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CHAPTER ONE

1.0 HISTORY OF HERBS

The use of plant as medicine predates within by human history, a 60,000 year

old Neanderthal burial site Handier 4 in Northern Iraq ha yielded large amount of

pollen from 8 plant specie, 7 of which are used now as herbal remedies .

(Bibcorde 1975)

In written record ,the study of herbs date back over 5,000 years to the

Sumerians, who described and established medicinal uses for such plant as Laurel,

Caraway and thyme. Ancient Egyptian medicinal of 1000BC are known to have used

garlic, opium, caster oil coriander, mint, indigo and other herbs for medicine and old

testament to mention herb use and cultivation including Mandrakej Ayurveda

medicine has used many herbs such as tumeric possible as early as 1900BC.

(Aggerwal and Sundaram 2007).

Many other herbs and mineral used in Ayurveda were later described byancient Indian herbalist such as Characka, and Sunshruta during the 1 st millennium

BC. The sunshrata in the 6 th century BC describe 700 medicinal plant, 64 preparation

from genial sources and 57 preparation based on animal sources (Girsih and Shridhar

2007).

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The first Chinese herbal book, the shennog Bencao Jing complied during The

han dynasty, but dating back to a much earlier date possible 2700BC, list 365medicinal plant and their uses including ma-Huang, the shrub that produced the drug

ephedrine to modern medicine.

Succeeding generation argumented on the Shennog Benca O. Hing as in

yaoxing Lun (Treatise on the nature of medicinal herb) a 7 th century Tang Dynasty

treatise on herbal medicine the ancient Greeks and Romans medicinal practice as

preserved in the sitings of Hippocrates and especially, Galen, provided the pattern for

Laster western medicine Hippocrates advocated the use of a few simple herbal drugs

alone with fresh air, rest and proper diet. Galen on the other hand, recommended

usage closes of drugs mixtures including plant and animal and mineral ingredient. Thegreek physician compiled the first European treatise on the properties and uses of

medicinal plant, De material medica. In the first century AD, Diocordes note a

compendium of more than 500 plants that remained an authoritative important

herbalist and botanist of later centuries was the Greek book founded the science of

botany eophrastus history plantiarum written in the fourth century BC. (Sundaram

2007).

1.1 MIDDLE AGES

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The use of plant for medicine and other purpose changed later in early

medieval Europe. Many Geek and Roman writings on medicine is on the othersubject, were preserved by hand copying of manuscript in monasteries. The

monasteries thus tended become local centers of medical knowledge and their herb

garden provided the raw material for simple treatment of common disorders at the

same time folk medicine in home and village continued interrupted supporting

numerous wandering and settled herbalist among these were the wise women who

described herbal remedies often along with spells and enchantment. It was not until

the late middle ages that women who were knowledgeable in herb lore became the

target of the witch hysteria. One of the most famous women in the herbal tradition

was Hilegard of Bingen. A twelfth century of Benedictine nun, she wrote a medical

textbook called causes and scarces. Medical school known as Bimaristan began to

appear from the 9th century in the medieval Islamic word. Among Arsians and Arabs

which was generally more advanced than medieval Europe at a time. The Arab

venerated Gracom culture and learning and translated tens of thousand of text into

Arabic for further study. (Castleman and Micheal 2011).

As a trading. Culture few Arab travelers had access to plant material from

distant places such as China and India. Herbals medical texts and translation of the

classic of antiquity filtered in from the east and west. (Fahd and Toufic 1996).

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Muslim botanist and muslim physician significantly expanded on the earlier

knowledge of material medica. For example al-Dinawari described more than 637plant drug in the 19th century. (Fahd et al 1996).

And ibn al Baritar described more than 1400 different plant, food and drugs, over

300 of which were his own original discoveries in the 13 th century. The andualsian

Arab botanist Abu al Abbas al Nabat the teacher of Ibn Baita. Al Nabati

introduced empirical techniques in the testing, description and identification of

numerous meteria medica and he separated unverified reports from those supported

by actual test and observation. This allow the study of material medica to evolve into

the science of pharmacology. (Huff and Toby 2003).

Avicennas the canon of medicine list 800 tested, plant, drugs and mineral

(Jacquart and Danielle 2008).

Book two is devoted to a discussion of the healing properties of herbs

including nut meg sandalwood, rhubarb, myrrh, cinnamon and rose water. (Castleman

and Micheal 2001).

Baghdad was an important center for Arab herbalism as Al-Andalus between

800 and 1400. abulcasis (936-1013) of corodoba authored the book of simples, and

important sources for late European herbals, whie Ibn al-baitar (1197-1248) of

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Malaga authored the corpus of smiles, the most complete Arab herbal which introduce

200 new healing herbs, including tamarind, aconite, nuxvomica. (Kasem et al 1992).

Other pharmacopeias books include that written by Abu Rayhan Buruni in

the 11th century, and Ibn Zuhe (Avenzoar) the 12th century printed in 1491.

The origin of clinical pharmacology also that back to the middle ages in

Avicennas the cannon of medicine, peter of spain commentary on the tedotary of

Nicholas. (Brater et al 2000).

