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THEORIES OF LEARNING

Definitionlearning noun

the activity of obtaining knowledgeThis technique makeslearningfun.

knowledge obtained by studyHis fr iend s praised his generosity, wit andlearning.

Camb r idge Advanced Dict ionary

What is Learning?


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What is language learning?

Language can only be properly understood as areflection of human thought process.

Language learning is conditioned by the way in

which the mind observes, organises and storesinformation.


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Namely, the key to successful language learning and

teaching lies not in the analysis of the human nature

but in understanding the structure and process of

the mind.

However, little do we know about how people learn.


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Nevertheless, if the techniques, methods and

content of language teaching is to be improved,

what is done in the classroom should be based on

sound principles of learning.


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Given the developments in learning theories, the

importance of each for language teaching should be

taken into consideration and it is best to consider

the theories relating to language and learningseparately.


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(Very) Brief History of Learning Theory

As with the language description, the main developments in

theories of how learners learn and relate each to the needs of

the ESP learner and teacher are to be described.

Until the 20th century there was no coherent theory of

learning available to the language teacher. Certainly there

were empirical observations, such as Comenius studiesmade in the 17th century and the precepts of the Direct

Method at the end of the 19th century. But no coherent theoryof learning emerged until psychology had been established

as a respectable subject of scientific enquiry in the early 20th

century.


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J A N A M O S C O M E N I U S (1592-1670) was a Czeck teacher, scientist,

Educator, and writer. He was a Unity of the brethen/Moravian Protestant

Bishop, a religious refugee and one of earliest champions of universal

champions of universal education a concept eventually set forth in his

book Didactica Magna. Comenius became known as the teacher of nations.

He is often considered the father of modern education.

To understand him better we need to have look at the way his thinks about

education. According to Comenius, education is not merely the training of the

child at school or in the home; it is a process affecting mans whole life and thecountless social adjustments he must make.UNESCO:Internat ional B ureau o f

Edu catio n, 1999 p.173-96

Why his contributions are so important to our modern educational point of view

is clearly given by Piaget.According to Piaget Except in a few cases, the realdifference between Comenius and us is the difference that lies between

seventeenth- and twentieth-century ways of thinking. We no longer believe that

metaphysics will enable us to understand the development of the child or of manin society, or the interaction between man and nature, to say nothing of the laws

of nature.


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To understand him better we need to have look at the way his thinks

about education. According to Comenius, education is not merely the

training of the child at school or in the home; it is a process affecting

mans whole life and the countless social adjustments he must make.

UNESCO: International Bu reau of Education , 1999 p.173-96.Why his contributions are so important to our modern educational point

of view is clearly given by Piaget.According to Piaget Except in a fewcases, the real difference between Comenius and us is the difference that

lies between seventeenth- and twentieth-century ways of thinking. We no

longer believe that metaphysics will enable us to understand thedevelopment of the child or of man in society, or the interaction between

man and nature, to say nothing of the laws of nature.


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After a very short historical journey,

it is time we continued to the answer of the question.


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Learning as a Black Box

INPUTS OUTCOMES

INPUTS OUTCOMESLearning

So whats happening inside the box?


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A Brief Review

Behaviorism Mentalism

Cognitivism

Social Learning Theory Social Constructivism

Multiple Intelligences

Brain-Based Learning


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Behaviorism The first coherent theory of learning was behaviorist theory

based mainly n the work of Pavlov in the Soviet Union and

of Skinner in the United states.According to this theory, learning is a mechanical processof habit formation and proceeds by means of the frequentreinforcement of a stimulus-response sequence.

The simplicity and directness of this theory had anenormous impact on learning psychology and on languageteaching. It was widely used in Audio lingual Method in the50s and 60s. The method laid down a set of guidingmethodological principles firstly on the behaviourist

stimulus response concept and secondly on an assumptionthat second language learning should reflect and imitatethe perceived process of mother tongue learning.


