JOURNAL OF ELEMENTARY SCIENCE EOUCA TlON Vol. 4. No.1 . Pp. 26·34, (1992)(C) 1992. Curry Schoo l of Educal ion, University or Virg inia

Enhancing Science Teaching Self-EfficacyIn Preservice Elementary Teachers

Linda Ramey-Gassert and M. Gail Shroyer

AbstractMany studies have defined science anxiety, attitude toward science andlow science teaching self-efficacy. This paper attempts to show theinterrelatedness of these traits, and using the construct of personal self­efficacy as a foundation, describe methods for building science teachingconfidence in preservice teachers. Teaching self-efficacy beliefs refers toteachers' confidence in their own teaching abilities which is reflected intheir teaching behaviors. To improve the ability, effectiveness and feelingsof success in elementary teachers, science educators need to includestrategies to improve attitudes toward science and increase teaching self­efficacy in teacher preparation courses.

IntroductionThere are many exemplary methods courses which arm preservice

teachers with the skills and knowledge needed to teach science effectively.But there are still too many education programs which do not fully equipteachers to feel successful in teaching science. In designing teacherpreparation programs and science methods courses, we need to examinecritically how our classes are preparing preservice teachers to work withthe students of tomorrow. Do they include the use of technology such asmicrocomputers as tools for teaching science? Do they address suchissues as attitudes toward science or gender or culture biases? And, dothey include experiences which will build confidence in the teaching ofscience?

Many reports have indicated the negative attitude of elementaryteachers toward science (Shrigley, 1974) as well as their science anxiety(Westerback, 1982; Czerniak and Chiarelo tt , 1990). Both generallytranslate into ineffective and inadequate time spent teaching science .There are some basic questions which need to be answered as researchbegins the theory-building process . Which theory will provide a firmfoundation for the science methods coursework? What makes a personhave a positive attitude toward science. or an interest in science and inexploring the unknown? Is it innate curiosity or, perhaps, some enjoyablescience-related event or experience from childhood? More pointedly for

Science Teaching Self-Efficacy

our concerns here, what makes one elementary teacher a strong scienceteacher, and other classroom teachers less likely to teach science?

Background and Theoretical FrameworkThe purpose of this paper is to focus on one aspect of science

teaching which may be an underpinning for teacher attitudes towardscience and teaching science, namely science teaching self-efficacy.Simply defined, this is the belief or confidence that a teacher has in his orher ability to teach science effect ively. As discussed more fully below,science teaching self-efficacy beliefs may be extreme ly important inmotivat ing a teacher to teach science (strong or high teaching self­efficacy) or causing avoidance of science teaching by a teacher (low orweak teaching self-efficacy).

The related psychological construct of personal self-efficacy has itsroots in the social learning theory developed by Bandura (1977,1981) . Inhis research with recovering heart attack victims, Bandura found that thepatients' beliefs in their ability to overcome a phobia about exercise had aneffect on their performance of the task (Bandura, 1977, 1982). Banduratheorized that beliefs are closely linked to behavior with respect to phobiasand self-efficacy. He defines self-efficacy beliefs as "judgements of howwell one can execute courses of action required to deal with prospectivesituations" (Bandura, 1982, p. 122). In terms of teachers, this would meanthat a teacher's confidence in his or her own teaching abilities is reflectedin his or her teaching behaviors.

Another component of self-efficacy belief that Bandura's researchsuggested is outcome expectancy beliefs . In teaching , outcomeexpectancy beliefs would be the learning outcomes teachers believe arepossible through teaching, or a teacher's belief that student learning canbe influenced by effective teaching. Thus, teaching self-efficacy involvesboth outcome expectancies for the students and the teacher's belief in hisor her ability to teach effectively.

Bandura theorized that through life experiences people develop ageneralized expectation about actions leading to outcomes. A person alsodevelops specific beliefs concerning his or her own coping abilities.Behavior, for Bandura, is based upon both factors. Behavior is enactedwhen people not only expect certain behaviors to produce desirableoutcomes (outcome expectancy), but they also believe in their own abilityto perform the behaviors (self-efficacy).

So, teaching behaviors might be predicted by investigating bothteaching self-efficacy and stude nt outcome expectancy. According toBandura, people who are high in both outcome expectancy and self­

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efficacy would act in an assured, decided manner and would persist ontask. Low outcome expectancy paired with high self-efficacy might causeindividuals to intensify their efforts temporarily, but will eventually lead tofrustration. Persons low on both variables would give up more readily if thedesired outcomes were not reached immediately.

