english teaching methodology

7/27/2019 English Teaching Methodology

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English Teaching

Methodology


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LANGUAGE LEARNING AND

TEACHING Objectives:

1. understand the way knowledge of

language learning influences languageteaching

2. evaluate the advantages and

disadvantages of different teaching

methods


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I. Language learning

Knowing a language=

1. knowing the items that make up the

language, being able to supply theseitems when they are missing, or being

able to do without them

2. the ability to produce an infinite number

of sentences in response to an infinite

number of stimuli


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3. knowing its:

-pronunciation(knowledge of sounds,

stress and intonation)-grammar (knowledge of the rules which

help creating an infinite number of

sentences = grammatical competence)

-vocabulary(knowledge of what words

mean both literally and metaphorically)


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-discourse(knowledge of how language is used

appropriately and how language is organized as

discourse = communicative competence)

-appropriacy(knowledge of how to use language

appropriately: how to get it to do what we want

it to do in the right circumstances)1

-language skills(possession of the four basic

skills: speaking, writing, listening and reading)


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Learning a language= a

heterogeneous process, comprising lots

of mechanisms, beginning with those ofPavlovs conditioning type, up to the

most complex ones, those of the type of

problem solving.


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Learning styles

a) visual learners

learn better by visual means (by readingand by looking at pictures or films);

- they remember instructions best if they

see them on the blackboard


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b) auditory learners

learn well by hearing things (lectures or

tapes)- they like teachers to give oral instructions

- they like making tape recordings of what

they are learning and having discussions


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c) kinaesthetic learners

learn best when they have hands-on

experience, when they are physicallyinvolved or can actively participate;

- they like moving around when they learn

and prefer a variety of classroom

activities


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II. Learning theories and

approaches Acquisition and learning(S. Krashen)

Acquisition= the natural way, paralleling firstlanguage development in children

a subconscious process which has as a result

the language proficiency through understanding

and using language for meaningful

communication

It is more successful and longer lasting than

learning


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Learning=

the process in which conscious rules

about a language are developed; it results only in knowing about the

language, that is, explicit knowledge

about the forms of a language and the

ability to verbalize this knowledge


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Theories of learning a language

1)Behaviouristicdeveloped by Skinner

Characteristics:

applied the theory of conditioning (ananimal can be trained to learn something

through a three-stage procedure:

stimulus, response and reinforcement/

reward) to the way humans acquire their

first language.


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language was considered as a form of

behaviour.

language learning is considered to bebased on experience, imitation and

selective conditioning and the language

habit formed by constant repetition.

mistakes were immediately criticized,

good results were immediately praised.


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2) Nativistic Noam Chomsky

Characteristics:

language acquisition is considered to bea more or less autonomous processbased on an inborn mechanism oflanguage acquisition

linguistic competence is the mostimportant thing


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language was not a form of behaviour,

but a rule-based system (a large part of

language acquisition means in fact thelearning of the system)

the language learner acquires language

competence (knowledge of the grammar

rules present in the system) and heexperiments it as language user.


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3) task-based learning

Characteristics:

it is based on the idea that attention should not

be given too much to the nature of languageinput, but to the learning tasks that students areinvolved in

students should be asked to perform

communicative activities (tasks) in which theyhave to use the language. (he more they dothis, the better they become at using thelanguage)


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the tasks chosen, should contribute to

communicative goals; enhance learning;

have carefully designed elements andwell specified objectives;

engage students in some form of

genuine problem solving activity


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4) cooperative learning

involves the learner-centered

characteristics;- it also refers to the collaborative efforts of

students and teachers working together

to pursue goals and objectives


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5)interactive learning

created for communicative purposes ( theinteractive classes are those which do group

and pair work);- students receive authentic language input in

real-life contexts;

- students produce language for meaningful

communication; produce oral communication;write to and for real audience; focus on thesocial aspect of language;

- integrate the four skills.


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6) self-directed learning

- is based on the idea that students have to

be trained to be good learners; theirlearning is better if they make most oftheir own resources, if they can taketheir own decisions about what to donext, how best to study

- a good language programme should bebased on a mixture of class-work andself-study


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7) humanistic approaches

based on the idea that the humanisticaspects of learning should be stressed.

- the experience of the students is whatcounts

- the development of the studentspersonality, as well as the

encouragement of positive feelings areconsidered to be as important as theirlearning of a language


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III. Language teaching

The teaching processinvolves

presenting and explaining the new material (in a

clear, comprehensible and available for learning

way)

providing practice (in order to reinforce learning

and improve performance)

testing and evaluation (to check what has been

mastered and what still needs to be learned or

reviewed; to evaluate both the students and

the teachers work)


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Principles in teaching:

1) the communicative principle

language as a means of communication is an

activity (foreign language classes should beactive)

- students should be encouraged to workthroughout the whole course of a class

- the foreign language should be used almostexclusively during the classes

- conversational practice is introduced from thevery first stage


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2) the meaningful learning principle

asks for avoidance of too much

grammatical explanation and mechanicaltechniques;

- stress should be on students developing

their power of making associations, on

their capacity of analysis and synthesis


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3) the intrinsic motivation principle

stress should be on the students developingtheir intrinsic motivation, which is concerned

with what takes place in the classroom (asopposed to extrinsic motivation)

- intrinsic motivation plays an important role in thestudents success or failure as languagelearners, being influenced by such factors as:the physical condition in which learning takesplace, the method by which students are taught,the teacher and his teaching style, as well asthe students success in learning


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- the teachers task is to develop strategies

so as to give students reasons to work,

to motivate them to fully take part in theprocess of learning


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4) the risk-taking principle

students should be encouraged to take

risks in their attempt to use the language- the teacher should choose suitable

techniquesfrom simple to complex and

constantly affirm his belief in their ability

of solving tasks


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5) the languageculture connection

principle

students should develop a positiveperception of the target language and its

people;

- teaching a language means teaching

about the people speaking thatlanguage; their culture and way of

thinking


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6) the affective principle

language learning and teaching should

take place in a relaxed and supportiveatmosphere;

- the teacher should be patient and

understanding;

- the teacher should encourage co-

operative learning


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Teaching approaches and

methods

Approach

= a conception, a system, a point of viewconcerning the nature of the subjectmatter to be taught

- it involves commitment to a particulartheory about language or learning

- it determines the methods andtechniques to be used

- it includes many methods of teaching


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method

= an orderly presentation of the material ata given stage of the lesson

- a set of techniques and procedures,representing the level at which theory isput into practice and at which choices

are made about the particular skills to betaught, the content to be taught and theorder in which this content will bepresented


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procedure

= a part of a method

- it encompasses the actual moment-to-moment teaching (drills, dialogues, the

feedback given to learners concerning

the form or content of their utterances).


