Journal of Commudu Pw-. 1980, 8. 237-244.

ENHANCING SHARING BEHAVIORS THROUGH THE USE O F NATURALISTIC CONTINGENCIES

LEONARD A. JASON SHARON D. ROBSON AND SUSAN A. LIPSHUTZ

DePoul University Loyolo University

The present study modified sharing behaviors by using naturalistic contingencies in groups of first and third grade children. During the initial baseline period. individual sharing behaviors among triads of youngsters were documented. When children evidencing low rates of sharing were subsequently placed in groups with high sharers, rates of sharing increased in the low sharers. When a high sharer was placed in groups of low sharers, increases in levels of sharing were also noted for the low sharers. Both findings suggest that prosocial behaviors might be modified by strategic placement of children in specific behavior settings.

A number of behavioral techniques have been employed to accelerate prosocial behaviors in children. For example, Cooke and Appolloni (1976) used instructions, modeling, and praise to increase smiling, sharing, positive physical contact, and com- plimenting behaviors. Other investigators have facilitated social interactions through use of direct and indirect teacher attention (Goetz, Thomson, & Etzel, 1975), prompting and reinforcement (Strain, Shores, & Kerr, 1976), and praise and physical contact (Strain & Timm, 1974). Sharing has been increased through use of positive practice (Barton & Osborne, 1978). and by reinforcing true reports of sharing (Rogers-Warren, Warren, & Baer, 1977). These studies indicate that behavioral interventions have been effective, at least in the short-term, in enhancing children’s prosocial behaviors.

A conceptually distinct approach, proposed by Wahler ( 1 9 7 9 , involves engendering behavior change indirectly by setting contingencies for behaviors which covary with the target disorder. This approach received some support in a recent school consultation project (Bednarz, Douglas, & Jason, Note I ) , where positive follow-up data accrued for those cases where the intervention focused on behaviors tangentially associated with the target problem. Another indirect approach, advocated by Stokes and Baer (1977), in- volves teaching behaviors which will elicit maintaining reinforcement following training. Employing this strategy, Seymour and Stokes (1 976) successfully trained delinquent girls to evoke staff praise in an institution for offenders. Stokes, Fowler, and Baer (1978) trained preschool children to make statements which invited favorable evaluations of their work. A logical extension of these interventions might involve placing individuals in settings which facilitate specific behavior patterns. As an example, Strain, Shores, and Timm (1977) placed socially active preschool children in groups of children evidencing low rates of social behaviors. When the socially active children were trained to get the other children to play with each other, social behavior among all children increased.

These studies hint at an alternative conceptualization of inducing behavior change; that is, rather than intervening directly with individuals, mental health professionals might identify individuals desiring behavior change and link them up with networks of settings previously identified as potentially facilitating specific changes (Jason & Glenwick, 1980). A laboratory demonstration of this principle has been provided by Suomi (l979), who found that debilitating effects of monkeys being reared alone from 6 months to I year were ameliorated after they were gradually exposed to younger, socially

Requests for reprints should be sent to Leonard A. Jason, Psychology Department, DePaul University. Chicago. IL 60614.

237

238 LEONARD JASON, SHARON ROBSON, AND SUSAN LIPSHUTZ

competent infants. Using this nonprogrammed intervention as a model, Hartup (1979) exposed socially withdrawn preschoolers to younger competent children. Youngsters in this treatment group, when compared to controls, evidenced significant improvements in sociability. Another example of this approach was provided by Jason and Smith (in press). They created peer-led support groups of college undergraduates, some of whom had been successful and others unsuccessful in altering common behavior difficulties. During the group meetings, the more successful students provided the others with strategies which succeeded in modifying previously recalcitrant problems. In another in- vestigation, Jason and Nelson (in press) documented higher levels of misbehavior when a problem child was in a large class with little teacher supervision. When another disrup- tive child from an unsupervised large group was placed in a supervised setting, con- siderable decreases in problem behaviors were noted. Finally, Jason, Ferone, and Soucy (Note 2) identified a behavior setting in a classroom (a group of three children) eviden- cing high rates of sharing behaviors. When an isolate child was placed in this setting, the child’s rate of sharing substantially increased. These studies suggest that behavior change can be induced through strategic placement of children in salutary behavior settings.