The psychological construct of teaching self-efficacy was revealed inthe following survey statements from the Rand Corporation studies of TitleIII funded projects (Armor, et aI., 1976; Berman and McLaughlin, 1977):

1. When it comes right down to it, a teacher really can'tdo much because most of a student's motivationand performance depends on his or her homeenvironment.

2. If I really try hard, I can get through to even the mostdifficult or unmotivated students.

Through teacher responses to these statements the two interrelatedcomponents (teaching self-efficacy and student outcome expectancy) ofteacher self-efficacy became evident. Statement 1 indicated the teachers'beliefs that student learning could be influenced by effective teaching(student outcome expectancy), while statement 2 showed the teachers'belief that they could teach effectively (personal teaching self-efficacybeliefs). A teacher's sense of efficacy is positively related to the (1)percent of project goals achieved, (2) amount of teacher change, (3)continuation of both project methods and materials, and (4) improvedstudent performance.

According to Bandura, the construct of personal self-efficacy issituation-specific as well as subject-specific. He states, n ••• from the sociallearning prospective it is no more informative to speak of self-efficacy inglobal terms than to speak of nonspecific social behavior n (Bandura,1981, p. 227).

Current knowledge about elementary classroom teachers wouldappear to confirm this. Some teachers feel very confident in certainsubject areas such as reading or social studies but are fearful ofmathematics and science. The most confident science teachers canbecome unsure of themselves when taken out of the classroom on a fieldtrip where conditions are uncontrolled, and where questions may be open­ended or unanswerable. This subject-specific aspect of teaching self­efficacy makes the study of personal science teaching self-efficacy, or thebelief of a teacher concerning her ability to perform appropriate teachingbehaviors and effectively teach science, a timely and relevant researchtopic.

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What the Research SaysMany teachers report that inadequate background in science and

methods is the primary reason for their avoidance of science teaching. Butif teachers have strong self-efficacy beliefs as to their ability to teachscience , they should find the subject less stressful and will apply moreeffort in teaching it effectively, perhaps simply because they feel stronglythat they can succeed. Ashton (1984) states that ".. . no other teachercharacter istic (self-efficacy) has demonstrated such a consistentrelationship to student achievement." In their 1984 study Gibson andDembo reported , ". . . teachers who believe student learning can beinfluenced by effective teaching (outcome expectancy beliefs) and whoalso have confidence in their own teaching abilities (self-efficacy beliefs)should persist longer, provide a greater academic focus in the classroom,and exhibit different types of feedback than teachers who have lowerexpectations concerning their ability to influence student learning" (p. 570).

It appears that low personal self-efficacy may underlie scienceanxiety , poor attitudes toward science and the resultant reluctancy tospend adequate time and resources teaching science. This would includetime spent assembling investigative lab exercises and materials other thanthe (safe) prescribed textbook for those teachers who are low in scienceteaching self-efficacy . A strong science teaching self-efficacy belief mayalso be the factor which permits a classroom teacher to risk experimentingwith a new delivery mode or science activity.

The prevalent avoidance of science teaching highlights persistentand unanswered questions such as these: How deeply seated and howstrongly held are present self-efficacy beliefs? Can they be changed andby what means? Can science educators build into science methodscourses (and perhaps convince science content instructors to do likewise)experiences which will foster strong science teaching self-efficacy beliefsin preservice elementary teachers?

A brief review of relevant literature (Akindehin, 1988; Ashton, 1984;Jaus, 1974; Kramer, 1979; Stefanich and Kelsey, 1989; Tobias, 1990;Westerback and Primavera, 1988) reveals the following list of ideas andsuggestions for science methods course experiences . Many of theseexperiences could conceivably enhance science teaching self-efficacybeliefs for preservice education students by exposing them to new, non­threatening learning situations.

A Different Approach To Science And Science Teaching. AsTobias (1990) and others have pointed out, our whole approach toscience leaves many repulsed, fearful and "turned off" for life. Science isoften viewed as a field reserved for geniuses and white males, with a great

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deal of terminology memorization and recitation, with little creativity . andtoo little explanation for the "why" of underlying concepts.

Scientists Need To Become "More Available." Scienceeducators. as well as the science researchers on campuses, are in aunique position to actually show students the inner workings of science,such as hypothesis formulation and testing, information gathering, andother related activities of researching in science. Demystifying the realmof what science cap be one large step in helping teachers to feel moreefficacious about their ability to teach students.