In particular the cannon introduced clinical trials, randomized control trails and

efficacy test. (Tschanz et al 2003)

1.2 MODERN ERA

The fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were the great age of herbals,

many of the available for the first time in English and other language rather than

Latin or Greek. The first herbal to be published in English was the anonyms Grete

Herball of 1526. the two best known herbals in English, were the herbal or general

history of plant 1957 by John Gerard and the English culper Gerard text was

physically a pirated translation of a book by the Belgian herbalist Dodoens and his

illustration came from a German botanical work. The original edition contained man

error due to faulty matching of the two parts. Culpepers blend of traditional medicine

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with astrology, magic, folklore was ridiculed by the physician of his day yet his book

like Gerard and other herbals enjoyed phenomenal popularity.

The age of exploration and Columbian exchange introduced new medicinal

plants to Europe. The Badianus manuscript was an illustrated Aztec herbal translated

into Latin of the 16th century.

The second millennium, however also saw the beginning of a slow erosion of

the pre-eminent position held by plant as source of therapeutic effect. This began with

the Black Death, which they then dominant four element medical system proved

powerless to stop. A century later Paracelsus introduced the use of active chemical

drugs like arsenic, copper iron, mercury and sulphur. These were accepted even

though they had toxic effect because of the urgent need of syphilis. (Nicholas 1653).

1.3 ANTHROPOLOGY OF HERBALISM

people on all continent have used hundred to thousand of indigenous plant for

treatment of ailment since prehistoric times medicinal herbs were found in thepersonal effect of otzi, the iceman whose body was frozen in the otiztal Alis for more

than 5,300 years. These herbs appear to have been used to treat the parasites found in

his in his intestine. Anthropologist therorize that animal evolved a tendency to seek

out bitter plant part in response to illness. Indigenous healers often claim to have

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learned by observing that sick animal change their food preference to nibble at bitter

herbs. They would normally reject field biologist have provided corroboratingevidence based on observation on diverse species such as champagnes, chickens,

sheep and their butterflies, low land gorillas take 90% of their diet from the fruit of

Aframomum elegueta, a relative of the ginger plant, that is potent antimicrobial and

apparently keeps shigellosis and similar infection at bay. (Huffman and Engel 2003).

Current research focuses on the possibility that this plant also protect gorillas

from flbrosing cardiomyopathy which has a devastating effect on captive animal.

(Dybas and Raskin 2007).

Researchers from Ohio westeryan university found that some birds select

nesting material rich in antimicrobial agent which protect their young from harmful

bacteria. (Jann 2004).

Sick animal tend to forage plant rich in secondary metabolities such as tannis

and alkaloid. (Hutching et al 2008).

Since these phytochemical often have antiviral antibacterial, antifungal, and

antihelminthic properties, a plausiable case can be made for self medication by

animals in the wild. (Engel and Cindy 2002).

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Some animals have digestive system especially adapted to cope with certain

plant toxins for example, the Koala can live on the leaves and shoot of the eucalyptus,a plant that is dangerous to most animals.

A plant that is harmless to a particular animal may not be safe for human

ingest. (Jennifer and Eckrood 2011).

A reasonable conjecture is these discoveries were traditionally collected by the

medicine men of indigenous tribes, who then passed on safety information and

cautions.

The use of herbs an spices in cuisine developed in part as a response to the

threat of food borne pathogen. studies show that in tropical climates where pathogen

are the most abundant recipes are the most highly spiced. Further, the spiced further

the spices with the most potent antimicrobial activity tend to be selected in all cultures

vegetable are spiced less than meat presumably because they are more resistant to

spoilage. (Robert 2000).

This remedies, broom, chaparral, Chinese herbs mixture confrey, herbs

containing certain falvonoidsguar-gum, liquorice root and penny royal. (Davdson et al

2002).

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Examples of herbs where a high degree of confidence of a risk bring term

adverse effect can be asserted include ginseng, which is unpopular among herbalist,

for this reason, the dangered herb goldenseal, milkthistle, senna, against which

herbalist generally advice and rarely use aloe Vera juice, backthorn, bark, and berry,

cascara sagrada bark, sqw palmetto nalerian, kaya, which is banned in the European

union, st John wort, khat, Betl nut, the restricted herb ephedra and Guarana. (Elvin

2001).

These is also concern with respect to the numerous well established interaction

of herbs drugs. In consultation with a physician usage of herbal remedies would be

clarified, as some herbal remedies have the potential to cause adverse drug interaction

when used in combination with various prescription and over the counter pharmacistof their consumption of orthodix prescription for example dangerously, low blood

pressure may result from the combination of an herbal remedy that lowers blood

pressured together with prescription medicine that has the same effect herbs may

amplify the effect of anticoagulant certain herbs as well as common fruit interference

with monochrome p450, an enzymes critical to much drug metabolism. (spolarich et

al 2006).

