elaborate analogies in science text: tools for enhancing preservice teachers’ knowledge and...
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Elaborate Analogies in Science Text: Tools for Enhancing
Preservice Teachers’ Knowledge and Attitudes
Nita A. Paris, Ph.D.Nita A. Paris, Ph.D.
Kennesaw State UniversityKennesaw State University
Thanks to:Dr. Shawn Glynn, Dr. Shawn Glynn,
Professor of Educational Psychology Professor of Educational Psychology and Science Education and Science Education
The University of GeorgiaThe University of Georgia
ANDAND
The Association of Teacher The Association of Teacher Educators’ Dissertation Awards Educators’ Dissertation Awards
CommitteeCommittee
Historical Links to Science Teaching ““To successfully instruct young people in science, To successfully instruct young people in science,
the teacher should himself really and practically the teacher should himself really and practically know his subject. If he does, he will be able to know his subject. If he does, he will be able to speak of it in the easy language and with speak of it in the easy language and with completeness of conviction with which he talks of completeness of conviction with which he talks of an ordinary everyday matter (Huxley, 1869).”an ordinary everyday matter (Huxley, 1869).”
““Suggestions, ideas, inferences, concepts grow Suggestions, ideas, inferences, concepts grow only out of an abundant first-hand experience with only out of an abundant first-hand experience with facts (Twiss, 1917).” facts (Twiss, 1917).”
Historical Links to Analogies
““Analogy is inevitable in human thought. It is Analogy is inevitable in human thought. It is how we have learned to think about the how we have learned to think about the relatedness of things (Oppenheimer, 1956).”relatedness of things (Oppenheimer, 1956).”
Analogical thought is a fundamental cognitive Analogical thought is a fundamental cognitive process (Piaget, 1962)process (Piaget, 1962)
Early research on analogical thought and the Early research on analogical thought and the cognitive operations involved (Rumelhart & cognitive operations involved (Rumelhart & Abrahamson, 1973; Gick & Holyoak, 1980) Abrahamson, 1973; Gick & Holyoak, 1980)
Pedagogical Links to Analogies
Analogies play important roles in Analogies play important roles in hypothesis generation and explaining hypothesis generation and explaining solutions (Glynn, Britton & Duit, 1995; solutions (Glynn, Britton & Duit, 1995; Paris, 1999)Paris, 1999)
Use of analogies supported by a variety of Use of analogies supported by a variety of learning theories.learning theories.
Analogies and Learning Theories
C on cep tu a l C h an g e(S trike & P os n er, 1 9 9 2 )
(K u h n , 1 9 9 9 )
S ch em a Th eory(B artle tt, 1 9 3 2 )
(A u s u b e l, 1 9 7 8 )
C on s tru c tivis m(B ru n er, 1 9 6 1 )(P iag e t, 1 9 6 9 )
(von G laserfe ld , 1 9 8 9 )
D u a l-C od in g Th eory o f M em ory(P a ivio , 1 9 7 1 )
M u lt is to re /s tag e M em oryTh eory(A n d ers on , 1 9 6 8 )
C og n it ive In fo rm ationP roc es s in g
Analogies and Science Learning
Scientists and science educators often use Scientists and science educators often use analogies to explain concepts.analogies to explain concepts.
Textbooks frequently use analogies.Textbooks frequently use analogies. Analogies should be designed to promote Analogies should be designed to promote
the constructivist process of “elaboration”.the constructivist process of “elaboration”. Elaboration- cognitive process of building Elaboration- cognitive process of building
relationships between what is already relationships between what is already known and what is new (Hacker, 1998).known and what is new (Hacker, 1998).
Inconsistency of analogies’ usefulness Sometimes have enhanced learning and Sometimes have enhanced learning and
sometimes not (Gilbert, 1989)sometimes not (Gilbert, 1989) In the past, have consisted of simple In the past, have consisted of simple
assertions “The cell is like a factory”, and assertions “The cell is like a factory”, and may not provide the instructional may not provide the instructional scaffolding a student needs (Brunig, scaffolding a student needs (Brunig, Schraw, & Ronnine, 1999; Mayer, 2002)Schraw, & Ronnine, 1999; Mayer, 2002)
Metacognition
Self-EfficacyInterest
Self-Regulation
ANALOGICAL THINKING
Guides Guides
Influences Influences
Related Concepts
Related Concepts: Metacognition
Skills that entail knowing about one’s own Skills that entail knowing about one’s own knowing. May be more relevant to critical knowing. May be more relevant to critical thinking than cognitive skills (Carr & Jessup, thinking than cognitive skills (Carr & Jessup, 1995; Kuhn, 1999).1995; Kuhn, 1999).