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In Behaviourism:

Learning is defined by the outward expressionof new behaviors

Focuses solely on observable behaviors

A biological basis for learning

Learning is context-independent

Classical & Operant Conditioning

Reflexes (Pavlovs Dogs) Feedback/Reinforcement (Skinners Pigeon Box)


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Behaviorism in the Classroom

Rewards and

punishments

Responsibility for

student learning

rests squarely with

the teacher

Lecture-based,highly structured


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Critiques of Behaviorism

Does not account for processes taking place in

the mind that cannot be observed

Advocates for passive student learning in a

teacher-centric environment

One size fits all

Knowledge itself is given and absolute

Programmed instruction & teacher-proofing


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The basic exercise technique of a behaviorist methodology is

pattern practice, particularly in the form of language

laboratory drills. Such drills are widely used in ESP.

To illustrate;

Combine the sentences with given words.

A) The accident occurred in the lab. Workers were not well trained. (As)

____________________________________________________________

A) There are lots of accidents in the lab. Personnel should be well trained.

(So)____________________________________________________________

Moreover, modern ESP books have looked for more interesting ways of

handling pattern practice and a number of useful variations on the basic idea

have been developed.

The accident occurred in the lab as personnel were not well trained.

There are lots of accidents in the lab, so workers should be well trained.


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Pattern practice exercises still have a useful role to

play in language teaching, but only as one part of

the whole learning process.

As learning is much more complex than just

imitative habit formation, subsequent needs for

developements emerged. However, this does not

necessarily mean that there is no place for patternpractice in a modern methodology.


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Mentalism: thinking as rule governed activity

There was considerable empirical evidence

among language teachers that the AudiolingualMethod and its behaviourist principles did not

deliver the results promised.

Th fi f l l h b h i i


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The first successful assault on the behaviorist

theory came from Chomsky (1964).

He tackled behaviourism on the question of how the

mind was able to transfer what was learnt in one-stimulus response sequence to other novel

situations.

There was a vague concept of generalisation inbehaviourist theory, this was always neglected and

never properly explained.

Thi h th i th t t d d difi d b


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This hypothesis then tested and modified by

subsequent experience. The mind, in other words,

does not just respond to a stimulus, it uses the

individual stimuli in order to find the underlyingpattern or system.

It can then use this knowledge of the system in a

novel situation to predict what is likely to happen,what is an appropriate response or whatever.

Th t li t i f th i d l k l d


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The mentalist view of the mind as a rule-seeker led

naturally to the next important stage:

The Cognitive Theory of Learning

Cognitivism


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CognitivismCognitive Approach

assumption:

knowledge is alwaysconstructed by the

learner in an active

process of coming to

terms with reality.

Th C iti Th f L i l


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The Cognitive Theory of Learning: learners as

thinking beings

Whereas the behaviourist theory of lerning

portrayed the learner as a passive receiver of

information, the cognitive view takes the larne to be

an active processor of information (Ausubel et al .,

1978). Learning and using a rule require learners to think,

that is, to apply their mental powers in order to

distil a workable generative rule from the mass of

data presented, and then to analyse the situationswhere the application of the rule would be useful or

appropriate.


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In short, we learn by thinking about and trying to

make sense of what we see, feel and hear.

The basic teaching technique associated with a

cognitive theory of language learning is theproblem-solving task. In ESP such exercises have

often been modeled on activities associated with

the learners subject specialism.


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To illustrate:


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More recently, the cognitive view of learning has

had a significant impact on ESP through the

development of courses to teach reading strategies.

A number of ESP projects have concentrated onmaking students aware of their reading strategies

so that they can consciously apply them to

understanding texts in a foreign language

(Alderson, 1980 and Scott, 1981).


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To illustrate:


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Grew in response to Behaviorism

Knowledge is stored cognitively as symbols

Learning is the process of connecting symbols

in a meaningful & memorable way

Studies focused on the mental processes that

facilitate symbol connection

Cognitivism


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Cognitivism contributors

Jean Piaget

Genetic Epistemology

Assimilation and Accommodation

Jerome Bruner Discovery Learning

Learner as independent problem-solver

C i i i i h Cl


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Cognitivism in the Classroom Inquiry-oriented

projects

Opportunities for the

testing of hypotheses

Curiosity encouraged

Staged scaffolding


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Critiques of Cognitivism

Like Behaviorism, knowledge itself is given and

absolute

Input Process Output model is mechanistic

and deterministic Does not account enough for individuality

Little emphasis on affective characteristics

As a conclusion


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As a conclusion,The cognitive code view of learning seems to answermany of the theoretical and practical problems raised

by behaviourism.It treats the learners as thinking beings and puts themfirmly at the center of the learning process, bystressing that learning will only take place when mater

to be learnt is meaningful to the learners.But in itself a cognitive view is not sufficient.

