enzymes chp-6-7-bioc-361-version-oct-2012b
DESCRIPTION
source = some mine, some Campbell 6th ed, some taken from public domain around the web.TRANSCRIPT
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Jody Haddow - UAEU
Chapter SixThe Behavior of Proteins: Enzymes
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What are Enzymes?
• Enzymes are catalytically active biological macromolecules
• Specific, Efficient, Active in Aqueous Solution
• Most enzymes are globular proteins, however some RNA (ribozymes, and ribosomal RNA) also
catalyze reactions
Non-peptide Co-Factors (Metals, Vitamins, Coenzymes)
• Enzymes can be classified functionally
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Carbonic Anhydrase
Tissues
Lungs and Kidney
107 rate enhancement
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Why Biocatalysis?
• Higher reaction rates• Greater reaction specificity• Milder reaction conditions• Capacity for regulation
COO
OH
O COO
COO
O COO
NH2
OOCCOO
O
OH
OH
COO
NH2
COO
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
Chorismate mutase
• Metabolites have many potential
pathways of decomposition
• Enzymes make the desired one most
favorable
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Enzymatic Substrate Selectivity
No binding
OOC NH3
H
OOC NH3
H
HNH
HOH
OH
H
OH
CH3
OOC NH3
H
OH
--
-
+
+
+
Binding but no reaction
Example: Phenylalanine hydroxylase
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Enzyme Catalysis
• Enzyme: a biological catalyst• with the exception of some RNAs that
catalyze their own splicing (Section 10.4), all enzymes are proteins
• enzymes can increase the rate of a reaction by a factor of up to 1020 over an uncatalyzed reaction
• some enzymes are so specific that they catalyze the reaction of only one stereoisomer; others catalyze a family of similar reactions
• The rate of a reaction depends on its activation energy, G°‡
• an enzyme provides an alternative pathway with a lower activation energy
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Enzyme Catalysis (Cont’d)
• Consider the reaction
H2O2 H2O + O2
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Temperature dependence of catalysis
• Temperature can also catalyze reaction (increase rate)
• This is dangerous, why?
• Increasing temperature will eventually lead to protein denaturation
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Michaelis-Menten Kinetics
• Initial rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction versus substrate concentration
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Why Study Enzyme Kinetics?
• Quantitative description of biocatalysis• Determine the order of binding of substrates• Elucidate acid-base catalysis• Understand catalytic mechanism• Find effective inhibitors• Understand regulation of activity
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Initial Rates, v0
• Linear region
• [S] [S]≅ 0
• [P] 0≅• Enzyme kinetics
saturable
• V0 = Vmax when [S]= ∞
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Michaelis-Menten Model
• For an enzyme-catalyzed reaction
• The rates of formation and breakdown of ES are given by these equations
• At the steady state
rate of formation of ES = k1[E][S]
rate of breakdown of ES = k-1[ES] + k2[ES]
k1[E][S] = k-1[ES] + k2[ES]
E + S ES Pk1
k-1
k2
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Michaelis-Menten Model (Cont’d)
• When the steady state is reached, the concentration of free enzyme is the total less that bound in ES
• Substituting for the concentration of free enzyme and collecting all rate constants in one term gives
• Where KM is called the Michaelis constant
[E] = [E]T - [ES]
([E]T - [ES]) [S]
[ES] k-1 + k2
k1
= = KM
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Michaelis-Menten Model (Cont’d)
• It is now possible to solve for the concentration of the enzyme-substrate complex, [ES]
• Or alternatively [ES] =[E]T [S]KM + [S]
[E]T [S] - [ES][S]
[ES]= KM
= KM[ES]
[E]T [S] = [ES](KM + [S])
[E]T [S] - [ES][S]
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Michaelis-Menten Model (Cont’d)
• In the initial stages, formation of product depends only on the rate of breakdown of ES
• If substrate concentration is so large that the enzyme is saturated with substrate [ES] = [E]T
• Substituting k2[E]T = Vmax into the top equation gives
Vinit = k2[ES] = k2[E]T [S]KM + [S]