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technique

= a stratagem used to accomplish an immediate

objective in the lesson.

There can be

a) static techniques (illustration, explanation,

demonstration);

b) dynamic techniques (dramatization, simulation)

c) integrated techniques consisting of both a

linguistic object and a related activity (e.g.: a

song = an object; singing = the activity).


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Grammar Translation Method.

A) The synthetical method

- language is a synthesis of wordsarranged in sentences according todifferent rules

- students had to learn the rules and

construct sentences based on them- the rules were memorized in a strict

traditional order.


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A) The analytical method

- teaching should start with the written

text and by its analysis, to come toteach its words and rules

- everything had to be taught by

induction

- the main technique was translation into

the target language


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The advantage

- it paid great attention to meaning.

The drawbacks- it was a very schematical and rigid

system, unable to embrace richness

and variety of the spoken language

(idioms and set phrases could not be

learned according to rules and lists)


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The Direct Method

- Its aim was to develop the students capacity ofthinking in a foreign language.

- it stressed the importance of acquiring thespoken language

- excluded completely the use of the mothertongue

- the meaning of the words was explained by the

direct presentation of objects, by direct intuition- abstract notions were explained by means of

paraphrases, synonyms, antonyms or bydeducing the meaning from the context.


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- pronunciation was considered to be

important;

- little attention was given to the writtenlanguage

- the teaching of grammar was considered

secondary and was achieved by

practice.


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The advantages

- it emphasized the spoken language

- it replaced the learning of isolated wordsand endless grammar rules anddefinitions with the learning ofsentences, phrases and idioms.

- Drawbacks- the complete elimination of the mother

tongue


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The Oral Method

- its aim was to develop the students capacity of

memorizing and habit-forming

- it excluded any form of writing

- It considered that there should be no reading

matter at all

- provided methods of work meant to develop

the students power of unconscious

assimilation.


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The Audio-Visual Approach

- It is based on sociolinguistics

- it stressed on the simultaneous use ofauditory and visual stimuli: filmstrips,slides, films and tapes

- the idea was that the foreign language

should be learned in its natural forms asspeech, not as writing, and helped by themodern technical aids.


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- The advantage

- students become familiar with everyday

language


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The Audio-Lingual Approach

- meant the application of the structural linguistics to theteaching of the foreign language;

- it was based on conditioning and on behaviourism.

- its aim was the acquisition of a practical set ofcommunicative skills and to make language accessible tolarge groups

- the main characteristics were repetition andmemorization, which led to the development of skills and

habits(drills became the main activity, followed bypositive or negative reinforcement).


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- attention was given to stress, intonation

and rhythm

- dialogues were used as the main meansof presenting language and emphasis

was on listening and speaking


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- advantages:

- the first laboratory classes were

introduced- listening became a skill used for the first

time

- drawback

- using such drills, students could be in

danger of becoming parrots.


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The Situational Method

- was based on behaviorism

- considered language as an established set of

habits, a set of responses conditioned to occur

with certain stimuli (situations or words)

- considered that through the observation and

imitation of language in realistic situations,

students could master the rules inductively,without needing to be conscious of them


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Suggestopedia

a humanistic approach

- considered that the main aim of teaching was

understanding and creative solution ofproblems

- the teachers role was to create situations inwhich the learner is most suggestible and thento present linguistic material in a way mostlikely to encourage positive reception andretention by the learner

- the method insisted on students comfortablyrelaxed, on comfortable furniture and music


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- students were given new names and

listened to extended dialogues

- the idea was that the special setting, thegeneral ease of the situation, the

adoption of a new identity and the

dependence on listening to dialogues

could help students to acquire thelanguage


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The Silent Way- based on the idea that the teacher should be

silent as much as possible in the classroom andthe learner should be encouraged to produce

as much language as possible;

- the teacher offers a very limited amount of

input, he models the language to be learned

once only, and then indicates what students

should do by pointing or other silent means.


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- the method views learning as a problem-

solving, creative, discovering activity, in

which the learner is the main actor.

- the teacher does not praise; he does not

criticize either; he simply indicates that

the student should try again, until

success is achieved.


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- learning becomes a process of personal

growth resulting from growing student

awareness and self- challenging.

- learners create their own utterances by

putting together old and new information.

They are expected to develop autonomy

and responsibility, to interact with eachother and suggest alternatives to each

other.


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- charts and other visual aids are used.

- teacher is responsible for designing

teaching sequences, creating lessonelements and creating an environment

that encourages students risk taking and

that facilitates learning


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The Total Physical Response

- built around the coordination of speech

and action; it attempts to teach languagethrough physical activity

- its ultimate aim is to teach basic

speaking skills

- content is determined by the teacher.


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- the teacher gives students instructions;

- students do not have to speak; they

have to listen carefully and then carryout the teachers commands. They

respond to these commands individually

and collectively. They have little

influence over the content of learning


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- the teacher plays an active and directrole; he decides what to teach, modelsand presents the new material, selects

supportive material for classroom use.He emphasizes comprehension skillsbefore students are taught to speak.

- when students are ready for it, they give

commands to other students; they areencouraged to speak only when they feelready to do it


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- speaking abilities are developed in

learners at their own natural pace

- students learn language through actions,through physical response.


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The Communicative Approach

- starts from a theory of language as

communication; this is why the main goalof the approach is enabling students to

communicate using the target language

appropriate to a given social context,

that is, developing their communicativecompetence.