The study by Jason, Ferone, and Soucy involved only one isolate child; therefore, caution must be exercised in interpreting the results. In an attempt to replicate and ex- pand this study, several groups in first and third grade classrooms were involved in the present investigation. Initially, high and low sharers in small group settings were iden- tified. Following this, low sharers were placed in groups of high sharers, and high sharers were placed in groups of low sharers. It was predicted that sharing behaviors among the low sharers would increase in both behavior settings.

METHOD Participants. The children involved in this study were first and third graders in two

classrooms from a parochial elementary school in Chicago. The first grade class con- tained 30 children and the third grade class contained 20 children. Ages of the children in the first grade class ranged from 6 years 10 months to 8 years one month. The ages of the children in the third grade class ranged from 8 years 9 months to 10 years 4 months. There were 20 males and 10 females in the first grade, and 8 males and 12 females in the third grade. In the first grade, there were 1 1 Caucasians, 4 Blacks, and 15 Latinos. There were 8 Caucasians, 4 Blacks, and 8 Latinos in the third grade.

The study was conducted in the children’s regular classrooms on Tuesday and Thursday mornings. The students in each class were divided randomly into groups of three making a total of ten triads in the first grade. There were four triads plus two groups of four in the third grade. Children were assigned to groups randomly with the provision that at least one boy and one girl were in each group. There were seven triads of first graders and two triads of third graders.’

Play materials. A series of peer-interaction games was created so that each child could actively participate in the completion of a predesigned group project. A different project was used for each session. Each triad was given one pair of scissors, one tube of paste, and two crayons. One project involved cutting out and coloring parts of a clock,

~

Two groups in both the first and third grade were involved in a separate study, described elsewhere (Rob- son, Lipshutz. & Jason, Note 3). Several other groups were eliminated because several children transferred to different schools during the study.

ENHANCING SHARING BEHAVIORS 239

and then pasting the parts together to create a clock. Restrictions in the amount of shar- ing materials were intended to facilitate sharing behaviors.

Procedures. The play sessions lasted 15 minutes each. These sessions followed a I5 minute peer-tutoring session, described elsewhere (Jason & Frasure, Note 4). Instruc- tions for the project were given by one of the two group leaders in each triad. Group leaders were university students at DePaul University. During the first session (day 1 of baseline), the children were told that the play materials were limited so they would have to share. They were also informed that the games belonged to everyone and that it was important that the youngsters work together. No further sharing prompts were given.

One of the observers was allowed five minutes to pass out materials and to explain how to play the game. During the next five minutes, the children were allowed to play with the materials while the two observers recorded the number of times sharing took place. Recording did not occur during the last five minutes, which were devoted to clean- ing up and putting the materials away. All projects were collected at the end of each ses- sion and given to the classroom teacher.

Data collection and observational system. Data were collected twice weekly throughout the project. University students were trained using role playing in the obser- vational system before the study was begun. Each triad was assigned two university students. There were no specific behavioral interventions to alter the subjects’ sharing behavior.

Observers scored two behaviors during the actual sessions. One behavior was an in- itiation (I) (i.e., offering) of a material from one child to another. A verbal initiation might involve a child offering to give a material to another child (“Do you want this crayon?”). A nonverbal initiation might involve one child handing over a material to another. I n the observational system, either a verbal or nonverbal initiation was scored as an initiation. The second behavior observed was an acceptance (A) of an offer to ex- change. A verbal acceptance involved a child verbally allowing another to have a material (“OK, you can have it.”) A nonverbal acceptance involved allowing another child to have an object which was asked for. Either a verbal or nonverbal acceptance was scored as an acceptance. Sharing was defined as the total number of initiations and acceptances each child engaged in during each session. Experimen tal Procedure

Baseline. Data were collected for eight weeks. Scores were tabulated only during those days when all three members of a triad were present (n = 12 sessions during the baseline phase).

Intervention. Seven low sharing children and fourteen higher sharing youngsters were matched to form seven triads which contained one low sharing and two higher shar- ing children. There were 5 first grade and 2 third grade triads. During the next six sessions, the newly composed triads were given play materials and sharing behavior was recorded. Two higher scoring children and four lower scoring youngsters were also matched to form two triads made up of one high sharing and two lower sharing children. These triads of first graders were together for six sessions.