1.4 HERBAL POPULARITY

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A survey released in May 2004 by the National centre for Complementary and

Alternative Medicine (CAM) what was used. The survey was limited to adult aged 18

years and over during 2002, living in the United States. According to this survey,

herbal therapy or use of natural product other than vitamin mineral was the most

commonly used CAM therapy (19.9%) been all use of prayer was excluded. (Barnes,

et al 2004).

Herbal remedies are very common in europe. In Germany herbal medication

are dispensed by apothercares e.g Apotheke. Prescription drugs are sold alongside

essential oils, herbal extract or herbal teas. Herbal remedies are seen by some as a

treatment to be preferred to pure medical compounds which have been industrially

produced. (James and Duke 2000).

In the United Kingdom, the training of medical herbalist is done by state

funded universities. For example, Bachelor of science, degree in herbal medicine are

offered at universities such as university of East London, Middlesex university,

university of central Lancashire, university of westminsters, university of Lincoln and

a mapier university in Edinburg at present.

Avid public interest in harbalism in the UK has been recently confirmed by the

popularity of the topic in mainstream media such as the prime time hit TV series

BBCs Grow Your Won Drugs which demonstrated how to grow and prepare herbal

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remedies at home. In the united states a bachelor of science degree in herbal science is

offered at Bastyr university and a master of science in herbal medicine is offered at

Taisophia institute. There are also many smaller organization and teacher offering

certification. A 2004 cochrane collaboration dew found that herbal therapies are

supported by strong evidence but are not widely used in all clinical settings. (Barron

et al, 2004).

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CHAPTER TWO

2.0 HERBALISM

Herbalism is a traditional medicinal or folk medicine practice based on the use

of plant and plant extract. Herbalism is also known as botanical medicine, medicalherbalism, herbal medicine, herbology and phytotherapy. The scope of herbal

medicine is sometimes extended to include fungal and bee product, well as minerals,

shells and certain animal parts. Pharmacognosy is the study of medicine derived from

natural sources. (Acharya et al 2008).

Traditional use of medicine is recognized as a way to learn about potential

future. In 2001 researchers identified 122 compound used in mainstream medicine

which were derived from etho-medical plant sources 80% of these compound were

used in the same or related manner as the traditional ethnomedical use. (Fabricant and

Farnsworth 2001).

Plant has evolved the ability to synthesize chemical compound that help them

defend against attack from a wide variety of predators such as insect, fungi and

herbivorous mammals. By chance some of the these compounds whilst being toxic to

plant predators turn out to have beneficial effect when used to treat human disease.

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Such secondary metabolities are highly varied in structure, many are aromatic

substances, most of which are phenols or their oxygen substituted derivatives. At least

12,00 have been isolated so far, a number estimated to be less than 10% of the total

chemical compound in plant mediate their effects on the human body by binding to

receptor molecule present in the body; such process are identical to those already well

understood for conventional drugs and as such herbal medicine do not differ greatly

from conventional drugs in term of how they work. This enables herbal medicine tobe in principles just as effective as conventional medicine but also gives them the

same potential to cause harmful side effect many of the herbs and spices used by

human to season food yield useful; medicinal compound.(Roy et al 2004)

Similarly to prescription drugs a number of herbs are thought to be likely to

cause adverse effect furthermore, adulteration, inappropriate formulation or lack of

understanding of plant and drug interaction have led to adverse reaction that are

sometimes life threatening or lethal. (Talalay and Elvin 2001).

2.1 BIOLOGICAL BACKGROUND OF HERBS

The carotenoids in primrose product bright red, yellow and orange shades, all

plant produce chemical compound as part of their normally metabolic activities.

These are divided into primary metabolites such as sugar and fats found in all plant

and secondary metabolites, compound not essential for basic function founding a

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smaller range of plant some useful ones and only in a particular genus or spices

pigment harvest light protect the organism from radiation and display colours that

attract pollinators. Many common weed such as netle, dan delion and chick

Regarded as having ions in terms of the bod. The practitioner may have extensive

training and usually be sensitive to energy, but need not have supernatural powers.

ii. the functional dynamic: this approach was used by early physiomedical

practitioners, whose doctrine forms the basis of temporary practice in the UK Herbs

have a functional action, which is not necessarily linked to a physical compound

though often to a physiological function but there is no explicit recourse to concepts

involving energy.

iv. The Chemical: Modern practitioners called phytotherapist attempt to explain

herb action in terms of their chemical constituent. It is generally assumed that the

specific combination of secondary metabolites in the plant are responsible for activity

claimed or demonstrated a concept called synergy.

Most modern herbalist concede that pharmaceuticals are more effective in

emergency situation where time is the essence. An example would be where a patient

had an acute heart attack that posed imminent danger. However they aim that over a

long term, herbs can help the patient resist disease and that in addition, they provide

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nutritional and immunological support that pharmaceuticals lack they view their goal

as prevention as well as cure. Herbalist tend to use extract from part of plants such as

the roots or leaves but not isolate particular phytochemicals.(Vickers and Zollman,

1999).