Vinit = Vmax = k2[E]T
Vmax [S]Vinit = KM + [S]
Michaelis-Mentenequation
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Michaelis-Menten Model (Cont’d)
• When [S]= KM, the equation reduces to
Vmax [S]V =
KM + [S]=
Vmax [S]
[S] + [S]=
Vmax
2
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Linearizing The Michaelis-Menten Equation
• It is difficult to determine Vmax experimentally
• The equation for a hyperbola
• Can be transformed into the equation for a straight line by taking the reciprocal of each side
V1 =
KM + [S]
Vmax [S]=
KM [S]Vmax [S] Vmax [S]
+
V1 =
KM
Vmax [S] Vmax
+ 1
Vmax [S]V =
KM + [S](an equation for a hyperbola)
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Lineweaver-Burk Plot
• The Lineweaver-Burke plot has the form y = mx + b, and is the formula for a straight line
• a plot of 1/V versus 1/[S] will give a straight line with slope of KM/Vmax and y intercept of 1/Vmax
• such a plot is known as a Lineweaver-Burk double reciprocal Lineweaver-Burk double reciprocal plotplot
V1 =
Vmax
+ 1Vmax [S]
1
y m x + b
V1 =
KM •
= •
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Lineweaver-Burk Plot (Cont’d)
• KM is the dissociation constant for ES; the greater the value of KM, the less tightly S is bound to E
• Vmax is the turnover number
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Turnover Numbers
• Vmax is related to the turnover number of enzyme:also called kcat
• Number of moles of substrate that react to form product per mole of enzyme per unit of time
V max
[ET ]
turnover _ number kcat
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Chapter SevenThe Behavior of Proteins:
Enzymes, Mechanisms, and Control
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Enzymes fall into classes based on function
• There are 6 major classes of enzymes:
1.Oxidoreductases which are involved in oxidation, reduction, and electron or proton transfer reactions;
2.Transferases, catalysing reactions in which groups are transferred;
3.Hydrolases which cleave various covalent bonds by hydrolysis; 4
4.Lyases catalyse reactions forming or breaking double bonds;
5.Isomerases catalyse isomerisation reactions;
6.Ligases join substituents together covalently.
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Allosteric Enzymes
• Allosteric:Allosteric: Greek allo + steric, other shape• Allosteric enzymeAllosteric enzyme:: an oligomer whose biological activity is affected by
other substances binding to it
• these substances change the enzyme’s activity by altering the conformation(s) of its 4°structure
• Allosteric effectorAllosteric effector:: a substance that modifies the behavior of an allosteric enzyme; may be an
• allosteric inhibitor• allosteric activator
• Aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase)Aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase)
• feedback inhibitionfeedback inhibition
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Feedback Inhibition
Formation of product inhibits its continued production
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Allosteric Regulation; ATCase
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Enzyme Inhibition
Inhibitors are compounds that decrease enzyme’s activity
• Irreversible inhibitors (inactivators) react with the enzyme- one inhibitor molecule can permanently shut off one enzyme molecule
- they are often powerful toxins but also may be used as drugs
• Reversible inhibitors bind to, and can dissociate from the enzyme - they are often structural analogs of substrates or products
- they are often used as drugs to slow down a specific enzyme
• Reversible inhibitor can bind: – To the free enzyme and prevent the binding of the
substrate
– To the enzyme-substrate complex and prevent the
reaction
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Types of Inhibition
• Competitive Inhibition• Noncompetitive Inhibition• Irreversible Inhibition
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.
S
I
Enzyme
Competitive Inhibition
In competitive inhibition, the inhibitor competes with the substrate for the same binding site
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Competitive inhibitors
• Enzymes can be inhibited competitively, when the substrate and inhibitor compete for binding to the same active site
• This can determined by plotting enzyme activity with and without the inhibitor present.