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communicative competence:

-grammatical competence: the domain of

grammatical and lexical capacity; themastery of the language code;

knowledge about the language and the

necessary skills required to understand

and express the literal meaning ofutterances


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-sociolinguistic competence:

- the ability to understand the social context in

which communication takes place;

- the ability to produce and understand

utterances in terms of the context in which they

appear;

- it includes taking into consideration the status

role of the speaker, his attitude, the sharedinformation, the communicative purpose, the

degree of formality and social convention


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-discourse competence:

- refers to the interpretation of individual

message elements; the ability tocombine meanings with unified texts


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-strategic competence: refers to the

verbal or non-verbal strategies that

communicators employ to initiate,

maintain, finish, repair and redirect

communication


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Characteristics of the approach:

- concentration is on use and appropriacy

rather than on meaning and grammar;- attention is given to communicative tasks

to be achieved through the language

rather than exercises on the language

- the emphasis is on student initiative

rather than on teacher-centered activity


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- the teacher evaluates not only accuracy but alsothe students fluency

- the role of the teacher: a facilitatorof hisstudents learning; he is a managerof theclassroom activities (modifies them and adjuststhem to the needs of his students); during theactivities he is an advisor, answering thestudents questions and monitoring theirperformance. He is the initiatorof the activities,

but does not always interact with students;sometimes he is a co-communicator, but moreoften he establishes situations that promptcommunication between and among students


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- students are actively engaged in

negotiating meaning; they try to learn to

communicate by communicating

- they become more responsible for their

learning;

- they use the language through several

communicative activities: games, role-play, simulation and problem solving

tasks.


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The new types of activities:

brainstorming, story-telling, info transfer,

recognition exercises, dialogues, mime,

identification ( give them freedom and

responsibility, developing

students`analytical and creative thinking)


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- the four skills: listening, speaking,

reading, writing are integrated

- the classroom procedures favourinteraction among students, giving them

the chance to work individually, in pairs

or in groups


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- the approach uses such concepts as

forms, meanings, functions (situations,

likes, dislikes, agreeing, disagreeing,

offering, accepting, refusing, arguing)

and notions (time, location, weight, etc.)

- dialogues center round communicative

functions; they are not normallymemorized;

- contextualization is a basic premise.


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- attempts to communicate are encouraged from

the very beginning

- errors are considered a normal part of learning

- the students native language has no particular

role in this approach;

- the target language should be used not only

during communicative activities, but also for

examples, in explaining the activities tostudents or in assigning homework.


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- the students learn from classroom

management exchanges

- teacher helps learners in any way thatmotivates them to work with the

language

- any device which helps the learner is

accepted.


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The Natural Approach

- is a communicative approach, whichfocuses on teaching communicative

abilities

- language is considered as a vehicle forcommunicating meanings and messages

- techniques recommended are borrowedfrom other methods and adapted to meetrequirements


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the learner

- is seen as a processor of

comprehensible input- he acts out physical commands, points

to pictures, answers questions, fills in

charts, involves himself in role-play,

games;


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- he participates in group problem solving

or offers personal information and

opinions.


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the teacher

- is the primary source of comprehensibleinput

- he creates an interesting and friendlyclassroom atmosphere, in which thereexists a low filter for learning

-he chooses a rich mix of classroomactivities, involving much group work orpair work.


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Characteristics of the traditional approachesare:

passive learner role

cognitive domain emphasized extrinsic motivation

mainly competitive

regular testing

teacher as instructor and imparter of knowledge mainly memory, practice and rote

hierarchical and authoritarian structure


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Characteristics of new approaches are:

active learner role

learners and teachers see each other as equals

cognitive and affective domains are given equal status

intrinsic motivation

teacher is considered as a guide and learner too

learning is made by discovery

accent is on creative expression

little testing mainly co-operative group work


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TEACHING SKILLS

listening, speaking, reading and writing

1) Listening and reading involve reception

in the foreign language; this is why theyare called receptive skills.

2) Speaking and writing involve

production; they are called productive

skills.


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1.Teachinglistening

Listening =

1. the ability to identify and understand

what other people are saying;2. recognizing speech sounds, dialects

and speech rhythm


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The main aim = making students

understand the foreign language spoken

at normal speed and in normal

conditions


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Other listening aims:

listening for discriminating among the distinctivesounds of English

recognizing reduced forms of words recognizing grammatical word classes: nouns,

verbs, adjectives

recognizing systems: tense, agreement pluralforms

listening for the main idea/gist

listening for specific information


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distinguishing between literal and impliedmeaning

inferring situations or participants

listening to check if your answers areright or wrong

listening to match pictures withdescriptions

listening to complete a picture

listening to re-order a jumbled dialogue


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listening for dictation

listening for identifying intention/attitudes

listening for identifying relevant points andrejecting irrelevant ones

listening for recognizing discourse markers(well/now/finally)

listening for recognizing cohesive devices inspoken discourse (which/that)

listening for guessing unknown words orphrases

predicting outcomes


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Methodologic considerations:

teacher should give SS guidance on the

structure of what they are going to hear. students should listen to the real thing

from early stages in the course

students must be told that they do not

need to understand everything from thevery beginning;


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students should be offered a first listening for a

general idea and then segments of tape for

detailed work

students should be let to check answerstogether in pairs or groups before feedback

work

the listening material should be graded

according to the students level the interest of the students should be

encouraged


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students should be provided with differenttypes of input: lectures, radio news, films, TVplays, announcements, everydayconversations, stories, English songs

longer pieces of listening should be divided intoshorter sections, each with its own listeningtask

students should be provided with a variety of

voices, accents and speaking styles


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listening should be integrated with oral or

written activities

listening activities should be stopped once the

students become restless or frustrated


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Classroom activities

A listening activity class has three stages:

a) Pre-listening (meant to provide acontext for listening, to activate the

learners background knowledge about

the topic and activate a vocabulary set

associated with the topic). Itcompensates for classes with no

cassette recorders or visual


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The activitiesincluded in this stage could be:

elicitation/discussion about the topic (toencourage students exchange ideas/opinionsabout the topic)

brainstorming (students predict the words andexpressions likely to appear in the passage,express hypotheses about the content of thepassage, based on previous knowledge)

games (for warming-up relaxation and training

in basic listening skills; e.g. miming words andexpressions heard; minimal-pair distinction)

guiding questions


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Other activities during this stage:

T introduces new vocabulary

T offers a reason for listening

T may assign a task


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b) While-listening

1) 1stlistening for a general idea

2) 2ndlistening for details

3) 3

rd

listening for total comprehension


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Strategiesused:

inferring information about the speakers and thesituation that is implied in what they hear

matching what they hear against their ownexperience and knowledge of the world ant theirpreoccupations

distinguishing the most important informationfrom less important details


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trying to visualize elements of what is heard

and form a mental picture that corresponds to

that of the speaker

making predictions about what the speaker isgoing to say

responding intellectually or emotionally to the

listening material: agreeing, disagreeing,

approving, disapproving, etc.