Pharmaceutical medicine prefers single ingredient on the ground that dosage

can be more easily quantified. It is also possible to patient single compound and

therefore generate income. Herbalist often reject the notion of a single active

ingredient, arguing that the different phytochemicals present in many herbs will

interact the enhance the therapeutic effect of the herbs and route toxicity. (James and

Duke 2000).

Furthermore they argue that a single ingredient may contribute to multiple

effects. Herbalist deny that herbal synergism can be duplicated with synethic

chemical. They argue that phytochemical interaction and trace component may alter

the drug response in ways that cannot currently be replicated with a combination of a

few putfative actives ingredients. (Jack et al 1999).

Pharmaceutical researcher recognize the concept of drug synergism but note

that clinical trials only be used to investigate the efficacy of a particular herbal

preparation provided the formulation of that herb is persistent. (Goldman and Peter

2001).

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2.3 ROLES OF HERBS IN MODERN HUMAN SOCIETY

Botanic such as this one in Jamaica plain, Massachusetts, Cater to the Latino

community and sell herbal course and Folk medicine alongside statues of saints

candle decorated with prayers, lucky bamboo and other items.

The use of herbs to treat disease is almost universal among non industrialized

societies. (Edgar et al 2002).

A number of traditional came to eliminate the practice of herbal medicine at

the end of the twentieth century .weed also have medicinal properties. (Vicker et al

1999).

The function of secondary metabolites are varied for example some secondary

metabolites are toxins used to deterpredation and other pheromones used to attract

insect for pollination phytoalexins protect against bacterial and fungal attacks.

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Alleochemicals inhibit rival plant that are competing for soil and light plant up

regulate and down regulate their allelochemical path in response to the local mix of

herbivores pollinators and micro-organism. (Litcher man et al 2004).

The chemical profile of a single plant may vary over time as it react to

changing conditions. It is the secondary metabolites and pigment that can have

therapeutic action in humans and which can be refined to produce drugs. Plant

synthesize a bewildering variety of cytochemical but most are derivatives of a few

biochemical motifs.

Alkaloid contain a ring with nitrogen. Many alkaloids have dramatic effect on

the central nervous system. Caffeine is an alkaloid that provides a mild lift but

the alkaloids in datura cause severe intoxication and even death.

Popolyphenol, also known as phenolics, contain phenol rings the anthocyanins

that give grapes their purple color, the isoflavone, the phytoestrogen from soy and

the tannis that give tea its astringency are phenolics.

Terpenoids are built up from terpene building blocks each terpene consist of

two paired isoprene. The names monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, and

titerpenes are based on the number of isoprene units the fragrance of rose and

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lavender is due to monoterpenes. The carotenoids produce the reds, yellow

and orange of pumpkin, corn and tomatoes.

Glycosides consist of a glucose moiety attached to a glucose. The an aglycone

molecule that is bioactive in its free form but inert until the glycoside bond is

broken by water or enzymes. This mechanism allow the plant to clefer the

availability of the molecule to an appropriate time, similar to a safety lock on

a gun. An example is the cyanoglycosides incherry pits that release toxinsonly when bitten by a herbivore. The word drug itself comes from the dutch

word droog (French word Drogue) which means dried plant. Some

examples are insulin from the roots of dahlias, quinine from the anchona,

morphine and codeine from the poppy and digoxin from the foxglove. The

active ingredient in willow park once prescribed by Hippocrates, is salicin,

which is converted in the body into salicylic acid. The discovery of saliaylic

acid would eventually lead to the development of the acetylated form

acetysalicylic acid, also known as aspirin, when it was isolated from a plant

known as meadowsweet. (Chalem at el 1999).

2.4 HERBAL PHISOLOPHY

Approach to use of plant as medicine include

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1. The Magical Ishamanic: Almost all non modern society recognize this kind

of use the practitioner is regarded as endowed with gift or power that allow

him/her to use herbs in a way that is hidden from the average person and the

herb are said to affect the spirit or soul of the person

2. The Energetic: This approach includes the major system of TCM, Ayuurveda

and Unani. Herbs are

The classical herbal medicine system based on Greek and roman studies

The siddha and Ayurvedic medicine system from various south Asian

countries

Chinese herbal medicine (chinese herbology)

Traditional African medicine

Unani tibb medicine

Shamanic haberlism: a catch all phrase for

Information mostly supplied from south America and the Himalayas

Native America medicine

Many of the pharmaceutical currently available to a physician have a long

history of use as herbal remedies, including aspirin, digitalis and quinine. The world

Health Organisation (WHO) estimate that 80 percent of the worlds population

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presently uses herbal medicine for some aspect of primary health care. (Crane et al

2004).

Pharmaceutical are prohibitively expensive for most of the world population,

half of which lives on less than $2 U.S per day. (Edgar et al 2002).

In addition to the use in the developing world, herbal medicine is sued in

industrialized nations by alternative medicine practitioner such as naturopaths. A

1998 survey of herbalist inn the UK found that many herb recommended by them

were used traditionally but had not been evacuated in clinical trails, in comparism

herbal medicine can be grown from seed or gathered from nature for little or no cost.

(Barnes et al 1998).

