluezy, SmackBot, Lagalag, Unyoyega, Eskimbot, Valley2city, Keegan, A. B., Cybercobra, AdeMi-ami, AnPrionsaBeag, Lambiam, Jotamar, Khazar, Duffarama, Belfry, Morganfitzp, Ntsimp, Thebookpolice, MC10, JNZ, Omicronpersei8,Thijs!bot, Visik, Emeraldcityserendipity, Nipisiquit, Deflective, Aubadaurada, J.delanoy, Katharineamy, Mmarien, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT,Lambyte, Plutonium27, Tikuko, Jose piratilla, Temporaluser, Gfglegal, Rockstone35, Jrun, JD554, Ken123BOT, Asocall, ImageRemoval-Bot, ClueBot, Liuzhou, TheSmuel, Takeaway, Sonic Craze, Scott Anafas, Cnoguera, XLinkBot, Catgirl, Addbot, Espencat~enwiki, Laa-knorBot, FXcuisine, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Worldbruce, Rubinbot, Flewis, GrouchoBot, Marco Bernardini, Gadjoproject, FrescoBot, Benzol-Bot, Slastic, JaumeR, EmausBot, ZéroBot, WeijiBaikeBianji, Ὁ οἶστρος, AvicAWB, Erianna, Icy Tiger’s Blood, Caforang, Helpful PixieBot, Tot-futbol, BG19bot, Wardtmar, Northamerica1000, Exfuent, Mikealfonsomd, BlueBirdo, Susanperu, Bliss travels, PhantomTech andAnonymous: 109

7.6.2 Images• File:1-Oleoyl-2-almitoyl-phosphatidylcholine_Structural_Formulae_V.1.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

commons/8/8d/1-Oleoyl-2-almitoyl-phosphatidylcholine_Structural_Formulae_V.1.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Originalartist: Jü

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• File:Aioli_mit_Oliven.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Aioli_mit_Oliven.jpg License: CC BY-SA2.0 de Contributors: Own work Original artist: Robert Kindermann aka RobertK. User RobertK on de.wikipedia

• File:Allioli.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Allioli.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Ownwork Original artist: Ralph Sperling

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28 CHAPTER 7. AIOLI

• File:FlattenedRoundPills.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/FlattenedRoundPills.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: David Richfield Original artist: David Richfield

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• File:Pickled_Beet_Juice_Salad_Dressing_(3502671190).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Pickled_Beet_Juice_Salad_Dressing_%283502671190%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Pickled Beet Juice Salad Dressing Original artist:Kari Sullivan from Austin, TX

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• File:Ranch_dressing.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Ranch_dressing.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Con-tributors: Ranch Dressing Original artist: Whitney from Chicago, IL

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taro burger Original artist: Janine from Honolulu, Hawai'i, United States• File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.

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