Foster A Non-Competitive Classroom Atmosphere. Thisfollows on the heels of the previous idea in that many times the covetedright answer is prized more than the process of doing science . In aclassroom where competition is removed , all students can feelcomfortable exploring and doing science as they learn. Giving quizzesinstead of midterm and final exams will emphasize scientific thinking overmemorization of terms and facts.

Increase Visibility Of Female Role Models And OtherUnder-Represented Groups. By effectively showing role models ofreal scientists as being female, black, Hispanic or other than that of thestereotypically held male, white scientist, we can increase the likelihoodthat all students will see themselves as science learners and potentially asscientists.

Open-Ended Inquiry. It is "O.K." not to know first. In doing scienceone does not know the outcome before the experiment (otherwise it iscalled verification). We need to say this repeatedly to reinforce confidencein stepping out and trying something new and unknown to students.Hopefully , they may even learn to enjoy the unanswered, open-endedinquiry approach to learning.

Hands-On Experimentation. This idea goes along with theprevious one in that an in-depth activity-oriented science course orelementary science methods class generates excitement and enthusiasmfor doing and learning science. The theory of how learners constructknowledge (constructivism) and the various learning cycles for scienceinstruction reinforce this approach.

Support Groups And Cooperative Learning Situations. Onewho is on the low end of the self-efficacy scale in science is less likely tobegin exploring on his or her own. But in a small group which is also astudy/support group, this less efficacious student may be more willing toshare in the experience and grow in knowledge and gain confidence.Bandura (1977, 1982) in his research found support groups, as well asrole play ing and modeling , to be effective in increasing efficacyexpectations.

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Include Incremental "Successes." By allowing the hesitantstudent to gain knowledge and experience with equipment and scienceexploration, and stating that no experiment is a failure but a learningexperience, confidence in delving into the tentative nature of science canbe developed.

Extensive Microteaching And Field Experiences. Relatedly,for a preservice elementary teacher, the experience of actually doingscience with classroom students and practicing science . teachingstrategies and approaches is inevitable. As in any profession, the morepreparation and "rehearsals" novices receive, the more confident andcapable they will be in practice.

Introduction To The Nature Of Science And OtherOrientation Information. Many times too little introduction about asubject is given to orient beginning or unsure students. This gives themthe feeling of being left at the starting gate when other, more experiencedstudents are right on task. Especiallywith a vast topic such as science, astudent needs to be invited into the wonder by introductory informationabout the history and nature of science and exploration in this field.

Link Science Knowledge More Closely With ImportantSocietal Issues. There is no more effective hook to engage schoolchildren's minds in science topics than an issue in the news. As our globalcommunity grapples with a myriad of complex environmental problems,preservice teachers must be prepared to address these issues as astarting point for discussions and generation of interesting, relevantscience explorations for their students. If no where else, the sciencemethods course should be designed to teach preservice teachers how toteach science in a way that engages their students' minds and "hooks"them on science.

Use Of Technology In The Exploration Of Science. Byintegrating the use of microcomputers and other technological equipmentinto science methods classes, we not only build teaching efficacy andcompetence in the preservice teachers but we also equip them to morefully prepare their students for the highly technical world that awaits them.

Final CommentsHumans learn about themselves and their world through interactions

with our environment and with one another. These experiences shapehow we perceive and respond to future learning, and teaching situations.This acquired belief system and the resultant attitudes form the basis ofour personal self-efficacy . Many teacher-educators assume thatcompletion of science content courses and science methods classes will

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adequately prepare preservice teachers to blossom into successfulclassroom teachers. Unfortunately, for many elementary teachers this isnot the case. Early experiences in science can cripple an individual'sability to perform an activity because a negative belief has been fosteredand a resulting negative attitude prevents that individual from evenattempting to perform the exercise (Tobias, 1990). Many educationstudents in college courses have deeply held misgivings about their abilityto learn science and to successfully teach science in the classroom(Westerback and Primavera, 1988).

Several studies referenced in this article have focused on methodsfor improving attitudes of preservice teachers, including microteachingand closely tying science methods classes with concurrent sciencecontent courses. Enoch and Riggs (1990) emphasize the importance ofthe construct of self-efficacy in designing elementary preservice teacherexperiences. The use of microcomputer training and resultantenhancement of science teaching self-efficacy scores was demonstratedby Shroyer, et al. (1990). Insights gained about science teaching self­efficacy in a study by Hampton (1991) are currently being used toestablish more effective cooperative learning groups in elementarypreservice science and mathematics teacher training . Delving into theunderlying belief system and enhancing the self-efficacy of preserviceteachers may increase their closely related student outcome expectancybeliefs.