In Australia, a 2007 survey found that these western herbalist tend to prescribe

liquid herbal combination of herbs rather than tablet of single herbs. (Cassey et al

2007).

The use of and search for, drugs an dietary development derived from plants,

have accelerated in recent years pharmacologist, microbiologist, botanist and natural

product chemist are combing the earth for phytochemicals and leads that could be

developed for treatment of various disease. Infact according to the world health

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organization, approximately 25% of modern drugs used in the united states have been

derive from plant.

Among the 120 active compounds currently isolated from the higher plant and

widely used in modern medicine today, 80 percent show a positive correlation

between their modern therapeutic use an the traditional use of the plants from which

they are derived. (Fabricant and Farnsworth 2001).

More than two thirds of the world plant species at least 35,000 of which are

estimated to have medicinal value come from developing countries. At least 7,000

medical compound in the modern pharmacopoeia are derived from plants. (Melvyn et

al 2000).

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CHAPTER THREE

3.0 TYPES OF HERBAL MEDICINE SYSTEMS

Material medica, C 1334 copy in Arabic decribes medicinal feature of cumin

and dill use of medicinal plant can be as informal as for example culinary use or

consumption of an herbal tea or supplement, although the sale of the herbs considered

dangerous is often restricted to the public. Sometimes such herbs are provided to

professional herbalist companies.

Many herbalist both professional and amateur, often grow or wild craft their

own herbs. Some researchers trained in both western and traditional Chinese medicine

have attempt to deconstruct ancient medical text in the light of modern science.

One idea is that the yin-yang balance at least with regard to herbs correspond

to the pro-oxidant and anti-oxidant balance. This interpretation is supported by several

investigation of the RAC ratings of various yin-yang herbs. (Boxin et al 2003).

In America, early settles relied on plant imported from Europe and so from

local Indian knowledge. One particularly successful practitioners, Samuel Thompson

developed a popular system of medicine. This approach was subsequently broadened

to include concept introduced from modern physiology, a discipline called

physiomedicalism.

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Another group was the Ecletics, were action offshoot from the orthodox

medical treatment of mercury and bleeding and introduced herbal medicine into their

practice.

Both group were eventually overcome by the action of the American medical

Association which was formed for this purpose. Cheroke medicine tends to divide

herbs into food, medicine and toxin and to use even plant in the treatment of disease

which is defined with both spiritual and physiologic aspect according to Cherokee

herbalist David Winshton. (Tillotson Institute 1999).

In Indian Ayurvedic medicine has quite complex formular with 30 or more

ingredient including a sizeable number of ingredient that have undergone chemical

processing chosen to balance pata pitta or kapha. (William 2002).

In tamil Nadu, Tamils have their own medicinal system now popularly called

the siddha medicinal system. The siddha medicinal system is entirely in the tamil

language. It contains roughly 300,000 versus covering. Diverse aspect of medicine

such as anatomy sex (kokokam is the sexual treatise of par excellence), herbal mineral

and metallic composition to cure many disease that are relevant even to day.

Ayurveda is Sanskrit was not generally named as a mother tongue and hence its

medicine are mostly taken from siddha and other local tradition. (Chandrasekarendra

et al 2001).

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In addition there are more modern theories of herbal combination like William

Lesassiers triune formula which combine pythogorean sagery with Chinese medicine

ideas and resulted in a herbs formula which supplemented drained or naturally

nourished the main organ system affected and three associated system. His system has

been taught to thousand of influential American herbalist through his own

apprenticeship program during his lifetime, the William Lesassiers achieve and the

David Winston centre for herbal studies. (The wiaththin et al 2001).

Different chemical in herbs are more abundant than in a single drug some

chemical in herbs may work as growth hormones or antibiotic, nutrient and toxin

neutralizer. Many traditional African remedies have performed well in initial

laboratory test to ensure they are not toxic and in text on animal. Gawo is a herb used

in traditional treatment, has been tested in rats by researchers from Nigeria university

of Jos and the National Institute for pharmaceutical research and development

according to research in African journal of bio technology, Gawo passed text for

toxicity and reduced fevers, diahorrea and inflammation.(Herz 2009).

3.1 EXAMPLES OF PLANT USED AS HERBAL MEDICINE

ALOE VERA:- It has traditionally been used for the healing of burns and wounds. A

systematic review states that the efficiency of aloevera is promoting wound healing is

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unclear. Later review conclude that the cumulative evidence support the use of

aloevera fro the healing of first second burns. (Konghaew and maenthaisong 2007).

ARTICHOKE:- Cynara cardunculus: It may reduce production of cholesterol level

according to in vitro studies.

BLACKBERRY: Rubus fruticosus: Leaf has drawn the attention of the cosmetology

community because it interfers with the metalloproteinases that contribute to skin

wrinkling (A multifunctional anti-aging active).

BOOPHONE:- Boophone disticha: This highly toxic plant has been used in South

African traditional medicine for treatment of mental illness. Research demonstrate in

vitro and in viro effective against depression. (Stafford et al 2008).