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Activities:

1) bottom-up exercisesof the type:

discriminating between phonemes

obeying instructionsstudents perform actions

or draw pictures in response to instructions

ticking off itemsstudents are given a list, text

or picture and they are asked to tick off words

or components as they hear them within aspoken description, story or simple list of items


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word recognition (matching word with pictures;

circling in a list the word they hear; pointing to a

image or a thing; pointing to a image or a thing)

answering questionsstudents are askedone/more questions in advance; they listen to

the text which offers the correct answer and

detect it

note-takingstudents take brief notes from ashort lecture or talk

recognizing pertinent details


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comparing (to compare passages withprediction in pre-listening)

obeying instructions (students show

comprehension by physical movement, finishinga task, etc.)

repetition of short phrases or completeutterances recorded

detecting differences or mistakesthe teacher

tells a story or describes something the classknows, including a number of deliberatemistakes and students have to detect them


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true/false exercisestudents tick or cross what

they think is right or wrong

clozethe listening text has occasional brief

gaps; students write down what they think mightbe the missing word


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2) top-down exercises:

paraphrasingstudents rewrite the listeningtext in different words

summarizingstudents write a short summaryof the listening passage

problem solving- a problem is described orally;students listen to it and discuss the solution

getting the gist of the text


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recognizing the topic

analysing discourse structure

evaluating themes and motives

finding main ideas and supporting details

making inferences

predicting outcomes

information transfer(maps/plans/grids/lists/pictures)


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sequencing - students give the right order for a

series of pictures

information search - students listen to a

passage and take notes on the segments thatanswer a particular question


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c) Post-listening

The stage may include activities such as:

answering to show comprehension - students

answer to multiple-choice or true/falsequestions

problem solving - students are given all theinformation relevant to a particular problem andthen set themselves to solve it


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summarizing

jigsaw listening - different groups of students

listen to different but connected passages, each

of which supplies some part of what they needto know; then, they come together to exchange

information in order to complete a story or

perform a task

writing as follow-up to listening activities speaking as follow-up to listening activities


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2. Teaching reading

Reading = an active activity;

The overall purposein teaching reading

is to develop in students the attitudes,

abilities and skills needed for obtaining

information, developing interests and

finally driving pleasure by reading

through understanding.


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Students must recognize

a) sonorous models represented by

graphical symbols,

b) their combinations as units of language;

c) structural indices (of word classes, of

persons, of tenses or category).


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The reading passages

a) activate the students mental structures;

b) develop their capacity for inference,anticipation, deduction, analysis and

synthesis;


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c) stimulate their capacity for appreciation

and critical thinking by discussion and

reflection on the text;

d) raise awareness of language use;

e) foster confidence in reading and

interpreting texts


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Specific competences:

1) discrimination among orthographic

patterns

2) recognition of words at sight

3) distinction between the main idea and

the specific information

4) understanding of implied informationand attitudes


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5) understanding of layout and use ofheadings

6) recognition of grammatical word classes

(nouns, adjectives, verbs)7) recognition of systems (tenses,

agreement between subject andpredicate, sequence of tenses)

8) recognition of the communicativefunctions of the written text


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9) deduction of causes and effects

10) distinction between the literal and

implied meaning

11) development of reading strategies

12) development of skills in reading silently

and orally


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13) knowledge about how to use an index,

a table of contents, a dictionary

14) development of such skills as

predicting, recognizing discourse

markers


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The reading skill

is closely related to all the other

language skills and it also

serves as a means of introducing and

practising the components of language:

articulatory skills, intonations, vocabulary

and grammatical structures.


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There are several types of reading

grouped in opposites:

oral/mental;

individual/chorus;

prepared/unprepared;

controlled/independent;

intensive/extensive.


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Intensive reading

related to acquiring competence under

the teachers guidance

students often take notes, highlight the

important parts, identify details

the activities focus on comprehension

the students focus on the linguistic orsemantic details of a passage


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The textsfit to develop such reading are:

letters, postcards, telegrams, notices,

recipes, weather forecasts, instructions,

directions, rules and regulations, labels,menus, tickets, price lists, diagrams,

charts, maps, time-tables, essays,

reviews, questionnaires, reports

(especially functional texts).


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Extensive reading

its main purpose is the direct and fluent

reading for pleasure

its activities focus on students

response to texts


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The types of textsthat are generally

used: diary pages, extracts from novels,

tales, stories, newspaper and magazine

articles, biographical andautobiographical passages, jokes,

poems, comic strips


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Steps in teaching reading

1. to make students aware of what they do

when they read efficiently in their own

language

2. to give them guidance and practice (to

help them recognize and respond

appropriately to the type of text, byadopting a suitable attitude and suitable

tactics


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Methodological considerations:

Students must develop reading skills that

lead to a thorough understanding of the

text without using translation in their

mother tongue

Teachers and students should

understand that this process must beslow, gradual and continuous


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Reading is not recommended with

beginners without the help of the teacher

Reading must not be delayed too long

as students are tempted to take notes of

what they seem to hear


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The texts used for reading must containthe orally studied material and symbolswill continuously be associated with oral

versions At first, students will read and repeat

after a reading model and they willcorrelate correct pronunciation with

printed sound-symbol combinations,together with accent and intonation


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Once introduced, reading permits the

introduction of some writing exercises,

carefully chosen


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a) Pre-reading

Aims of this stage:- to introduce students to the topic of the

text they are about to read;


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- to activate their background knowledge

about the topic and the vocabulary

related to it;

- to stimulate students interest and

encourage them to read more


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effective techniques:

- elicitation, brainstorming, guidingquestions, listening to a passage on a

related topic, perhaps based on visuals

are


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The teacher pre-teaches a few new key-

words related to the topic and writes

them on the blackboard in sentences.