• Competitive Inhibition• In the presence of a competitive inhibitor, it takes a
higher substrate concentration to achieve the same velocities that
• were reached in its absence. So while Vmax can still be reached if sufficient substrate is available, one-half Vmax requires a higher [S] than before and thus Km is larger.
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Competitive Inhibition - Reaction Mechanism
In competitive inhibition, the inhibitor binds only to the free enzyme, not to the ES complex
E + S ES E + P
EI
+I
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General Michaelis-Menten Equation
This form of the Michaelis-Menten equation can be used to understand how each type of inhibitor affects the reaction rate curve
v =[S]
Km,app + [S]Vmax,app
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In competitive inhibition, only the apparent Km is affected (Km,app> Km),
The Vmax remains unchanged by the presence of the inhibitor.
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Competitive inhibitors alter the apparent Km, not the Vmax
.
Vmax
Vmax
2
Km Km,app
[Substrate]
Rea
ctio
n R
ate
- Inhibitor
+ Inhibitor
Vmax,app = Vmax
Km,app > Km
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The Lineweaver-Burk plot is diagnostic for competitive inhibition
Slope =Km,app
Vmax
1Vmax
-1Km,app
1[S]
Increasing [I]
1v
v=1
Vmax
Km,app
Vmax
1+[S]1
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.
Vmax
Vmax
2
Km Km,app
[Substrate]
Rea
ctio
n R
ate
- Inhibitor
+ Inhibitor
.
S
I
Inhibitor competes with
substrate, decreasing its
apparent affinity: Km,app > Km
Formation of EIcomplex shifts reactionto the left: Km,app > Km
Km,app > Km
Vmax,app = VmaxE + S ES E + P
EI
+I
Formation of EIcomplex shifts reaction
to the left: Km,app > Km
Relating the Michaelis-Menten equation, the v vs. [S] plot, and the physical picture of competitive inhibition
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.
S
I
IS
S
I
I
S
Enzyme
Enzyme
Enzyme
Enzyme
Noncompetitive Inhibition
the inhibitor does not interfere with substrate binding (and vice versa)
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Non-competitive inhibitor
• With noncompetitive inhibition, enzyme molecules that have been bound by the inhibitor are taken out of the game so enzyme rate (velocity) is reduced for all values of [S], including Vmax and one-half Vmax but
• Km remains unchanged because the active site of those enzyme molecules that have not been inhibited is unchanged.
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E + S ES E + P
EI
+I
ESI
+I
S+
Noncompetitive Inhibition - Reaction Mechanism
In noncompetitive inhibition, the inhibitor binds enzyme irregardless of whether the substrate is bound
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Noncompetitive inhibitors decrease the Vmax,app, but don’t affect the Km
Vmax,app < Vmax
Km,app = Km
.
Vmax
Vmax21
21 Vmax,app
Km
Km,app
[Substrate]
Re
ac
tio
n R
ate
- Inhibitor
+ InhibitorVmax,app
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The inhibitor binds equally well to free enzyme and the ES
complex, so it doesn’t alter apparent affinity of the enzyme for the
substrate
Why does Km,app = Km for noncompetitive inhibition?
E + S ES E + P
EI
+I
ESI
+I
S+
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The Lineweaver-Burk plot is diagnostic for noncompetitive inhibition
v=1
Vmax,app
Km
Vmax,app
1+[S]1
Slope =Vmax,app
Km
1Vmax,app
-1Km
1[S]
Increasing [I]
1v
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Formation of EIcomplex shifts reactionto the left: Km,app > Km
Km,app > Km
Vmax,app = Vmax
.
S
I
IS
S
I
I
S
Enzyme
Enzyme
Enzyme
Enzyme
.
Vmax
Vmax21
21 Vmax,app
Km Km,app
[Substrate]
Re
ac
tio
n R
ate
- Inhibitor
+ InhibitorVmax,app
Inhibitor doesn’t interferewith substrate binding,
Km,app = Km
E + S ES E + P
EI
+I
ESI
+I
S+
Even at highsubstrate levels,
inhibitor still binds,
[E]t < [ES]Vmax,app < Vmax
Vmax,app < Vmax
Km,app = Km
Relating the Michaelis-Menten equation, the v vs. [S] plot, and the physical picture of noncompetitive inhibition
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Irreversible Inhibition
In irreversible inhibition, the inhibitor binds to the enzyme irreversibly through formation of a covalent bond with the enzyme , permanently inactivating the enzyme
.