BLACK RASPBERRY (Rubus occidentalis): It may have a role in preventing oral

cancer.

CALENDULA (Calendula Officinalis): Has been used traditionally for abnormal

cramps and constipation. In animal research an aqueous ethanol extract of calendula

officinal flovers was shown to have both spasmolytic and spasmogenic effect thus

providing a scientist rationale for this traditional use. (Bashir et al 2006)

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CRANBERRY (Vaccinium oxycoccos): May be effective in treating urinary tract

infection in women with recurrent symptoms. (Jepson, Craig 2008).

ECHINACEA (Echinacea angustifolia, Echinacea pallid, Echinacea purpourea):

Extract may limit the length and severity of rhinovirus colds, however, the appropriate

dosage levels which might be higher than is available over the counter, require further

research. (Sash et al 2006).

ELDERBERRY (Sambucus nigra): May speed the recovery from type A and

B influenza (Study of the efficacy and safety of oral berry extract in the treatment of

influenza).

FEVERFEW (Chrysanthemum Parthenium): Is sometimes used to treat migraneheadache although may reviews of fever few studies show no or unclear efficacy a

more recent RTC showed favourable result. (Silberstein 2005).

GAWO (Falanerbia albia): A traditional herbal medicine in West Africa, has shown

promise in animal test.

GARLIC (Allium sativum): It may lower total cholesterol levels. (Ackerman and

mulrow 2001).

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GINGER (Zingiber officinale): Administered in 250mg capsule for four days,

effectively decreased nausea and vomiting of pregnancy in a human clinical trial.

(Ozgoli and Simbar 2009).

GRAPE FRUIT (Narigenin): It may prevent obesity

GREEN TEA (Camelia sinesis): It may inhibit growth of breast cancer cells. Ti may

also heal scars. (Zhang and Kelly 2007).

Purified extract of seed of Hibiscus Sabdariffa may have some antihyfetensive,

antifungal and anti-bacteria effect. Toxicity tested low except for an isolated case of

damage to the testes of a rat after prolonged and excessive consumption. (Ali et al

2005).

HONEY: May reduce cholesterol may be useful in wound healing. (Al-Waili et al

2004)

LEMON GRASS: (Cyambopogon citratus): Administered daily as an aqueous

extract of the fresh leaf, has lowered total cholesterol and fasting plasma glucose

levels in rats as well as increasing HDL cholesterol levels. Lemon grass

administration had no effect on triglyceride levels.(Adeneye and Agbaje 2000 )

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MEADOWSWEET (Filipendula unmaria, spiraea ulmaria): It can be used for a

variety of anti-inflammatory an antimicrobial purpose due to presence of salicylic

acid, effective for fevers and inflammation, pain relief, ulcers and bacteria static.

Listed as therapeutical in 1652 by Nicholas Culpeper. In 1838, salicylic acid was

isolated from the plant. The word aspirin was derived from spirin, based on

meadowsweets synonyms names ulmaria. (Hoffinan et al 2003).

MILK THISLE (Silybum marianum) extract have been recognized for many

centuries as liver tonics. Research suggest that milk thistle extract both prevent and

repair damage to liver from toxic chemicals and medication. (Mahid et al 2006).

NONI (Morinda citrifoloa): Is used in pacific and Caribbean islands for the treatment

of inflammation and pain. Human studies indicate potential cancer preventive effect.

(Szilard et al 1998).

BLCAK (Min Nigelia sativa) Has demonstrated analgesic properties in mice. The

mechanism for this effect. In studies support, antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer,

antiinflammtory and immune modulating effect. (Wang et al 2009).

Ocimun gratissium and tea tree oil can be used to treat acne. (Shahla et al 2007).

OREGANO (Origanum vulgare): May be effective against multi drug resistant

bacteria. (Martin and Ernst 2003).

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PAWPAW: It can be used as insecticide (Killing ice, worms)

PEPPER MINT OIL: May have benefits fro individual with irritable bowel

synorome. (Reganult et al 2004).

PHYTOLACCA OR POKEWEED: Can be applied topically or taken internally.

Topical treatments have been used fro acne and other ailment. It is used as a treatment

for tonsilitise, swollen glands and weight loss.

POMERGRANATE: Contains the highest percentage of ellagitannis of any

commonly consumed juice. Punicalagin and ellagitanin unique to pomegranate is the

highest molecular weight polyphone known ellagitanins are metabolized into urolithis

by gut flora and have been shown to inhibit cancer cell growth in mice. (Heber et al2008).

RAUVOLFIA SERPENTINA: High risk of toxicity of improperly used, used

extensively in India for sleeplessness anxiety, and high blood pressure. (Seeram et al

2007).

ROOIBOS (Aspalathus linearis): Contains a number of phenolic compounds

including flavanols, flavones, flavoones, flavonds and dihydrochalcones. Rooibos has

traditionally has been used for skin ailment, allergies, asthma and colic in infants. In

animal study with diabetic mice, aspalathin, a rooibos constituent improved glucose

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homeostatsi by stimulating insulin secretion in pancreatic beta cells and glucose

uptake in muscle tissue. (Joubert et al 2008).

