ess2710 week 8

Positive youth development

Martin I. JonesBSc MSc PhD PGCHE CPsychol CSci AFBPsS SFHEA

What is adolescence

?

[youth are] are heated by nature as drunken men by wine

Aristotle

[Youth are inclined to] “contradict their parents" and "tyrannize their teachers”

Socrates

As the roaring of the waves precedes the tempest, so the murmur of rising passions announces the tumultuous change.... Keep your hand upon the helm . . . or all is lost

Rousseau

Storm and stress

G. Stanley Hall (1904)

Lamarckian evolutionary theory

Is there any truth in the concept of storm and stress ?

AdolescenceAre adolescents beast like?

Is adolescence simply a dangerous period in development where the best we hope for is to minimize risk and avoid harmful outcomes?

So, what is adolescence

?

Adolescence: second decadeA period of transition

A period of change

Early Adolescence (10 to 15)

Late Adolescence (15 to 20)

TransitionAn event which results in a change in

assumptions about oneself and the world and

requires a corresponding change in behaviour

and relationships (Schlossberg, 1981)

Which transitions occur during adolescence ?

Developmental Trends

BIOLOGICAL

PSYCHOSOCIAL COGNITIVE

Early Adolescence

Body cont. to grow in height & weightGirls growth spurt peaks & boys begin Motor performance gradually increases (levels off for girls)Girls commence menstruation & boys able to ejaculate

Late Adolescen

ceBoys’ growth spurt peaksBoys develop deeper voices, patterns of facial hair, & typically grow taller than femalesGirls tend to grow wider at the hips, & breast development continuesGirls’ motor performance peaks while boys’ continues to improve

Thinking becomes more self-conscience, idealistic & criticalMetacognition & self-regulation further developVocab expands to include abstract wordsUnderstanding & grasp of complex grammar continues to improveAbility to grasp irony & sarcasm develops

Early Adolescen

ce

Reasoning through problems & in symbolic terms & through use of formal logic improvesFluid intelligence, the ability to cope with new problems & situations, is reached by end of this periodAbility to understand & integrate rules into sense of self becomes basis for character development

Late Adolescenc

e

Issues of identity emerge Sexual orientation emergesPsychological disorders & sociocultural adaptational disorders may emergeStrives for autonomy in relation to family & parent –Friendships have greater emphasis on intimacy & loyaltyConformity to peer pressure increases

Early Adolescen

ce

Development of identity Development of romantic attachmentsCliques decline in importanceIncreased assertiveness & lack of self-discipline often create conflict with parentsSexual orientation and preference continues to developIntroduction begins to world of work & career planning

Late Adolescence

Social

changes?

Key Developmental Crisis Erik Erickson 1950s

Identity vs. Role confusion

Self-concept & personality

Abstract self-definitions based on internal qualities & ideology

Self-esteem initially drops then re-builds

Introverted, pessimistic & neurotic teens face more difficulties

Problems for young athletes?

Athletic identity

Identity foreclosure

Synaptic pruningAt birth, the human brain consists of approximately 86 (± 8) billion neurons

The infant brain will increase in size by a factor of up to 5 by

adulthood

Do adolescents grow more neurons?

How can we capitalize on adolescent energy, enthusiasm, courage, adventurousness, independence, and innovativeness ?

Youth 15-24 years

Young people 10-24 years

Why is

youth important?

Tammelin, Näyhä, Hills & Järvelin (2003)

n=7794LongitudinalPhysical activity status at 14 years then 31 years


Frequent participation in sports after school hours in adolescence was associated with a high level of physical activity in adulthood


Participation in sports at least once a week among females and twice a week among males was associated with high level of physical activity in later life.

Tammelin, Näyhä, Hills & Järvelin (2003)Adolescent participation in the intensive endurance sports, and some sports that require and encourage diversified sports skills, appeared to be most beneficial with respect to the enhancement of adult physical activity.

developmentdeficit

Some historyEarly researchers and clinicians alike based their observations and theories on the underlying assumption that adolescents are inherently “at risk” for behaving in uncivilized or problematic ways; they were “broken” in some way, and needed repair.

They were problems to be managed (Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003).

Given that premise, these deficits are largely what they saw.