Regulates flow of information through cognitive Regulates flow of information through cognitive frameworks, facilitating deeper processing and frameworks, facilitating deeper processing and provides feedback to learner about success with provides feedback to learner about success with learning tasks (Sternberg, 1984)learning tasks (Sternberg, 1984)
Metacognition (cont)
Linked to development of expertise- assists Linked to development of expertise- assists novices in developing representations of novices in developing representations of their knowledge.their knowledge.
Assists novices by helping them predict Assists novices by helping them predict difficulties, and monitor their learning.difficulties, and monitor their learning.
Related Concepts: Self-regulated Learning Learning that occurs from students’ self-generated Learning that occurs from students’ self-generated
behaviors systematically oriented toward the behaviors systematically oriented toward the attainment of their learning goals (Schunk, 1989).attainment of their learning goals (Schunk, 1989).
Linked to metacognition and motivation. These Linked to metacognition and motivation. These play critical roles in learner’s ability and play critical roles in learner’s ability and willingness to self-regulate (Alexander, 1995; willingness to self-regulate (Alexander, 1995; Borkowski, 1996; Pintrich & Schunk, 1996).Borkowski, 1996; Pintrich & Schunk, 1996).
Improves learners’ self-efficacy in the learning Improves learners’ self-efficacy in the learning task which increases motivation to continue self-task which increases motivation to continue self-regulation (McCombs & Marzano, 1990).regulation (McCombs & Marzano, 1990).
Related Concepts: Interest
A potent, affective factor in learning and A potent, affective factor in learning and comprehension.comprehension.
Slippery construct to define.Slippery construct to define. Context specific (situational interest) is an Context specific (situational interest) is an
emotional state arising from the result of external emotional state arising from the result of external stimuli (Schiefele, 1992).stimuli (Schiefele, 1992).
Energizes learning by leading learners to use Energizes learning by leading learners to use deeper comprehension processes (Tobias, 1994)deeper comprehension processes (Tobias, 1994)
Interest (cont.)
May energize learners by increasing May energize learners by increasing imagery when learning from text (Tobias, imagery when learning from text (Tobias, 1994)1994)
Learners have increased visual imagery Learners have increased visual imagery when interested in text (Long, Winogard, & when interested in text (Long, Winogard, & Bridge, 1989).Bridge, 1989).
Domain expertise cannot emerge in the Domain expertise cannot emerge in the absence of interest (Prenzel, 1992).absence of interest (Prenzel, 1992).
Related Concepts: Self-efficacy
A judgment of one’s capabilities to accomplish a A judgment of one’s capabilities to accomplish a certain level of performance (Bandura, 1986).certain level of performance (Bandura, 1986).
Situation specific (domain specific) belief that Situation specific (domain specific) belief that mediates the the relationship between knowledge mediates the the relationship between knowledge and action (Bandura, 1977).and action (Bandura, 1977).
Associated with one’s outcome expectancies- Associated with one’s outcome expectancies- judgments regarding consequences that will most judgments regarding consequences that will most likely result from specific behaviors.likely result from specific behaviors.
Teaching Self-Efficacy
Personal teaching efficacy- belief in one’s ability Personal teaching efficacy- belief in one’s ability to teach effectively (Enoch & Riggs, 1990; to teach effectively (Enoch & Riggs, 1990; Huinker & Madison, 1997).Huinker & Madison, 1997).
Teaching outcome expectancy- belief that Teaching outcome expectancy- belief that effective teaching will have a positive effect on effective teaching will have a positive effect on student learning (Enoch & Riggs, 1990; Huinker student learning (Enoch & Riggs, 1990; Huinker & Madison, 1997).& Madison, 1997).
Context and content domain specific (Ashton & Context and content domain specific (Ashton & Webb, 1986).Webb, 1986).
Teaching Self Efficacy (cont.)