A task can be also assigned to be done

as they are reading. Such tasks can

include: filling in a chart; matching

pictures to paragraphs, answeringtrue/false questions, finding out specific

words, etc


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b) While-reading

Reading activities can be of three

types:

a) conscious imitative reading-

- implies the imitation of the examples

set by the teacher or the tape;

- it can be both choral or individual;

- it is especially useful with beginners


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b) semi-independent reading

implies work of the students with the help

of the teacher;

- the model reading is not considered

important;


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- the students read in class first silently and

then aloud, individually;

- they may also get some texts to read at

home and then read them in the class

aloud during the next lesson


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c) independent reading

used with advanced students;

- the most important thing iscomprehension


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Reading tactics/strategies

a) Skimming = running the eyes very

quickly over the text in order to

- get a general impression of its character

and content;

- get its main idea/the gist


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b)scanning= reading the text very

quickly in order to locate the information

we need

c)sequential = reading the text from the

beginning up to its end

d) focusing= intensive reading of the part

of the text of special interest


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c) Post-reading

Activities in this stage must help students

to extract from the text- literal meaning

- implied meaning

- the main idea/general meaning


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- specific information/ details

- information relationships not especially

stated in the text /deduced meaning

- meta-content information, including:

1. the type of text (descriptive; narrative;

argumentative; reflective; explanatory;

comparison and contrast; allegorical)


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2. the genre (novel; poem; newspaperarticle; advertisement)

3. the theme of the text

4. types of relationships within the text(cause and effect; consequences ofactions; facts and opinions)

5. the intention of the author (if he wants to

shock, to amuse, to persuade, to warn,to impart information)


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6. the attitude of the author

(subjective/objective; indifferent/involved;

confident/detached)

7. the point of view

8. the setting

9. the characters

10. the atmosphere of the extract (gloomy;optimistic)


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11. the tone of the writer (monotonous,

optimistic, hopeful, pessimistic, ironic,

humorous, enthusiastic)

12. the rhetorical devices (cohesive

devices; lexical linkersrepetitions,

synonyms, pronominal references;

stylistic devicesmetaphors,personification, types of images, etc.)


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13. the discourse markers in the text

(enumerative: firstly/ secondly/ in the

end; showing reinforcement: again and

again/ also/ above all; showing similarity:similarly/ likewise; showing transition:

now/ by the way; illustrative: for instance/

for example; contrastive: on the contrary/

by contrast)


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Comprehension can be checked in various

ways:

- asking students to answer definite

questions beginning with who/ what/

when/ where/ why

- asking students to answer to true/false

questions- multiple-choice exercises


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- asking students to give responses based

on their personal experience and

opinions

- asking students to respond physically to a

command

- asking students to extend/provide an

ending to a story


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- asking them to follow specific directions

(find the words which

show/describe/tell)

- asking them to indicate sequence of

ideas by rearranging sentence

- numbering sentences in the order they

appear in reading


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- activities based on charts

- dramatized dialogues

- eliciting a summary of the entire passage

- rewriting the story and changing the

dialogue into indirect discourse

- selecting key sentences which illustrate

certain characteristics of the ideas


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- finding synonyms and antonyms of the

new words

- finding other stories on the same theme

- completing sentences

- making use of the new words and

sentences in original sentences


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- a game, to practise vocabulary

- illustrating favourite events by drama or

drawing

- engaging in a conversation that indicates

appropriate processing of information

Teaching Writing


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Teaching Writing

Traditional viewsof writing in English teaching

methodology considered writing as a means

rather than as purpose for communication.

More recent mehodologistsstress on the idea

that in teaching a foreign language, importance

should be given to all four skills. So, writing

activities should be designed to reinforce

listening, speaking and reading abilities and

give practice in the structural and lexical itemswhich have been introduced.


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There has been also noticed a shift from

the traditionalproduct-oriented

approach to a process-oriented one

during the last decades. Writing is nolonger understood as a product (essay,

report, story) but it is seen as a process

that can be taught; a way of learning, as

well as communicating


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The process should be viewed in two

lights:

a) as a language problema problem of

assembling words to form grammaticalsentences;


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a) as a rhetorical problema problem of

teaching students to organize words and

patterns so as to fulfill a given rhetorical

aim; emphasis should be given to thespecific communicative purposes of

writing


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The main aimsshould be

1. to develop students ability to convey

information through linking and

developing ideas and arguments inwhole pieces of written discourse


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2. to develop accuracy and fluency in

writing, to raise their awareness of

sentence, paragraph and whole text

structure


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3. to develop their awareness of sentence

linkers and discourse markers


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Students need to develop two types of

micro-skills in writing:

a) mechanical skills:

- correct spelling

- appropriate vocabulary

- knowledge of grammar (express a

particular meaning in differentgrammatical forms)


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- knowledge of punctuation

- knowledge of formats (letter format,

memos, etc.)

- correct choice of register and style

appropriate to the task


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b) composition skills:

- to choose an appropriate layout

- to achieve a high degree of accuracy (to

avoid ambiguity)

- to use linkers (in order to achieve

cohesion :However/In

addition/First/Finally)


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- to get coherence of the text

(paragraphing, introductions and

conclusions)

- to use creativity and imagination

- to develop writing strategies: using

prewriting devices, using paraphrasing

and synonyms


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The skill of correct writing is mainly

attained by practice, by exercises.

They go from a very controlledactivity up

to a freeone.

The stages of the lesson include:


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a) Pre-writing

has the role to stimulate and motivate

students to generate materials to write

on;

- influences active student participation in

thinking, talking, writing and working on

the topic under focus


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Techniques:

- oral group brainstorming- the use of

leading questions to get students think

about a topic or idea

- discussiona topic or question

- debating- orally presenting two sides of

an argument/topic


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- cubing - a quick consideration of the

subject from six points of view: describe

it; compare it; associate it; analyse it;

apply it; argue for/against it- clustering- beginning with a key word,

then adding other words, using free

association

- reading -silent reading or extensive

reading generate ideas for writing


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- group discussion- students are guided to

generate ideas about the topic

- meditating/mind transportation- require

students to make a voyage into a fantasyworld, thus providing a mood which

makes students want to write

- looping- non-stop writing on anythingthat comes to ones mind on a particular

topic


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b) While-writing

1. copying

- often boring and uninteresting for

learners (it is a completely mechanical

one)


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- can be simple(word for word) or tasked

(to underline letters or groups of letters

which represent a sound; to mark certain

grammatical forms; to write only certainparts of the sentence; to copy an

exercise and change the subject, etc).