DeficitIn general, studies of adolescent behaviour are dominated by naming, measuring, and predicting problem behaviours

(Scales, Benson, Leffert, & Blyth, 2000: p 27)

DevelopmentHealthy adolescence means more than being free of problems. Scholars and practitioners should define healthy adolescence in terms of positive developmental tasks or goals that adolescents should achieve

(Scales, Benson, Leffert, & Blyth, 2000)

Conventional view of adolescence

• Impulsive• Reckless• Disinhibited• Thrill seeking• Defiant• rebellious

Positive view of adolescence

• Energetic• Enthusiastic• Autonomous• Competent• Courageous• Independent• innovative

Positive youth development Strength based conception of youth

As a developmental process

As a philosophy or approach to youth programming

As instances of youth programs and organizations focused on fostering the healthy or positive development of youth

Developmental systems

theoriesUmbrella term, not one theory

Rejection of Cartesian dualities

Integration of potentially

limitless developmental

systemsGenes

ParentsSocialization

School environmentCoaching

PlasticityPotential for change

Synaptic pruningIncreased myelination

BDNF

Adaptive developmental regulations Bidirectional relationships

Development involves mutually influential relations between individuals and their contexts.

Youth developmentToo often practice arenas for the youth development perspective are confined to after school programs or add-on programs within the school settings and excludes key setting in which children develop

(Connell et al. 2002)

What is the best context for youth development?

“Big Three”

Features of effective youth-serving programs

(Blum, 2003; Lerner, 2004; Roth & Brooks-Gunn, 2003)

Positive and sustained

relationships between youth

and adults

Activities that build important

life skills

Opportunities for youth to use these life skills

as both participants in and as leaders

of valued community activities

Features of positive development settings

1. Physical and psychological safety2. Appropriate structure3. Supportive relationships4. Opportunities to belong5. Positive social norms6. Support for efficacy and mattering7. Opportunities for skill building8. Integration of family, school, and community efforts

Analyze a chosen youth physical activity by showing how the context addresses the Big Three & features of positive development settings

Why the interest in youth development through sports?Because of the high levels of participant intrinsic motivation and sustained goal directed involvement, structured volunteer youth activities (such as sport) are an excellent developmental context for enhancing youth development.

Larson (2000)

Does sport produce character or characters?

Ogilvie & Tutko (1971) present an argument that sport does not result in positive youth development

“We found no empirical support for the tradition that sport builds character. Indeed there is evidence that athletic competition limits growth in some areas” (p. 61).

Reed LarsonHansen, Larson, Dworkin (2003)Larson (2000)Larson, Hansen, & Moneta(2006)

Developmental experiencesIdentityInitiativeEmotional regulation

Teamwork and social skillsPositive relationshipsAdult network and social capital

Developmental experiencesStress

Inappropriate adult behaviorSocial exclusion

Negative group dynamics

ConclusionSport is good, but it is not the be all and end all

What might moderate the relationship

between sport participation and

positive outcomes?

Zarrett, Fay, Li, Carrano, Phelps, & Lerner (2009)Benefits of sports participation were found to depend, in part, on specific combinations of multiple activities.

Participation in a combination of sports and youth development programs was related to PYD

Over-scheduling hypothesis?

How much is too muchDoes response relationship?

Richard LernerLerner, Almerigi, Theokas, & Lerner (2005)Lerner et al. (2006)

The 5Cs

ConnectionCompetence Confidence Character Caring

Contribution

PYD

Individual Context

CompetencePositive view of one’s actions in specific areas, including social, academic, cognitive, health, and vocational. Social competence refers to interpersonal skills (e.g., conflict resolution). Cognitive competence refers to cognitive abilities (e.g., decision making). Academic competence refers to school performance as shown, in part, by school grades, attendance, and test scores. Health competence involves using nutrition, exercise, and rest to keep oneself fit. Vocational competence involves work habits and explorations of career choices. Effective entrepreneurial skills may be one instance of vocational competence.

ConfidenceAn internal sense of overall positive self-worth and self-efficacy

ConnectionPositive bonds with people and institutions that are reflected in exchanges between the individual and his or her peers, family, school, and community and in which both parties contribute to the relationship.

CharacterRespect for societal and cultural norms, possession of standards for correct behaviors, a sense of right and wrong (morality), and integrity.

Caring/compassionA sense of sympathy and empathy for others.