Teachers with low teaching self-efficacy Teachers with low teaching self-efficacy rely on more passive, teacher focused rely on more passive, teacher focused learning activities such as lecture and learning activities such as lecture and reading from textbooks (Huinker & reading from textbooks (Huinker & Madison, 1997).Madison, 1997).
Teachers with low teaching self-efficacy in Teachers with low teaching self-efficacy in a subject devote less time spent to that a subject devote less time spent to that subject (Huinker & Madison, 1997).subject (Huinker & Madison, 1997).
The Present Study
Purpose: to determine the role that elaborate Purpose: to determine the role that elaborate analogies can play in enhancing analogies can play in enhancing
preservice elementary teachers’ preservice elementary teachers’ science science knowledgeknowledge, , interestinterest in science, in science,
metacognitionmetacognition while learning science, while learning science, and and self-efficacy for teachingself-efficacy for teaching
science.science.
Participants
Experiment 1: 69 undergraduate elementary education Experiment 1: 69 undergraduate elementary education majorsmajors
Experiment 2: 71 undergraduate elementary education Experiment 2: 71 undergraduate elementary education majorsmajors
Second experiment was designed first to replicate and then Second experiment was designed first to replicate and then to extend experiment #1 by collecting anecdotal qualitative to extend experiment #1 by collecting anecdotal qualitative datadata
Design
Participants read and studied texts and Participants read and studied texts and diagrams about three fundamentally diagrams about three fundamentally important science concepts; the human important science concepts; the human eye, cell, and electrical circuit. The eye, cell, and electrical circuit. The concepts were presented by means of a concepts were presented by means of a control text with no analogy, a text with a control text with no analogy, a text with a simple analogy, and a text with an elaborate simple analogy, and a text with an elaborate analogy.analogy.
Hypotheses It was hypothesized that: Participants’ science knowledge, interest in Participants’ science knowledge, interest in
science, metacognition while learning science, and science, metacognition while learning science, and self-efficacy for teaching science would be highest self-efficacy for teaching science would be highest in the elaborate analogy condition. in the elaborate analogy condition.
Participants would find the elaborate analogy text Participants would find the elaborate analogy text most interesting, most helpful for understanding most interesting, most helpful for understanding the concept, and most helpful from the perspective the concept, and most helpful from the perspective of explaining the concept to elementary students. of explaining the concept to elementary students.
Design: Repeated MeasuresPartPart EyeEye
(C)(C)
CellCell
(C)(C)
CirCir
(C)(C)
EyeEye
(S)(S)
CellCell
(S)(S)
CirCir
(S)(S)
EyeEye
(E)(E)
CellCell
(E)(E)
CirCir
(E)(E)
11 aa bb cc
22 bb cc aa
33 cc aa bb
44 aa bb cc
55 bb cc aa
NN
Materials
Control texts of the three concepts (eye, Control texts of the three concepts (eye, cell, electrical circuit) were developed from cell, electrical circuit) were developed from information in two leading science texts information in two leading science texts often used with preservice teachers.often used with preservice teachers.
Simple analogy texts
Simple analogy texts for the three concepts were Simple analogy texts for the three concepts were developed by inserting a single statement at the developed by inserting a single statement at the beginning of each control text in which an analogy beginning of each control text in which an analogy was drawn between the concept and a familiar was drawn between the concept and a familiar object.object. ““The human eye is like a camera”.The human eye is like a camera”. ““An electrical circuit is like water flowing An electrical circuit is like water flowing
through pipes”.through pipes”. ““Animal cells are like factories”.Animal cells are like factories”.
Elaborate Analogy Texts
In an elaborate analogy, analog (factory, In an elaborate analogy, analog (factory, camera, water in pipes) features are camera, water in pipes) features are systematically mapped onto target (cell, systematically mapped onto target (cell, eye, electrical circuit) features. Verbal and eye, electrical circuit) features. Verbal and visual imagery processes are active and visual imagery processes are active and mutually support one another (Glynn & mutually support one another (Glynn & Takahashi, 1998).Takahashi, 1998).