Purposeful selection of science teacher preparation experiencescan perhaps change teaching self-efficacy and resultant attitudes towardscience and science teaching. Following the suggested guidelines abovein developing teacher preparation experiences may be a step in the rightdirection both in science coursework and field experiences. Research inthis area is needed to determine why and when these science self-efficacybeliefs were developed in preservice teachers. And, as Woolfolk and Hoy(1990) and others indicate, is there a group of characteristics such asattitude toward science, self-efficacy and locus of control or pupil controlideology which are interrelated?

If indeed teachers tend to teach as they have been taught, we needto break the traditional cycle by incorporating the previously statedsuggestions into science methods courses to help build science teachingself-efficacy. This should improve attitudes toward science and reduceanxiety toward science teaching. Such action will represent a great strideforward not only for preparation of preservice teachers, but also for theirelementary classroom students in terms of science learning.

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References

Akindehin , F. (1988). Effect of an instructional package on preservicescience teachers' understanding of the nature of science andacqu isition of science-related attitudes. Science Education, 72(1) ,73-82.

Armor, D., Conroy-Osequera, P., Cox, M., King, N., McDonnell, L., Pascal,A., Pauly, E. , and Zellman , G. (1976). Analysis of the schoolpreferred reading programs in selected Los Angeles minorityschools. (Report No. R-2007-LAUSD). Santa Monica, CA: RandCorporation.

Ashton, P. (1984). Teacher Efficacy : A Motivational Paradigm for EffectiveTeacher Education. Journal of Teacher Education, 35 (5), 28-32.

Bandura, A. (1977) . Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioralchange. Psychological Review 84, 191-215.

Bandura, A. (1981) . Self-referent thought: A developmental analysis ofself-efficacy. In J. H. Flavell and L. Ross (Eds .) Social cognitivedevelopment: Frontiers and possible futures. (pp. 200-239) . NewYork, Cambridge University Press.

Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in human agency. AmericanPsychologist, 37 (2), 122-147.

Berman, P. and M. McLaughlin (1977). Federal programs supportingeducational change, Vol. 1/: Factors affecting implementation andcontinuation. (Report No. R-1589/7-HEW). Santa Monica, CA :Rand Corporation.

Brookover, W., Schweitzer, J., Schneider, J., Beady , C., Flood, P., andWisenbaker, J. (1978). Elementary school social climate and schoolachievement. American Educational Research Journal, 15, 301­318.

Czerniak, C. and L. Chiarelott. (1990). Teacher education for effectivescience instruction-a social cognitive perspective. Journalof Teacher Education, 41 (1), 49-58.

Denham, C. H. and J. J . Michael. (1981). Teacher's sense of efficacy: Adefinition of the construct and a model for further research.Educational Research Quarterly, 5, 39-63.

Enochs, L. G. and I. M. Riggs. (1990). Further development of anelementary science teaching efficacy belief instrument: A preserviceelementary scale . School Science and Mathematics , 90(8), 694­706.

Gibson, S. and Dembo, M. H. (1984) . Teacher efficacy: A constructvalidation . Journal of Education Psychology, 76, 569-582.

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Jaus, H. H. (1974). Using microteach ing to change elementaryteachers' attitudes toward science instruction. School Scienceand Mathematics, 74(5), 402-406 .

Kramer, D. C. (1979). Science att itude change in preserviceelementary teachers during an act ivity-oriented biology course.School Science and Mathematics, 79 (4), 294-298.

Shrigley, R. L. (1974). The attitude of preservice elementary teacherstoward science. School Science and Mathematics, 74(4), 243­250.

Stefan ich, G. P. and K. W. Kelsey. (1989). Improving science attitudesof preserv ice elementary teachers. Science Education, 73(2).187 -194.

Tob ias, S. (1990). They're not dumb, they're different: Stalking thesecond tier. Tucson, AZ: Research Corporation.

Westerback, M. E. (1982). Studies on attitude toward teachingscience and anxiety about teaching science in preserviceelementary teachers. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,19(7), 603-616 .

Woolfolk , A. E. and W. K. Hoy. (1990). Prospective teachers' sense ofefficacy and beliefs about control. Journal of EducationalPsychology, 82 (1), 81-91.

Linda Ramey-Gassert is a doctora l cand idate in science education at Kansas

State University, Manhattan, Kansas and Coordinator of the Collaborative

Outreach Educat ion Program at the Chicago Botanic Garden, Glencoe , IL

60022-0400.

Dr. M. Gail Shroyer is Assistant Professor of Science Educat ion and Associate

Director of the Center for Science Education at Kansas State Univers ity,

Manhattan, Kansas 66506.

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