ContributionContributions to self, family, community, and to the institutions of a civil society

The 4H study

Engaging youth to reach their fullest potential while advancing

the field of youth development

Head, Health Heart, Hands

The 4H study

Seven years

7,000 participants from 44 states

Key findingsDevelopmental Assets

In general, 4-H youth appear to have higher levels of the developmental assets

The 4H Study has found most important in promoting PYD: relationship with others (i.e., caring, competent, and committed adults)

In Grade 11, 4-H youth reported that they had more mentors than did comparison youth.

Key findingsContribution and Active/Engaged Citizenship

In the point-in-time sample, 4-H youth are 3 times as likely as youth in other programs to have higher scores for Contribution,

1.6 times as likely to have higher scores for PYD.

Grade 11, 4H youth in the longitudinal sample are 2.1 times more likely than other youth to make contributions to their communities.

These same youth are also 1.8 times more likely to have higher scores on measures of active and engaged citizenship.

Key findingsEducation

4H participants are 1.5 times as likely as youth in other programs to report high academic competence

1.7 times as likely as youth in other programs to report high engagement in school.

Key findingsHealthy Living

4H participants are 1.6 times as likely as other youth to report healthy habits

2.4 times as likely to delay sexual intercourse.

They are less likely than youth in other programs to engage in delinquent behaviors by Grade 11.

Key findingsScience

4-H participants are 1.6 times as likely as youth in other programs to participate in science, engineering, or computer technology programs in Grade 11.

In the point-in-time sample, 4-H participants are 1.4 times as likely as youth in other programs to plan to pursue a career in science.

Similarly, 4-H girls are 1.4 times as likely as girls in other programs to plan to pursue a career in science.

Are the Cs distinct OR Are they measuring the same things?

Construct proliferation?

Jones et al., (2011)258 youth 59 males, 199 females

Mage= 13.77 years, SD = 1.23 range 12-16 years

No evidence for a five factor model

Factor onepro-social values

Factor twoConfidence/ Competence

40 Developmental assets Framework

20 internal 20 external

Experiences that

contribute to

Prevention of high risk behaviours

Enhancement of thriving

Functioning during adversity

217,000 youth1999-2000

Pile up effects

Cross sectionalLongitudinal

More assets, the better

EvidenceBenson (1990) reported that in a sample of 47,000 high school age participants, youth who experienced a pile up of assets, via engagement in developmentally rich settings (e.g., family, school, structured youth activity, community activity), reported six times fewer risk behaviours than other adolescents

How do we identify thriving?

TASKList behaviours that constitute

thriving

Are they development of deficit behaviours?

School success

Leadership

Helping others

Maintenance of

physical health

Delay of gratificat

ion

Valuing diversity

Overcoming

adversity

T

EvidenceBenson et al. (1999) reported that asset rich youth are six times more likely to experience indictors of thriving. For example, Scales and Leffert (1999) reported that asset rich youth perform better in school (i.e., 2.5 times more likely to get grade A).

EvidenceThe number of developmental assets in young peoples’ lives, and clusters of assets, promote healthy behaviour (Scales, Benson, Leffert, & Blyth, 2000), prevent unhealthy behaviour (Leffert et al., 1998; Taylor et al., 2002) and help scholars understand patterns of risk and thriving among adolescents (Benson et al., 1999).

EvidenceScales, Benson, Leffert, and Blyth (2000) reported that adolescents with higher levels of assets reported that they were more likely to be successful in school (p< .0001), to overcome adversity (p< .0001), to maintain proper eating habits and to exercise (p< .0001) and to delay gratification (p< .0001), when compared with lower asset adolescents.

EvidenceFemales reported more school success and greater ability to resist dangerous situations

Males reported more leadership.

Internal Assets

External Assets

Physical Activity

.36*

.02ns

.12

The path from external assets to youth’s physical activity was significant (β = .36, p = .04).

Youth’s internal assets did not emerge as a significant predictor of physical activity (β = .02, p > .05).

Overall, the model explained 12% of children’s self-reported physical activity variance

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BSc MSc PhD PGCHE CPsychol CSci AFBPsS SFHEAHCPC Registered Sport and Exercise Psychologist

BASES Accredited Sport and Exercise Scientist

Tel: +44 (0) 1392 724747