Elaborate Analogy Texts
Developed by applying the Teaching-with-Analogies Model Developed by applying the Teaching-with-Analogies Model (Glynn, 1991)(Glynn, 1991) Introduce target conceptIntroduce target concept Cue retrieval of the analogue concept Cue retrieval of the analogue concept Identify relevant features of the target and analogueIdentify relevant features of the target and analogue Map similarities between target and analogueMap similarities between target and analogue Indicate where analogy breaks downIndicate where analogy breaks down Draw conclusionsDraw conclusions
Elaborate Analogy Texts-mapping similaritiesTHE FACTORYTHE FACTORY Security Security
guard/restricted entry guard/restricted entry Control centerControl center Power generatorPower generator Inside hallwaysInside hallways Production machinesProduction machines
THE ANIMAL CELLTHE ANIMAL CELL Plasma membranePlasma membrane
NucleusNucleus MitochondrionMitochondrion Endoplasmic retic.Endoplasmic retic. RibosomesRibosomes
Diagram for simple and elaborate analogy texts- cell
Diagram for simple and elaborate analogy texts-circuit
Diagram for simple and elaborate analogy texts- eye
Performance Measures Topic Measures (Pre and Post)Topic Measures (Pre and Post)
InterestInterestPerceived KnowledgePerceived KnowledgeSelf-efficacy for teachingSelf-efficacy for teaching
Text Measures (Post Only)Text Measures (Post Only)Interest RankingInterest RankingUnderstandability RankingUnderstandability RankingHelpfulness for teaching RankingHelpfulness for teaching Ranking
Knowledge Measures (Post Only)Knowledge Measures (Post Only)RetentionRetentionInference-makingInference-makingMetacognition Metacognition
Analysis
Effects of text treatments were examined quantitatively Effects of text treatments were examined quantitatively through planned comparisons of means (t-tests for related through planned comparisons of means (t-tests for related samples).Alpha was set at .05., Bonferoni adjustments samples).Alpha was set at .05., Bonferoni adjustments were made to control Type I error. Degrees of freedom were made to control Type I error. Degrees of freedom were adjusted with Greenhouse-Geiser method, when were adjusted with Greenhouse-Geiser method, when sphericity assumption was not met.sphericity assumption was not met.
Qualitative anecdotal data were gathered through Qualitative anecdotal data were gathered through structured individual questions in which participants were structured individual questions in which participants were asked to explain in writing their rankings of the texts. asked to explain in writing their rankings of the texts. These data were sorted independently by two expert These data were sorted independently by two expert science teachers who developed categories based on science teachers who developed categories based on similarity of meaning. similarity of meaning.
Results-Topic measures
Administered Pre and PostAdministered Pre and Post Nine item Likert-type science concept Nine item Likert-type science concept
questionnaire on which participants rated questionnaire on which participants rated their topic interest, topic perceived their topic interest, topic perceived knowledge, and topic self-efficacy.knowledge, and topic self-efficacy.
Rating alternatives were 1 (very low), 2 Rating alternatives were 1 (very low), 2 (low), 3 (average), 4 (high), 5 (very high)(low), 3 (average), 4 (high), 5 (very high)
Results- Topic measures(cont.)
Pretests resultsPretests results No significant difference between participants’ interest No significant difference between participants’ interest
in the three topics (cell, eye, circuit)in the three topics (cell, eye, circuit) No significant difference between participants’ No significant difference between participants’
perceived knowledge in the three topics(cell, eye, perceived knowledge in the three topics(cell, eye, circuit).circuit).
No significant difference between participants’ self-No significant difference between participants’ self-efficacy for teaching the three topics (cell, eye, circuit).efficacy for teaching the three topics (cell, eye, circuit).
Results- Topic measures (cont.)
Post tests (Paired Samples t-test)Post tests (Paired Samples t-test) Effect of text condition on Effect of text condition on topic interesttopic interest was was
statistically significant.statistically significant.
Planned comparisons of means indicated that Planned comparisons of means indicated that interest was significantly higher in the elaborate interest was significantly higher in the elaborate analogy text condition than either the simple analogy text condition than either the simple
((t t =5.20, =5.20, pp < .001) or the control ( < .001) or the control ( tt = 4.69, = 4.69, pp < .001). < .001).
Results- Topic measures (cont.)
Effect of text condition on Effect of text condition on perceived perceived knowledgeknowledge was statistically significant. was statistically significant.