To complete the picture we need an affective view,too.


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Social Learning Theory (SLT)A. Bandura (1973) put forward the theory.

According to his theory, it posits that peoplelearn from one another, via observation,

imitation, and modeling. The theory has often

been called a bridge between behaviorist andcognitive learning theories because it

encompasses attention, memory, and

motivation.


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Grew out of Cognitivism

Learning takes place through observation and

sensorial experiences Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery

SLT is the basis of the movement against

violence in media & video games Bobo Doll Experiment


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SLT in the Classroom Collaborative learning

and group work

Modeling responses

and expectations

Opportunities to

observe experts in

action

Critiques of Social Learning


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Critiques of Social LearningTheory

Does not take into account individuality,

context, and experience as mediating factors

Suggests students learn best as passive

receivers of sensory stimuli, as opposed tobeing active learners

Emotions and motivation not considered

important or connected to learning

Social Constructivism


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Another cognitive psychologist, Lev Vygotsky shared many of

Piagets assumptions about how children learn, but he placedmore emphasis on the social context of learning. Piaget's

cognitive theories have been used as the foundation for

discovery learningmodels in which the teacher plays a limited

role. In Vygotsky's theories both teachers and older or more

experienced children play very important roles in learning.

Social Constructivism

Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism framed
http://129.7.160.115/INST5931/Discovery_Learning.htmlhttp://129.7.160.115/INST5931/Discovery_Learning.html


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Grew out of and in response to Cognitivism, framedaround metacognition

Knowledge is actively constructed

Learning is A search for meaning by the learner

Contextualized

An inherently social activity

Dialogic and recursive The responsibility of the learner

Lev Vygotsky Social Learning

Zone of Proximal Development

Social Constructivism in the


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Social Constructivism in the

Classroom

Journaling

Experiential

activities

Personal focus

Collaborative &

cooperative learning

r ques o oc a


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r ques o oc aConstructivism

Suggests that knowledge is neither given norabsolute

Often seen as less rigorous than traditional

approaches to instruction

Does not fit well with traditional age grouping

and rigid terms/semesters

Multiple Intelligences (MI)


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Howard Gardner viewed intelligence as 'the

capacity to solve problems or to fashion products

that are valued in one or more cultural setting'

(Gardner & Hatch, 1989). He reviewed the

literature using eight criteria or 'signs' of an

intelligence: Potential isolation by brain damage.

Multiple Intelligences (MI)

The existence of idiots savants prodigies and


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The existence of idiots savants, prodigies and

other exceptional individuals.

An identifiable core operation or set of

operations. A distinctive development history, along with a

definable set of 'end-state' performances.

An evolutionary history and evolutionaryplausibility.

Support from experimental psychological tasks.

Support from psychometric findings.

Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system.

(Howard Gardner 1983: 62-69)


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Grew out of Constructivism, framed around

metacognition

All people are born with eight intelligences:

Enables students to leverage their strengths and

purposefully target and develop their weaknesses

1. Verbal-Linguistic 5. Musical

2. Visual-Spatial 6. Naturalist

3. Logical-Mathematical 7. Interpersonal4. Kinesthetic 8. Intrapersonal

Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to


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Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to

spoken and written language, the ability to learn

languages, and the capacity to use language to

accomplish certain goals. This intelligenceincludes the ability to effectively use language to

express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and

language as a means to remember information.

Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are amongthose that Howard Gardner sees as having high

linguistic intelligence.

Naturalistic intelligence has to do with nature nurturing


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Naturalistic intelligencehas to do with nature, nurturingand relating information to one's natural surroundings.

This type of intelligence was not part of Gardner's original

theory of Multiple Intelligences, but was added to the

theory in 1997. Those with it are said to have greater

sensitivity to nature and their place within it, the ability to

nurture and grow things, and greater ease in caring for,

taming and interacting with animals. They may also be

able to discern changes in weather or similar fluctuationsin their natural surroundings. They are also good at

recognizing and classifying different species. They must

connect a new experience with prior knowledge to truly

learn something new.

Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the


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Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the

capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out

mathematical operations, and investigate issues

scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, itentails the ability to detect patterns, reason

deductively and think logically. This intelligence is

most often associated with scientific and

mathematical thinking.

Musical intelligence involves skill in the


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Musical intelligence involves skill in the

performance, composition, and appreciation of

musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to

recognize and compose musical pitches, tones,and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner

musical intelligence runs in an almost structural

parallel to linguistic intelligence.

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the


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Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the

potential of using one's whole body or parts

of the body to solve problems. It is the

ability to use mental abilities to coordinatebodily movements. Howard Gardner sees

mental and physical activity as related.

Spatial intelligence involves the potential to


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Spatial intelligence involves the potential to

recognize and use the patterns of wide

space and more confined areas.

Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the


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Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the

capacity to understand the intentions, motivations

and desires of other people. It allows people to

work effectively with others. Educators,salespeople, religious and political leaders and

counsellors all need a well-developed

interpersonal intelligence.

Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to


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Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to

understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings,

fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view

it involves having an effective working model ofourselves, and to be able to use such information

to regulate our lives.

MI in the Classroom


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MI in the Classroom Delivery of instruction

via multiple mediums Student-centered

classroom

AuthenticAssessment

Self-directed learning

Critiques of MI


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Critiques of MI Lack of quantifiable evidence that MI exist

Lack of evidence that use of MI as a curricular

and methodological approach has any

discernable impact on learning

Development process is a time-sink

Suggestive of a departure from core curricula

and standards

B i B d L i (BBL)


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Brain-Based Learning (BBL)

This learning theory is based on the

structure and function of the brain. As long

as the brain is not prohibited from fulfilling

its normal processes, learning will occur.

B i B d L i (BBL)


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Brain-Based Learning (BBL)

Grew out of Neuroscience & Constructivism

D. Souza, N. Caine & G. Caine, E. Jensen (1980s to

present)

12 governing principles

1. Brain is a parallel processor 7. Focused attention & peripheral perception

2. Whole body learning 8. Conscious & unconscious processes

3. A search for meaning 9. Several types of memory

4. Patterning 10. Embedded learning sticks

5. Emotions are critical 11. Challenge & threat

6. Processing of parts and wholes 12. Every brain is unique

People often say that everyone can learn. Yet the


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p y y

reality is that everyone does learn. Every person is

born with a brain that functions as an immensely

powerful processor. Traditional schooling,however, often inhibits learning by discouraging,

ignoring, or punishing the brains natural learningprocesses.

. -state


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state

that:

The brain is a parallel processor, meaning itcan perform several activities at once, like

tasting and smelling.

Learning engages the whole physiology.

The search for meaning is innate.

The search for meaning comes through

patterning.

Emotions are critical to patterning.The brain processes wholes and parts

simultaneously.


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7. Learning involves both focused attention and

peripheral perception.

8. Learning involves both conscious and

unconscious processes.

9. We have two types of memory: spatial and

rote.

10. We understand best when facts areembedded in natural, spatial memory.

11. Learning is enhanced by challenge and

inhibited by threat.

12. Each brain is unique.

. e ree ns ruc ona ec n ques assoc a ewith


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with

brain-based learning are:

Orchestrated immersionCreating learningenvironments that fully immerse students in

an educational experience

Relaxed alertnessTrying to eliminate fear inlearners, while maintaining a highly

challenging environment

Active processingAllowing the learner to

consolidate and internalize information byactively processing it

How Brain Based Learning Impacts Education


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How Brain-Based Learning Impacts Education

Curr iculumTeachers must design learning

aroundstudent interests and make learning

contextual.


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Curr iculumTeachers must design learning around

student interests and make learningcontextual.

Instruct ion Educators let students learn in teams


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Instruct ionEducators let students learn in teamsand use peripheral learning. Teachers

structure

learning around real problems, encouragingstudents to also learn in settings outside the

classroom and the school building.

ssessmen nce a s u en s are earn ng, e r assessment should allow them to understand


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assessment should allow them to understand

their

own learning styles and preferences. This

way,students monitor and enhance their own

learning

process.