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2. dictation

- it makes learners concentrate

- it helps developing listening as well as

writing, but sometimes, can be quite

mechanically done, without real

comprehension


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- dictation can be: auditive and visual

1.Auditive

- the teacher first reads the whole text and the

students listen- the teacher reads again sentence by sentence

and the students write

- the teacher reads the text for the third time, while

the students look over their writing, correctingthe possible mistakes


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2. visual dictation

- the teacher writes a word, a phrase or a

sentence on the blackboard and

analyses it

- he cleans the blackboard

- the students write the unit from memory


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3. Dicto-comp

- a type of controlled writing that combines

text dictation and text reconstruction

Technique:

- the teacher reads a passage to the class

- the students listen carefully


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- the teacher puts key words on the

blackboard

- the students write out what they

remember from the passage using thewords on the blackboard


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4. guided writing

- means to give the students a short text as

a model, do some oral preparation for

writing (with the whole class, studentsgiving suggestions; the teacher builds an

outline or a list of key expressions on the

board, expressions which are used by

students as a basis for writing)


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The technique of a controlled/guided

composition includes

- asking the students to tell a given text by

the help of main ideas indicating thebeginning of sentence just to avoid the

repetition of and


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- oral practicethat begins with the choice

of the title, then the students answer the

teachers questions in order to repeat

the vocabulary or enrich it with newitems


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- written exercisescomprise structural

exercises in relation to the chosen

subject; students have to complete

sentences, to change the tense of theverbs or to combine sentences using

conjunctions

- vocabulary studythe teacher teaches

students the correct use of vocabulary


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- student writing - the student starts to write

the composition

- simple paragraph writingthe students

are offered a paragraph as a model fortheir own


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Paragraph writing can include: paragraph

about a favourite subject/season/;

paragraph about a city/town/place; a

narrative paragraph, etc


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Composition work may be developed in

different ways:

- the teacher gives a list of words within

one social or cultural situation and asksthe students to use them in short

dialogues, paragraphs or letters


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- the teacher may give the students amodel of a short composition which isread and discussed and then they are

asked to write a similar one, changingthe name of the characters

- the teacher may ask students about anexperience they have had or answer a

series of sequential questions on a storythey have read in class; the studentsmay be asked to write a summary.


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6. essay writing

The stages for writing an essay are:

- brainstorming - getting ideas together (by

help of mind-maps, discussions, pictures

information is collected; the source is

personal experience, imagination,

reading; students discuss the main ideasand support details)


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- grouping the ideas into units with

common themes - this means finding the

topic for each paragraph

- organizing the paragraphs (depending onthe type of essay)

- planning the essay (a plan of the essay

with the ordered paragraphs and anintroduction and conclusion)


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Other written communicative activities may

include:

- substitution exercises- based on a model

and then personalized

- giving directionsstudents write down

directions which other students have to

follow


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- writing commandsstudents write eachother messages which containcommands

- writing broadcastsstudents write itemsfor news broadcasts which they organizefor transmission

- the tourist brochurestudents can be

asked to write together a brochure aboutthe place they live in, are studying in orare about to visit


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- summary of a song/poem or novel (used

especially for lower-intermediate

students, and will help them prepare for

comprehension and discussionquestions )

- writing reports(book/film/play /interview

report)

- writing advertisements(to advertise food,

clothing, books, places)


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- writing journalsor diary pages

- letter writingto their friends in the

country and abroad; to their favourite

pop stars or film actors; formal andinformal letters, with their specific layout

- fairy tale writing - in groups, students

may invent a fairy story


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- story reconstructionstudents are shown

pictures from a story sequence and are

asked to write sentences about them,

reconstructing the story-warningsor notices

- list of pieces of advice

- resolutions for the future


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- instructionsfor using different objects

-descriptions of places, people and

processes

- writing postcards

- writing recipes

- opinion paragraphs; contrasting opinion

paragraph,


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- autobiographical writing

- profileof a person

- newspaper/magazine articles

- rules for a game or sport

- filling in an application formfor a job


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- argumentative essay

- e-mail/fax messages

- letter of reference


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Steps to improve writing include:

- constant and systematic use of reading

material to introduce the main rhetorical

features of English- use of written exercises that require the

students to connect sentences by means

of the proper linking devices


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- rearrangement of scrambled sentences

into a proper paragraph

- use of a non- paragraphed text that can

be studied and broken into 2-3paragraphs

- training in order to distinguish between

different registers an d styles, level of

formality, modes of address and use of

lexical items


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c) Post writing

- reading, correction and evaluation of the

written product


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Factors which may be considered in

grading, a piece of written work:

- length

- correct grammar

- originality of ideas

- range of vocabulary used


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- range and complexity of structures used

- appropriateness of style

- spelling

- handwriting

- punctuation

- organization of ideas

- relevance to the title

TEACHING VOCABULARY


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Vocabulary= the potentially infinite

number of words existing in a language.


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It usually divided into

a) active vocabulary(vocabulary for productive

use)including the words which students have

been taught /the students have learned, and

which they use, or are expected to use

b) passive vocabulary(vocabulary for receptive

recognition)including words which students

know, can recognize whenever they meet them,

but which they do not use


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knowing a word = being aware of the

following features:

- the correct pronunciation and spelling

- the denotative meaningthe objective,impersonal and intellective meaning of a

word ; it conveys the informational load

carried by a word and is neutral as far as

the attitude of the speaker is concerned


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- connotationsthe subjective, personal and

emotive of a word; the

emotional overtones the speaker usually

associates with each individual use of words;

the field of associations, implications,suggestions which surround the word

- the appropriate grammatical forms

- the styleformal/informal

- the transfer of meaning


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- the lexical sets - if the word relates to

other words within a common topic/

situation/ theme

- the relations of synonymy/ antonymy/homonymy/hyponymy

- collocationsin what way it can combine

with other words

- idioms

Methodological considerations:


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In teaching vocabulary the followingconsiderations are highly important:

- the students must be interested and must makean effort to understand;

- it is the teachers responsibility to provide avariety of activities that will keep the studentsinterested and will help them understand;

- the teacher should also provide frequent

repetition, to reinforce the learning process andfix the new vocabulary firmly in the minds of thestudents;


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- students should be exposed to differentkinds of contexts in which a word may beused, to ensure its proper usage;

- students have to work with wordsactively, regularly and systematically;

- learning of words should be meaningful(words should be learned through

comprehension, association andintegration of the new material with theone which has already been learned).