Planned comparisons of means indicated Planned comparisons of means indicated that perceived knowledge was significantly that perceived knowledge was significantly higher in the elaborate analogy text higher in the elaborate analogy text condition than either the simple condition than either the simple
((t t = 2.97, = 2.97, pp = .004) or the control ( = .004) or the control ( tt = 2.75, = 2.75, pp = .007). = .007).
Results- Topic measures (cont.)
Effect of text condition on Effect of text condition on self-efficacyself-efficacy for for teaching was statistically significant.teaching was statistically significant.
Planned comparisons of means indicated Planned comparisons of means indicated that self-efficacy for teaching was that self-efficacy for teaching was significantly higher in the elaborate analogy significantly higher in the elaborate analogy text condition than either the simple text condition than either the simple
((t t =4.85, =4.85, pp < .001) or the control ( < .001) or the control ( tt = 4.57, = 4.57, pp < .001). < .001).
Results- Text Measures
Administered post test onlyAdministered post test only Participants were asked to rate the three texts as Participants were asked to rate the three texts as
Most, less, least interesting; Most, less, least interesting; Most, less, least helpful for understanding the Most, less, least helpful for understanding the
concept.concept. Most, less, least helpful for explaining the Most, less, least helpful for explaining the
concept to students.concept to students.
Scale was- “Most” = 3, “Less” = 2, “Least” =1Scale was- “Most” = 3, “Less” = 2, “Least” =1
Results- Text measures (cont.)
Post tests Post tests Effect of text condition on Effect of text condition on text interesttext interest was was
statistically significant.statistically significant.
Planned comparisons of means indicated that text Planned comparisons of means indicated that text interest was significantly higher in the elaborate interest was significantly higher in the elaborate analogy text condition than either the simple analogy text condition than either the simple
((t t = 8.74, = 8.74, pp < .001) or the control ( < .001) or the control ( tt = 8.84, = 8.84, pp = .007).= .007).
Results- Text measures (cont.)
Effect of text condition on Effect of text condition on text understandabilitytext understandability was statistically significant.was statistically significant.
Planned comparisons of means indicated that Planned comparisons of means indicated that understandability was significantly higher in the understandability was significantly higher in the elaborate analogy text condition than either the elaborate analogy text condition than either the simple simple
((t t = 15.65, = 15.65, pp = .004) or the control ( = .004) or the control ( tt = 15.46, = 15.46, pp < .001).< .001).
Results- Text measures (cont.)
Effect of text condition on Effect of text condition on text explicability text explicability was statistically significant.was statistically significant.
Planned comparisons of means indicated Planned comparisons of means indicated that explicability was significantly higher in that explicability was significantly higher in the elaborate analogy text condition than the elaborate analogy text condition than either the simple either the simple
((t t = 16.23, = 16.23, pp < .001) or the control ( < .001) or the control ( tt = = 18.89, 18.89, pp < .001). < .001).
Results- Knowledge Measures
Post test onlyPost test only Three measures were; Three measures were;
retained knowledge (15 items- 5 for each concept) retained knowledge (15 items- 5 for each concept) “The function of the endoplasmic reticulum is…”“The function of the endoplasmic reticulum is…”
inference-making (6 items- 2 for each concept) “How inference-making (6 items- 2 for each concept) “How likely is it that DNA would occur in other parts of the likely is it that DNA would occur in other parts of the cell? Explain”cell? Explain”
metacognitive knowledge prediction (21 items- 7 for metacognitive knowledge prediction (21 items- 7 for each concept). “Do you think you answered this each concept). “Do you think you answered this question correctly? If you answered “YES” how sure question correctly? If you answered “YES” how sure are you of your answer? ______ %”are you of your answer? ______ %”
Results- Knowledge Measures (cont).
Planned comparisons by related samples t-Planned comparisons by related samples t-tests.tests.
Planned comparisons of means indicated Planned comparisons of means indicated that that knowledgeknowledge was significantly higher in was significantly higher in the elaborate analogy text condition than the elaborate analogy text condition than either the simple (either the simple (t t = 5.06, = 5.06, pp < .001) or the < .001) or the control ( control ( tt = 6.65, = 6.65, p p < .001). < .001).
Results- Knowledge Measures (cont).
Planned comparisons of means indicated Planned comparisons of means indicated that significantly more that significantly more inferencesinferences were were made in the elaborate analogy text made in the elaborate analogy text condition than either the simple (condition than either the simple (t t = 2.54, = 2.54, pp < .012) or the control ( < .012) or the control ( tt = 3.25, = 3.25, p p < .001). < .001).