BBL in the Classroom


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BBL in the Classroom

Opportunities for group

learning Regular environmental

changes

A multi-sensoryenvironment

Opportunities for self-expression andmaking personalconnections to content

Community-basedlearning

Critiques of BBL


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Critiques of BBL Research conducted by neuroscientists, not

teachers & educational researchers

Lack of understanding of the brain itself makes

brain-based learning questionable

Individual principles have been scientifically

questioned

Other Learning Theories of Note


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Other Learning Theories of Note

Andragogy (M. Knowles)

Flow (M. Czikszentmihalyi)

Situated Learning (J. Lave)

Subsumption Theory (D. Ausubel)

Conditions of Learning (R. Gagne)

Learning as a Not-So-Black Box


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Learning as a Not-So-Black Box

LearnerINPUTS

INPUT

S

INPU

TS

INPUTS

INPUTS

Environment

OUTCOMES

OUTCOM

ES

OUTCOMES

Lost


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There are also some sort of crucial items that need to


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There are also some sort of crucial items that need to

be taken into consideration when it comes to learning, such

as ;

The affective factor Learners as emotional beings


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The affective factor. Learners as emotional beings

People think but they also have feelings.

It is one of the paradoxes of human nature,although we are all aware of our feelings and

their effects on our actions, we invariably seek

answers to our problems in rational terms.

This attitude affects the way we see learners- more


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like machines to be programmed than people with

likes and dislikes, fears, weaknesses and

prejudices.

But learners are people. Even ESP learners are


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people. They may be learning about machines and

systems, but they still learn as human beings.

Learning, particularly the learning of a language, is

an emotional experience, and the feeling that the

learner process evokes will have a crucial bearing

on the success or failure of the learning (Stevick,1976).

The importance of the emotional factor is easily

if id th l ti hi b t th


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seen if we cosider the relationship between the

cogntive and affective aspects of the learner.

The cognitive theory tells us that learners will learnwhen they actively think about what they are

learning. But this cognitive factor presupposes the

affective factor of motivation.

Before learners can actively think about something,


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Before learners can actively think about something,

they must wantto think about it.

The emotional reaction to the learning experience is

the essential foundation for the initiation of the

cognitive process.

How the learning is perceived by the learner will


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Howthe learning is perceived by the learner will

affect whatlearning, if any, will take place.

The cognitive/affective learning interplay in the form

of a learning cycle as it is given below:

EntryLearner wants


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Entry

pointto learn

Learner applies

cognitive powers to

acquire knowledge

Learning is

successful

Learnerscompetence

develeopes

Increased competence

enables learner to

learn more easily

Learner sees

learning as an

enjoyable and

satisfying experince A positive learning cycle

The relationship between the cognitive andemotional aspects of learning is therefore one of


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emotional aspects of learning is, therefore, one of

the vital importance to the success or otherwise of a

language learning experince.

This brings us to a matter which has been one of the

most important elements in the developement of

ESP-motivation.

The most influential study of motivation in language


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learning has been Gardner and Lamberts (1972)study of bilingualism in French speaking Canada.

They identified two forms of motivation:

instrumental (Need)

integrated (Want)

Ins trumental mo t ivat ionis the reflection of anexternal need The learners are not learning a


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external need. The learners are not learning a

language because they want to (although this does

not imply that they do not want to), but rather

because they need to.

In other words, wanting to learn a language for the

purpose of obtaining some concrete goals such as a

job, graduation, or the ability to read academicmaterials. This form of motivation is thought to be

less likely to lead to success than integrated

motivation.


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The need may derive from varying sources. the need

to sell things to speakers of the language; the need

to pass an exam in the language; the need to readtexts in the language for work or study. Whatever

they are, the motivation is an external one.


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Integrat ive mo tivat ion, on the other hand, derives from a

desire on the part of the learners to be members of the

speech community that uses a particular language. It is an

internally generated wantrather than an externally imposed

need.

That is to say, When students want to learn a language to

become part of a speech community (integrate). People whoimmigrate to new countries are some examples of people

who may want to identify with the community around them.

An important aspect of this form of language learning is

using language for social interaction. This form of motivationis thought to produce success in language learners.

Learning and acqusi t ion


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Much debate has recently cemtered around the distinction

made by stephen Krashaen (1981) between learning andacqusiton.