ROSE HIPS: Small scale studies indicate that hip from Rosa canina may provide

benefit in the treatment of osteoarthritis rose hips show anti cox activity. (Kawano et

al 2009).

SALVIA LAVANDULAEFOLIA: It may improve memory (Sihinoara 2006)

SAW PALMETTO: Can be used for BPH. Supported in some studies, failed to

conform in others. (Marks et al 2000).

SHITAKE (Mushrooms): Lentinus edodes: are edible mushrooms that have been

reported to have health benefits including cancer preventing properties. In laboratory

research a shiitake extract has inhibited the growth of tumor cells through induction of

apoptosis. Both a water extract and fresh juice of shiitake have demonstrated.

Antimicrobial activity against pathogenic bacteria and fungi vitro. (Bent et al 2006).

SOY AND OTHER PLANTS: That contain phytoestrogen (plant molecules with

estrogen activity black caonson probably has serotonin activity. Have some benefit for

treatment of symptom resulting from menopause. (Kuznetoz et al 2005).

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St johns wort, has yielded positive result proving more effective than a placebo for

the treatment of mild to moderate depression in some clinical trials. A subsequent

large control trial however found St. John work to be no better than a placebo in

training depression. (Gaster et al 2000).

UMCKALOABO (Pelargonium sidoides): An extract of this plant show mixed

efficacy in the treatment of acute bronchitis in a controlled trilas and is improved for

this use in Germany. (Maydannik et al 2010).

VALERINA ROOT: Can be used to treat insomnia clinical studies show mixed

result and research note that many trials are poor quality. (Bent et al 2006).

STINGING NETTLE: It effective for benigin prostatic hyperplasia and the painassociated with osleocarthritis in-vitro test show anti-inflammatory action. In a rodent

model, stinging nettle reduced LDL cholesterol and total cholesterol it also reduced

platlet aggregation. (Houseton 2006).

WILLOW BARK (Salix alba): It can be used for a variety of anti inflammatory and

antimicrobial purpose due to presence of salicylic acid and tannis. It has been used for

approximately 6000 years and was described as the first century AD by disoscorides.

(Hoffman and David 2003).

3.2 ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION

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The exact composition of a herbal product is influenced by the method of

extraction. A tisane will be rich in polar component because water is a polar solvent.

Oil on the other hand is a non polar solvent and will absorb non polar compounds.

Alcohol lies somewhere in between. There are many forms in which herbs can be

administered these include

Tincture: Alcoholic extract of herb such as Echinacea, extract usually obtained by

combining 100% pure ethanol (or a mixture of 100% ethanol with water) with the

herb. A completed tincture has a ethanol percentage of at least 25% (sometimes up to

90%). Effect of urtica dioico extract intake upon blood lipod profile in rats. The term

eincture is sometime applied to preparation using other solvent than ethanol.

Herbal wine and Elixirs: These are alcoholic extract of herbs usually with an ethanol

percentage of 12-38%. Herbal wine is a maceration of herbs in spirit (e.g vodkay

grappa etc).

Tisanes: Hot water extract of herb such as chamomile

Decoction: Long term boiled extract of usually roots or bark

Macerates: Cold infusion of plant with high mucilage content as sage, thyme etc.

plant are chopped and added to cold water. They are then left for 7 to 12 hours

(depending on herb used).

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Vinegar: Prepared at the same way as tincture except using a solution of acetic as the

solvent topical.

Essential Oil: Application of essential oil extract usually diluted in a carrier oil

(many essential oil can burn the skin or are simply too high dose used straight diluting

in olive oil or another food grade oil such as almond oil these to be used safely as a

tropical slaves oil, balms, cream and lotion most topical application are oil extraction

of herbs. (Sandy, 2008)

Taking a food grade oil and soaking herbs in it for any here from weeks to

month, allow certain phytochemical to be extracted into the oil this oil can then be

made into salves cream, lotion or simply used a an oil for topical application. Any

message oil antibacterial salves and wound healing compound are made this way.

Poultice and Compresses: One can also make poultice or compress using whole herb

(or the appropriate part of the plant) usually crushed or dried and rehydrated with a

small amount of water and then applied directly in a bandage cloth or just as is.

Whole Herb Consumption: This can occur in either dried from (herbal powder), or

(fresh juice, fresh leaves and other plant parts)

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Syrups: Extract of herbs made with syrup or honey. Sixty five part of sugar are mixed

with 35 parts of water and herb. The whole is then boiled and macerated for three

weeks.

Extract: Include Liquid extract, dry extract and neubulisates. Liquid extract are liquid

with a lower ethanol percentage than tinctures. They can (and are usually) made by

vaccum distilling tinctures dry extract are extracts of plant material which are

evaporated into a dry mass. They can then be further refined to a capsule or tablet. A

nebulosity is a dry extract created by freeze drying. (Grect 1920).

Inhalation as in aromatherapy can be used as a mood changing treatment. To fight as

sinus infection or cough, or to cleanse the skin on a deeper level. (Gilani et al 2009).