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words are related in several ways:

- by topic: animals, family relationships,

jobs

- by similarity of meaning: monkey, ape,gorilla

- in pairssynonyms:journey/trip;

margin/edge- in pairsopposites: hot/cold; old/new


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- in a series or a scale: boiling, hot, warm,

cool, cold, freezing

- by super-ordinates and hyponyms:

furniture: bed, table, chair, armchair- by activity or process: steps in making a

coffee or building a house

- word families:paint, painter, painting,paint work


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There are several possibilities of

introducing the new vocabulary into the

lesson:

a) during the introductory conversation,b) during the proper work with the text

c) under study or during the students

individual work with the dictionary


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a)When the new vocabulary is introducedduring the introductory conversation,

- the teacher has the role of selecting

those words which should be acquiredby students in an active manner;

- each uttered sentence should includeonly one word with a definite meaning

in the given context, in a familiargrammatical structure, which needs tobe simple and natural.


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- the teacher utters a sentence related to

the text and explains the new word by

means of a technique of word

interpretation. This implies ostensiveways of teaching:


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- demonstration- by showing an object or acutout figure;

- using realiadifferent objects brought

into the classroom- using picturesusing photographs,

blackboard drawings, illustrations frommagazines or newspapers

- using pictogramsthe teacher draws theword to represent its meaning


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- using flash-cards, handouts, OHP, tape

recorder, cassette recorder

- miming - by gestures or by performing an

action- using explanationsby description;

- by giving synonyms or opposites for the

words students already know;- by putting the word into a defining context


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- by paraphrasing

- by translating;

- giving the definition;

- giving examples;

- resorting to the semantic field the word

belongs to


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Other techniques of presentation and

discovery might include:

- word-building (use parts of words to help

students build new words or guess theirmeaning);

- matching (students match words to

words, or sentences or pictures);


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- using songs;

- using familiar or famous names words

(well-known words from song titles,

books or people


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b)

The new words can be also introduced

during the work with the text. Textbooks

are open; the text is read and studentsare asked to relate what they have

understood. The new words are

introduced in different possible ways


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- guessing from the contextinterpretation

by means of contextual inference from

meaningful sentences, in which students

understand almost all words, except theone in question

- the definition of the new word by other

words in the foreign language

- word analysis techniquefrom a known

stem to a new word


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- the use of synonyms or opposites

- substitution

- matching words with their definitions

students are asked to find words in thetext after having read their definitions

- word listsstudents list words under

appropriate headings


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- word chartsstudents are asked tobring to mind what certain words can beassociated with detailed descriptions

- students connect the words in columnA and B to make sentences connectedwith a certain topic

- word webswords are topic-related

- finding out differences between relatedwords


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- identification of false friends

- work with collocations, phrasal verbs

- the use of affixes to construct new words

- the use of translation


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c)

Introducing new vocabulary during the studentswork with the dictionary is a good exerciseespecially beginning with the third year of study;

it is a step forward in training students to workindependently. Students need to be trained toisolate the unknown word, trace it back to itsroot form, read the word again in the context, inorder to grasp the meaning of the whole

sentence, so that the appropriate meaning ofthe word should be looked up in the end.


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Exercises in teaching vocabularyare of

three types:

1)exercises of understanding vocabulary

based on the teachers explanation


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2)exercises of recognition:

- copying the text and underlying the new words

- analysis of the word or lexical unit as to form:

root, stem, affixes

- analysis of word according to semantic

peculiarities: synonyms, homonyms, antonyms

- picking up words from the text and then grouping

them according to different criteria


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3)exercises of use:

- filling in the blanks with new words

- substitution of drills and known structures

- answering questions


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- translations from Romanian into English

- retelling

- description of pictures

- composition on a given topic previously

prepared

- questions referring to the text under study

- classification of words according tocertain topic


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- correction of statements not true to facts

- completion of certain unfinishedsentences

- replacement of certain words by othersmaking all the other necessary changes

- rearrangement of words in the correctorder

- crossword puzzles- games

Teaching pronunciation


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Some methodological considerations

must be observed:

- the teaching of pronunciation should start

in the early stages of the languagecourse

- the teacher should be consistent in

correcting the errors

- the correction should be done on the spot


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- the teacher should stimulate the studentsto notice the mistakes made by theirclassmates and ask them to offer thecorrect forms

- the teachers explanations concerningpronunciation should be illustrated bymany examples and exercises

- the teacher must avoid to repeat thestudents errors in the form of question ofreproach


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- the teacher is not allowed to make fun of

the mistakes

- classroom atmosphere should be relaxed

- much attention should be given tointonation and stress

- the first lessons are of great importance;

it is the stage where correctpronunciation should be acquired


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Generally, there are three ways in teaching

pronunciation:

- imitation

- articulatory description

- comparison.


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Articulatory descriptionis made use of

especially when the students find it

difficult to pronounce a sound (usually

because this does not exist in theirmother tongue).

Comparisonis used especially when the

students confuse two sounds which are

similar


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Pronunciation practice

- should not include only sounds, clusters

and words, but also sentences

- the use of audio-visual aids, tapes,cassettes, radio or TV together with

many exercises of recognition and

production ensure the learning and

mastering of correct pronunciation.

TEACHING GRAMMAR


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Grammar= the way a language

manipulates and combines words or bits

of words in order to form longer units of

meaning


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Knowing a language

= knowing the items that make up that language

= being able to supply these items when they aremissing

= being able to do without them= the ability to produce an infinite number of

sentences in response to an infinite number ofstimuli


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Methodological considerationsinclude:

- grammar should never be taught and learnedfor its sake; it is expected to form new habits inthe correct use of the foreign language

- the students should use the language and nottalk about it


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- grammatical explanations given to the studentsshould be brief and to the point

- grammar teaching should avoid excess of

abstract theory;


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- the problems beyond the students power ofassimilation should not be theoretically learned,but as structures to be learned by heart

- grammar should always be dealt with in relationto the text under study;


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- any grammatical item must not be explainedbefore the analysis of the text under study

- in teaching any problem of grammar; it isnecessary to establish the connection with thechapters previously learned by students


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- it is important to establish connections betweengrammar and phonetics, spelling, vocabularyand oral expression

- teaching of grammar should be very natural


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- the study of grammar should be turned into aninteresting and attractive activity in theclassroom

- the teacher should make use of tables, charts,schemes, drawings and other auxiliary materials


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- students must be encouraged to speak, offertheir own examples

- most of the time devoted to the study ofgrammar should be spent on the practicalapplication of theoretical knowledge


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- learning is from known to the unknown, fromthe simple to the complex, from proximate tomore distant

- the students interest must be kept alive duringthe whole lesson; this means the lesson mustbe dynamic


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- students must learn through performing tasksor group activities, so that they are using thelanguage as much as possible

- any classroom activity should be introduced bymeans of some brief comments



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There are two waysthat lead to the

understanding of the phenomena of

grammar;inductionand deduction..