Results- Knowledge Measures (cont).
Planned comparisons of means indicated Planned comparisons of means indicated that that metacognitive metacognitive scores were scores were significantly higher in the elaborate analogy significantly higher in the elaborate analogy text condition than either the simple (text condition than either the simple (t t = = 4.45, 4.45, pp < .001) or the control ( < .001) or the control ( tt = 4.91, = 4.91, p p < .001). < .001).
Results- Qualitative measure
Elaborate analogy text was most helpful for Elaborate analogy text was most helpful for understanding, most interesting, most understanding, most interesting, most helpful for explaining concepts to students helpful for explaining concepts to students because:because: Related the science concept to something Related the science concept to something
they already knew.they already knew. Helped them “visualize” the concept.Helped them “visualize” the concept.
Results-Summary
Reading texts containing elaborate analogies Reading texts containing elaborate analogies fosters topical interest and text interest.fosters topical interest and text interest.
Learning science concepts through the use of Learning science concepts through the use of elaborate analogies contribute to a greater sense of elaborate analogies contribute to a greater sense of self-efficacy for teaching.self-efficacy for teaching.
Elaborate analogies can assist learners to more Elaborate analogies can assist learners to more accurately assess their own understanding of a accurately assess their own understanding of a topic.topic.
Results-Summary (cont.)
Elaborate analogies enhance knowledge retention Elaborate analogies enhance knowledge retention and science concept learning.and science concept learning.
Elaborate analogies enhance accurate inference-Elaborate analogies enhance accurate inference-making. making.
Elaborate analogies do not contribute to inaccurate Elaborate analogies do not contribute to inaccurate inferences (A common criticism in prior research).inferences (A common criticism in prior research).
Elaborate analogies increase metacognition during Elaborate analogies increase metacognition during learning.learning.
Discussion
Through systematic mapping of visual and verbal Through systematic mapping of visual and verbal features, elaborate analogies facilitate the cognitive features, elaborate analogies facilitate the cognitive process of “elaboration” (building relations process of “elaboration” (building relations between what is already known and what is new)between what is already known and what is new)
Elaborate analogies likely enhance science concept Elaborate analogies likely enhance science concept learning by serving as learning by serving as “conceptual bridges’ between what is known and “conceptual bridges’ between what is known and what is new. what is new.
Learners can use these conceptual bridges to Learners can use these conceptual bridges to construct stable representations of new ideas.construct stable representations of new ideas.
Discussion (cont.)
Elaborate analogies stimulate dual-coding processes Elaborate analogies stimulate dual-coding processes by initiating visual as well as verbal processing, by initiating visual as well as verbal processing, improving memory and stimulating interest.improving memory and stimulating interest.
Elaborate analogies provide “points of references” Elaborate analogies provide “points of references” from which learners can accurately assess their from which learners can accurately assess their understanding of new ideas. They serve as self-understanding of new ideas. They serve as self-diagnostic tools.diagnostic tools.
Elaborate analogies create a sense of self-relevancy Elaborate analogies create a sense of self-relevancy for learners. Making the topic more interesting and for learners. Making the topic more interesting and likely enhancing self-regulation during learning. likely enhancing self-regulation during learning.
Theoretical implications
The role of elaborate analogies in enhancing science The role of elaborate analogies in enhancing science knowledge and attitudes is a constructive one, knowledge and attitudes is a constructive one, consistent with constructivist learning theories.consistent with constructivist learning theories.
Elaborate analogies facilitate elaboration and serve Elaborate analogies facilitate elaboration and serve as cognitive scaffolds around which knowledge can as cognitive scaffolds around which knowledge can be organized and extended into new domains.be organized and extended into new domains.
Elaborate analogies situate abstract concepts in Elaborate analogies situate abstract concepts in concrete familiar contexts.concrete familiar contexts.
Practical implications
Elaborate analogies should be more Elaborate analogies should be more systematically incorporated into the science systematically incorporated into the science texts.texts.
Elaborate analogies should be used to teach Elaborate analogies should be used to teach science to pre-service teachers. They science to pre-service teachers. They should be incorporated into texts, and into should be incorporated into texts, and into classroom discussions.classroom discussions.