Baseline. During the last five sessions, all children were returned to their original baseline triads. Reliability

There were 99 separate occasions in which interrater reliability was gathered. Independent observers recorded the number of initiations and acceptances for each child.

240 LEONARD JASON, SHARON ROBSON, AND SUSAN LlPSHUTZ

Session reliability between observers was calculated by dividing the number of agreements by the number of agreements plus disagreements, then multiplying by 100. The average reliability for sharing behaviors across sessions was 92%.

RESULTS Tables 1 and 2, and Figures 1 and 2, present total sharing data for the first and third

graders across the three experimental conditions. In Table I , the total sharing behaviors for the combined higher sharers and low sharers in each triad are presented. Using the Friedman two-way analysis of variance (Seigel, 1956). there were no significant changes across conditions for the combined high sharers (x'. = 3.5). but significant changes were noted for the low sharers (x'. = 10.9, p S .01). Employing the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test (Siegel, 1956). the low sharers evidenced significant increases from baseline to treatment (T = 0, p I .05), and significant decreases from the treatment con- dition to the second baseline (T = 0, p < .05). During the baseline condition, the low sharers averaged two sharing episodes per session. Sharing increased to 5.1 per session during treatment and decreased to 2.4 during the following baseline sessions. For the high sharers, sharing increased directionally during the treatment and second baseline phase.

TABLE 1 Rafes of Sharing for Seven Low Sharers Placed in High Sharing Groups

Baseline Treat men t Baseline

Low High Low High Low High Sharer Sharers Sharer Sharers Sharer Sharers

Mean for Mean for Mean for

First Graders Triad 1 2.1 5.9 7.2 5.6 3.9 4.3

Triad 2 1.8 4.4 6.6 4.8 1.4 5.5

Triad 3 2.1 3.6 5.0 5.0 2.6 4.3

Triad 4 2.1 2.5 3.9 5.4 3.4 5.1

Triad 5 2.4 3.8 4.0 5.0 1.6 5.5

Third Graders Triad 6 1.8 3.4 2.8 2.3 1.8 3.6

Triad 7 1.8 2.3 6.0 5.7 2.3 4.1

TABLE 2 Rafes of Sharing for High Sharers Placed iii Low Sharing Groups

Baseline Treatrnen t Baseline

High Low High Low High Low Sharer Sharers Sharer Sharers Sharer Sharers

Mean for Mean for Mean for

First Graders Triad 1 3.7 1.8 8 .O 5.1 4.2 4.1 Triad 2 4.5 2.2 3.4 2.9 3.5 2.6

ENHANCING SHARING BEHAVIORS 24 1

FIGURE 1. Overall averages for Low Sharers FIGURE 2. Overall averages for High Sharers Placed in High Sharing Groups Placed in Low Sharing Groups

High Sharers

Low Sharers

I 1 Low Sharers

High Sharers

weline inturvartion baneline

5

4

3

z

1

baseline i irventbn baseline

Table 2 and Figure 2 indicate that sharing increased for the low sharers when a high sharer was introduced into their group. During treatment, rates of sharing increased for one of the high sharers and decreased for the other. Due to the small sample size, statistical analyses were not performed.

DISCUSSION The study’s principal finding was that rates of sharing in low sharers could be

accelerated by placing them in groups having high sharers. Previous investigations have demonstrated that sharing could be altered by changing reinforcement contingencies (i.e., directly reinforcing sharing behaviors). Using a different approach, a study by Jason, Ferone, and Soucy (Note 2) indicated that strategic placement of a low sharer in a behavior setting previously identified as evidencing high levels of sharing behavior could effectively accelerate sharing in the low sharer. The present study replicated this finding using an ABA design with seven sets of children. In addition, placement of one high sharer in groups of two low sharers also brought about elevations in rates of sharing for the low sharers.