Learningis seen as a conscious process, while acqusi t ion

proceeds unconsciously. According to the view we have

advocate so far is that for the second language learner both

processes are likeley to play a useful part and that a goodESP course will try to exploit both.

A model for learning


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In the lights of thet ideas it has been discussed there should

be a model of learning process to present. That will provide apractical source of reference for the ESP teacher and course

designer.

First of all the mind should be depicted as a network of


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First of all, the mind should be depicted as a network of

conecions, rather like a road map.

The indivudual houses, towns and villages represent items or

bundles of knowledge. These various settlements, however,are only useful if they are connected to the main network by

roads.

The mind of the learner is like a developement agency. It

wants to bring the settlements into the network and sodevelop their potential.

To achive this communication links must be established.


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However, as with any communication network, links can only

be established from existing links. There is no limit to the

number of links possible. Indeed the more links a placealready has the more it is likely to attract

Individual items of knowledge like the towns have little


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Individual items of knowledge, like the towns, have little

significance on their own. They only acquire meaning and

use when they are connected into the network of existing

knowledge.

It is the existing knowledge that makes it possible to

construct new connections. So in the act ofacquiring new

knowledge it is the learners exisiting knowledge that makesit possible to learn new items.

Items of knowledge are not of equal significance. Some items

are harder to acquire, but may open up wide possibilities for


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are harder to acquire, but may open up wide possibilities for

further learning. Like a bridge across a river or a tunnel

through a mountain, learning a generative rule may take time,

but once it is there, it greatly increase the potential for furtherlearning.

This why so often learning appears to progress in leaps and

bounds. For a long time it might appear that little progress is

being made; then suddenly the learner makes an enormousleap to a higher level of competence. Think of these leaps as

the crossing of rivers, mountains and other major obstacles.

Roads and railways are not built haphazardly. They require


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planning. The road builder has to recognise where problem

lie and work out strategies for solving those problems. In the

same way the learner will make better progress bydeveloping strategies for solving the learning problems that

will arise.A communication network is a system . If the road builder

can see the whole system, the planning and construction of

the roads will be a lot easier. Language is a system, too. If theleaner sees it as just a haphazard set of arbitrary and

capricious obstacles, learning will be difficult, if not possible.

Finally, before anyone builds a road, crosses a river or climbs

a mountain, they must have some kind of motivation to do so.


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a mountain, they must have some kind of motivation to do so.

If they could ot care less what is beyond the mountains,

dislike the people who come from there or are simply afraid

of travelling, the chances of communication links beingestablished are minimal.

A communication network is a system . If the road builder

can see the whole system, the planning and construction of

the roads will be a lot easier. Language is a system, too. If theleaner sees it as just a haphazard set of arbitrary and

capricious obstacles, learning will be difficult, if not possible.

First of all, there must be a need to establish the links. In ESP


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st o a , t e e ust be a eed to estab s t e s S

this need is usually taken for granted. But as anyone who has

set out on a long and possibly difficult journey will know, a

need is not enough. You can always find an excuse for notgoing. The traveller must also want to make the journey.


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As a result, with learning, a need to acquire knowledge is a

necessary factor, but of equal, if not greater importance, is

the need to actually enjoy the process of acquisition.

After the brief summary of the most importantdevelopemnets in approaches to learning and considered

h i l ESP I l i h ld lik k


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their relevance to ESP. In conclusion, we should like to make

two points:

First, we still do not know very much about learning. It is

important, therefore, not to base any approach too narrowly

on one thary. As with lanuage descriptions, it is wise to take

ecclectic approach, taking what is useful from each theary

and trusting also in the evidence of your own experince as ateacher. It is possible that there are cognitive, affective and

behaviourist approach to the teaching of pronunciaiton, a

cognitive approach to the teaching grammar and use

affective criteria in selecting your text.


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Second, theories of learning and language descriptions are

casually linked. As Corder (1973) says:

There is no logical connection between a particularpsychological theory of how grammar is learned an any

particular theory of language structure.. There is, however,an undaubted histor icalconnection between them.

Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) identify five key roles forthe ESP practitioner:


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-teacher

-course designer and materials provider-collaborator

-researcher

-evaluator.

Dudley-Evans, T., & St John, M. (1998). Developments in ESP: A multi-

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