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The inductive approach

- offers various language forms to be practisedand

- lets the learner discover/induce rules andgeneralizations on their own.

Induction helps students to develop their ownjudgement; the rule or definition is arrived atlittle by little


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Induction is not sufficient; it must befollowed by deduction, that is the rulemust be applied in examples, must be

practised.


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So, we must choose the example which seemsto be the most suitable and write it on theblackboard; this becomes the attentionpointer, that calls the students attention to the

problem. A good example must illustrate andconfirm the structure unambiguously and musthave a familiar and simple vocabulary.

Stages in the organization of

grammar teaching


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I. Presentation

Aim: to get the students to perceive thestructure, its form and meaning in both

speech and writing and to take it intoshort-term memory


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When the structure is a very simple, easilyperceived one, the presentation text may be nomore than a sample sentence or two, whichserve as a model for immediate practice. In

such a case, the teacher gives the model ofutterance for each pattern with the appropriateintonation, stress and rhythm and the studentsrepeat it.


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In such a case, the teacher gives the model ofutterance for each pattern with the appropriateintonation, stress and rhythm and the studentsrepeat it.


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Some of the grammar presentation

techniquesmight include:


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1. using a song/poem text


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2. using a time line


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3. using a picture


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4. using realia


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5. personalising


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6. explaining directly

7. comparing L-1 and L-2

8 li i i


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8. eliciting

II I l ti d lifi ti


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II Isolation and exemplification-

Aim: students should understand the variousaspects of the structure.

W


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We

- move away from the context

- focus on the grammatical items themselves:their meaning, their function, the rules thatgovern them.

- By a careful process of questions and answers,inductively, the teacher helps the students toobserve and make the necessary generalis

III P ti


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III. Practice.

Aim: to cause the students to absorb the structurethoroughly and to transfer what they knowfrom short-term to long-term memory.

This is the most important stage.

The students are given the opportunity to use thepatterns with different vocabulary and to drawtheir attention away from the structure being

taught, so that its use become a matter ofconscious habit.

A t i t f i b d Th


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A great variety of exercisescan be used. Thereare several principles to be observed:

a) not too much time should be devoted to writtenexercises; most exercises should be oral

b) students should apply the rules

) t k f t b f


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c) we must make use of a great number ofexercises from colloquial speech

d) individual exercises should be chosen for thestudents with certain gaps and deficiencies

Th l t f ti iti th t


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There are several types of activitiesthat

students may make extensive use in the

classroom. Harmer considers that these

activities may be based either ondiscovery techniques, or o practice

techniques.

Di t h i


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Discovery techniques

students are given examples of

language and told to find out how they

work; they have to discover the grammar rules

rather than be told the rules

in order to do this, several procedures

can be used:

a) using conscious raising questions


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a) using conscious-raising questions

the teacher addresses concept questions inconnection with a certain language point, to

make sure they become aware of its form andmeaning;

students are helped by these questions tonotice/observe a new grammar point; this way,the teacher elicits the right answer and

explanation for it; this way, students areinvolved in their own learning

b) text study


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b) text study

students are asked to discover new grammar byconcentrating on its use in a text

c) matching techniques


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c) matching techniques

the students are asked to match parts of

sentences and phrases; this exercise

allows students to make choices, thusdiscovering correct grammar facts

d) rephrasing


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d) rephrasing

by complex transformations they make,students can prove a sound knowledge ofgrammar;

- by rephrasing, students show clearunderstanding of the sentence to be rephrasedand knowledge of the way in which languageworks.

Practice techniques


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Practice techniques

offer students the possibility to practisegrammar items.

Among such types of exercises there are:

drills


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- drills

interaction activitiesmake controlled

language more meaningful and

enjoyable; such exercises involve thestudents personality, help them interact

actively

According to different authors who recommend


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According to different authors who recommendthem , the exercises can be of different types:

a) Repetition


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a) Repetition

- the students repeat an utterance aloud as theyhave heard it, without looking at a printed text

b) inflexion


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b) inflexionone word in an utterance appears in another

form when repeated ( I lost that pencilI lostthose pencils)

c) simple substitution

d d i h


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one word or some words in the pattern areexchanged for others of the same class (a nouninstead of another noun; a verb, instead ofanother verb)

d) replacement


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d) replacementone word in an utterance is replaced by another.

It is made in any part of the sentence; thestudents listen carefully , determine where it

will fit in the sentence and then include it in theright place (Mary comes early/late - Marycomes late)

e) restatement


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e) restatement

the students rephrase the utterance andaddress it to someone else, according toinstruction (Tell him to open the book- Open

the book!)

f) completion


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f) completionthe students hear an utterance that is complete

except for one word, then repeat it incompleted form (Ill do my homework, youll

dohomeworkbecomes Ill do my homework,youll do your homework)

g) transformation


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g) transformationthe pattern given as stimulus is transformed into

another pattern in the response (presentpast; affirmativeinterrogative; active-

passive)

h) expansion /pyramid


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h) expansion /pyramid

starting with a short sentence, the studentsexpand it by adding additional units and makingthe necessary agreements (This new hat is

mine.- can become This new red hat is mine. -or This new hat on the table is mine.)

i) drilling position of adverbs of frequency


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i) drillingposition of adverbs of frequency

j) transposition


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j) transpositionwhen a word is added it takes a certain place in

the sentence (I am very busy now.canbecome So am I.)

k) contraction


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k) contrac

english teaching methodology

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