242 LEONARD JASON, SHARON ROBSON, AND SUSAN LIPSHUTZ

Several studies have suggested that integrating socially competent youngsters with retarded or withdrawn children has had no therapeutic effects. For example, Snyder, Apolloni, and Cooke (1977) reported that when retarded elementary school children were placed with nonretarded peers, rates of social interaction did not increase. However, these findings are not surprising given the fact that retarded children in in- tegrated programs are often rejected by their nonretarded classmates. In another study, Strain, Shores, and Timm (1977) did not find increases in interactive behavior during a baseline phase when socially active children were placed in a setting with withdrawn children. In this study, however, the active peers were specifically asked to not initiate any social play with the withdrawn children. When restraints as depicted above have not been operating, the facilitating effects of contact with socially competent children have been documented (Strain, Shores, & Kerr, 1976).

All seven low sharers increased rates of sharing when placed in the high sharing groups and evidenced decreases when placed back in their original groups. In the second baseline phase, with four of the low sharers, rates of sharing were higher than in the first baseline phase. When a high sharer was placed in a group of low sharers, rates of sharing increased for the low sharers. Although rates decreased during the return to baseline phase, sharing rates still remained above the first baseline period. The consistency of these results strongly suggests that, when placed with high sharers, the low sharers were provided the occasion to display more sharing behaviors. More than likely, the high sharers modeled sharing behaviors and elicited sharing from the formerly low sharers. It should be noted that elevations in sharing scores among formerly low sharers were not based merely on their accepting more materials f roq high sharers. The low sharers were observed to actually increase their rates of initiating episodes of sharing during the treat- ment phase.

Two of the seven pairs of high sharers evidenced decreases in sharing during the in- tervention phase. Table 2 indicates that one high sharer increased rates of sharing and one decreased rates of sharing during the intervention. Specific predictions regarding rates of sharing for the high sharers were not made. It seems that the low sharers depressed rates of sharing in several triads, but actually enhanced sharing in other groups. As the low sharers began evidencing higher levels of sharing in the intervention condition, they began mirroring the high sharers and consequently did not exert an overall negative effect on rates of sharing in the high sharers.

There were several methodological problems in the described study. A fundamental problem concerns the lack of replication within subject triads. In other words, an ABA design only allows one opportunity to assess the effects of an intervention. Employing a second intervention phase (an ABAB design) would have strengthened the study con- siderably. Another problem concerned the use of only two groups to investigate the effects of placing a high sharer in groups of two low sharers. Until these findings are replicated with a larger sample, the results must be interpreted with caution. Finally, in several triads during the baseline phase, discrepancies between the high and low sharers were not great (e.g., 2.3 and 1.8; 2.5 and 2. I ) . Future research in this area should ideally involve a larger initial sample of children, thereby making it possible to select groups having larger mean differences between high and low sharers.

Although small in scope, the present study documented an alternative to intervening directly in altering sharing behaviors. Sharing behaviors in triads of first and third graders were recorded. When low sharers were introduced to settings having one or two high sharers, rates of sharing increased for the formerly low sharers. These data suggest

ENHANCING SHARING BEHAVIORS 243

that analysis and utilization of existing contingencies might result in more economical gains in the area of promoting children’s cooperative social behaviors in school settings. At a higher level of analysis, the behavioral matchmaker represents a new role for psy- chologists; that is, identifying individuals needing behavioral change and linking them up with behavioral settings previously identified as facilitating those changes.

REFERENCE NOTES I . BEDNARZ, D.. DOUGLAS, J., & JASON, L. A. Secondary prevention: Home notes, group contingencies,

and other behavioral strategies with school children. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Association of Behavior Analysis, Chicago, May, 1978.

Evaluating a school primary prevention program. Paper presented at the meeting of the American Psychological Association. Toronto, August, 1978. ED 163 385. ROBSON, S. D., LIYSHUTZ, S. A.. & JASON, L. A. Altering sharing interactions through stimulus control. Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for Behavior Analysis, Dearborn, Michigan, May 1980. JASON, L. A., & FRASURE, S. Establishing supervising behaviors in eighth graders and peer-tutoring behaviors in first graders. Paper presented at the meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago, May, 1978.

2. JASON, L. A., FERONE, L., & SOUCY, G.

3.

4.

REFERENCES BAKTOS, E. J., & OSBORNE, J. G.

COOKE, T. P., & APPOLLONI, T.

GOETZ, E. M., THOMSON, C. L., & ETZEL, 8 . C.