Enzyme
SO I
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Irreversible Inhibition - Reaction Mechanism
In irreversible inhibition, the inhibitor permanently inactivates the enzyme. The net effect is to remove enzyme from the reaction. Vmax decreases
No effect on Km
E + S ES E + P
EI
+I
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The Michaelis-Menten plot for an irreversible inhibitor looks like noncompetitive inhibition
Vmax,app < Vmax
Km,app = Km
.
Vmax
Vmax21
21 Vmax,app
Km
Km,app
[Substrate]
Re
ac
tio
n R
ate
- Inhibitor
+ InhibitorVmax,app
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Irreversible inhibition is distinguished from noncompetitive inhibition by plotting Vmax vs [E]t
Enzyme is inactivated until all of the irreversible inhibitor is used up
.
[E]t
Vm
ax
+ Reversible
Noncompetitive In
hibitor
- Inh
ibito
r
+ Ir
reve
rsib
le In
hibi
tor[E]t > [I][E]t < [I]
[E]t = [I]
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Summary-Enzyme Inhibition
• Competitive Inhibitor• Binds to substrate binding site • Competes with substrate • The affinity of the substrate appears to be decreased
when inhibitor is present (Km,app >Km)
• Noncompetitive inhibitor• Binds to allosteric site• Does not compete with the substrate for binding to the
enzyme• The maximum velocity appears to be decreased in the
presence of the inhibitor (Vmax,app <Vmax)
• Irreversible Inhibitor• Covalently modifies and permanently inactivates the
enzyme
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Competitive/noncompetitive inhibitor
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Effect of inhibitors
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Enzyme Regulation
• Allosteric regulation, • heterotropic ligand binding modulates
substrate binding and catalysis, • Feedback regulates metabolic pathways
• Covalent modification – Reversible • Phosphorylation, nucleotides, lipid anchors
• Proteolysis converts inactive pro-enzymes (zymogens) to active
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Allosteric Enzymes
• Effector molecules change the activity of an enzyme by binding at a second site• Some effectors speed up enzyme action (positive
allosterism)
• Some effectors slow enzyme action (negative allosterism)
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Protein Modification
• In protein modification a chemical group is covalently added to or removed from the protein• Covalent modification either activates or turns off the
enzyme
• The most common form of protein modification is addition or removal of a phosphate group• This group is located at the R group (with a free –
OH) of:• Serine • Threonine• Tyrosine
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Control of Enzyme Activity via Phosphorylation
• The side chain -OH groups of Ser, Thr, and Tyr can form phosphate esters
• Phosphorylation by ATP can convert an inactive precursor into an active enzyme
• Membrane transport is a common example
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Covalent ModificationLipase:
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Proenzymes
• A proenzyme, an enzyme made in an inactive form
• It is converted to its active form• By proteolysis (hydrolysis of the enzyme)• When needed at the active site in the cell• Pepsinogen is synthesized and transported to the
stomach where it is converted to pepsin
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Coenzymes
• Coenzyme:Coenzyme: a nonprotein substance that takes part in an enzymatic reaction and is regenerated for further reaction• metal ions- can behave as
coordination compounds. (Zn2+, Fe2+)
• organic compounds, many of which are vitamins or are metabolically related to vitamins (Table 7.1).
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NAD+/NADH
• Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) is used in many redox reactions in biology.
• Contains:
1) nicotinamide ring
2) Adenine ring
3) 2 sugar-phosphate groups
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NAD+/NADH (Cont’d)
• NAD+ is a two-electron oxidizing agent, and is reduced to NADH
• Nicotinamide ring is where reduction-oxidation occurs