The development of classroom sharing by a teacher using positive practice. Behavior Modifcation. 1978, 2, 23 1-250.

Developing positive social emotional behaviors: A study of training and generalization effects. Journul o/ Applied Behuvior Anulysis, 1976, 9, 65-78.

An analysis of direct and indirect teacher attention and primes in the modification of child social behavior: A case study. Merrill-Pulmer Quarterly, 1975.21, 55- 65.

Peer relations and the growth of social competence. In M. W. Kent and J . E. Rolf (Eds.), Primary prevention of psychoputhology. Vol. 111. Sociul competence in children. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1979.

Future directions: A critical look at the behavioral community approach. In D. S. Glenwick and L. A. Jason (Eds.), Behuviorul community psychology: Progress und prospects. New York: Praeger. 1980.

Investigating relationships between problem behaviors and environmental design. Corrective und Social Psychiatry, in press.

HARTGP. W. W.

JASON, L. A., & GLtNWICK, D. S.

JASON, L. A,, & NtI.soN, T.

JASON. L. A., & S w T t i , T. The behavioral ecological matchmaker. Teaching o/ Psychology, in press. ROGtKS-WAKRFN, A. , WARRES, S. F., & BAER, D. M.

S t Y h l O U K . F. W.. & S T O K t S . T. F.

SIELEL. S. S N ’ I o E R . L., APOLI.ONI, T., & COOKE, T. P. Integrated settings at the early childhood level: The role of non-

retarded peers. Exceptionul Children, 1977, 43, 262-266. STOKES, T. F., & BAER, D. M. An implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behuvior

Anulysis. 1977. 10. 349-367. STOKES, T. F., FOWLER, S. A., & BAER, D. M. Training preschool children to recruit natural communities of

reinforcement. Journul o/ Applied Bchuvior Anulysis, 1978, 1 1 , 285-303. S.rRAiN, P. S., SHORES, R. E., & KERR, M. M. An experimental analysis of “spillover” effects on the social

interaction of behaviorally handicapped preschool children. Journul of Applied Behuvior Analysis, 1976,

Effects of peer social initiations on the behavior of withdrawn children. Journal of Applied Behuvior Anulysis. 1977, 10, 289-298.

An experimental analysis of social interaction between a behaviorally dis- ordered preschool child and her classroom peers. Journul of Applied Behavior Ana/ysis, 1974, 7,583-590.

A component analysis: Modeling, self-reporting, and reinforcement of self-reporting in the development of sharing. Behuvior Modificution, 1977. I , 307-322.

Self-recording in training girls to increase work and evoke staff praise in an institution for offenders. Journal of Applied Behuvior Anulysis, 1976, 9, 41-54.

Nonparumerric sratistics /or the behuvioral sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956.

9. 31-40. S r w x , P. S., StioRts, R. E., & TIMM, M. A.

S T R A I N , P. S., & T I M M , M. A.

244 LEONARD JASON, SHARON ROBSON, AND SUSAN LIPSHUTZ

SuoMi, S. J. Peers, play and primary prevention in primates. In M. W. Kent and J . E. Rolf (Eds.), Primary prevention of psychopathology. Vol. I l l . Social competence in children. Hanover, New Hampshire: University Press of New England, 1979.

Some structural aspects of deviant child behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 1975, 8, 27-42.

WAHLER. R. G.

MINNESOTA-BRIGGS HISTORY RECORD WITH MARRIAGE SECTION

Peter F. Briggs, University of Minnesota The Minnesota-Briggs History Record is a self-administered history

record designed to provide a comprehensive developmental record of the life of an individual under study. A reliable, valid and standardized system, it permits the comparison of case histories and is compatible with the growing trend toward multi-trait, multi-method analysis. Briggs, Seven Scales for the M-B History Record with Reference

Group Data (Monograph #36) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $4.00 Package of 10 M-B History Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $10.00 Pad of 50 M-B History Record Answer Sheets . . . . . . . . . . . $3.50 Package of 10 M-B Marriage Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $5.00 Pad of 50 M-B Marriage Section Answer Sheets . . . . . . . . . . $3.50

Available from Clinical Psychology Publishing Co., Inc.

4 Conant Square Brandon, VT 05733