Apply fresh herb paste on skin ground herb and boil in water such as herbal tea.

34

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CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 EFFECTIVENESS OF HERBS

The graph showing the effectiveness of herbs.

35

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Running Total of the number of research paper listed on pubmeb from 1990-2007

containing the word phytotherapy. The highest standard for pharmaceutical testing

is repeated, small scale, randomized double blind test. In 2002 the US National

Institute of Health began funding clinical trials into the effectiveness of herbal

medicine. (Vanhaelen et al 1994).

In a 2010 survey of 1000 plants, 356 had clinical trials published evaluating

their pharmacological activities therapeutic supplication while 12% of the plant,

although available in the western market had no substantial studies of their properties.

(Cravotto et al 2010).

The quality of the trials on herbal remedies is highly viable and many trials of

herbal treatment have been found to be of poor quality, with many trials lacking an

intention to analysis or a comment on whether blinding was successful. (Lesly and

Marc 2007).

The few randomized, double blind test that receive mention in medical

publication are often questioned on methodological grounds or interpretation.Likewise, studies established in peer reviewed medical journals such as journal of the

American Medical Association receive more consideration than those published in

specialized herbal journal.

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One study found that non impact factors alternative medicine, Journal

published more studies with positive result, than negative and finding positive result

are of lower quality than trials finding negative result. (Sirinvasan, 2005).

Another study reported that one clinical studies of herbal medicines were not

inferior to similar medical studies. (Elien 2005)

However, this study used a patcher par design are excluded all herbal trials thatwere not controlled, did not use a placebo or did not use random or random

assignment. Herbalist critize mainstream studies on the ground that they make

insufficient use of historical usage which has been shown useful in drug discovery

and development in the past and present.(Fabricant and Farnswith 2001).

They maintain plant traditional guide, the selection of factors such as optional

dose, specie, time of harvesting and target population. (Nartey et al 2007)

Usage is in general an outstanding issue for herbal treatment while most medicine are

heavily tested to determine the most effective and safest dosage (especially in relation

to things like body weight, drug intraction etc) there are fewer society of dosage for

various herbal treatment on the market. Furthermore from a conventional

pharmacological prospective, herbal medicine taken in, whole form cannot generally

guarantee a consistent dosage or drugs reality since certain sample may contain more

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or less of a given active ingredient. Several method of standardization may be applied

to herbs. One is the ratio of raw material to solvent. However, different specimen of

even the same plant species may vary in chemical content for this reasons thin layer

chromatography is sometimes used by growers to access content of their product

before use. Another method is standardization on a signal chemical. (Eric et al 2002).

4.1 STANDARD AND QUALITY CONTROL OF HERBS

The issue of regulation is an area of continuing controversy in the EU and

USA. At one end of the spectrum, some herbalist maintain that traditional remedies

have a long history of use and do not require the level of safety testing as monobiotic

or single ingredient in an artificially concentrated form. On the other hand, other are

in favour of legally enforced quality standard, safety testing prescription by a

qualified practitioner. Some professional herbalist organization have made statement

calling for a category or regulation for herbal product.

Yet others agree with the need for more quality testing but believe it can be

managed through reputation without government intervention. (Herbal 2001).

The legal status of herbal ingredient varies by country in the EU, herbal

medicine are now regulated tender. The European Directive on Traditional Herbal

Medicinal product. In the united states, most herbal remedies are regulated as dietary

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supplement by the Food and Drug Administration. Manufacturer of product failing

into its category are not required to prove the safety or efficacy of their product,

though the use FDA may withdraw a product term sale should it prove harmful.

(Stephen, 2003).

In the UK, herbal remedies that are brought over the counter are regulated as

supplement, as in the us. However herbal remedies described and dispensed by a

qualified Medical Herbalist after a personnel consultation are regulated as medicine.

A medical herbalist can prescribe some herbs which are not available over the

counter, covered by schedule II of eh medicine Act. Furthermore changes to law

regulating herbal standard product used. Some herb such as cannabise are outright

banned in most countries since 2004. the sales of ephedra as an dietary supplement is

prohibited in the united states by the food and drug administration. (Goldman 2001).

4.2 SAFETY OF HERBS

For partial list of herbs with known adverse effect; a number of herb are

thought to be likely to cause adverse effect (Talalay and Talalay 2001).

Furthermore adulteration, inappropriate formulation or lack of understanding

of plant and drug interaction have led to adverse reaction that are sometimes life

threading or lethal (Elvin 2001).

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Proper double blind clinical trials are needed to determine the safety and

efficacy of each plant before they can be recommended for medical use. (Taibi et al,

2007).

Although many customer believe that herbal medicine are safe because they are

natural herbal medicine and synthetic drugs may interact, causing toxicity to the

patient. Herbal remedies can also be dangerously contaminated and herbal medicine

without established efficacy, may unknowingly be used to replace medicine that do

have corroborated efficacy. (Ernst 2007).

Standardization of purity and dosage is mandated in the united states not even

product made to the same specification may differ as a result of biochemical variation

within a species of plant (Vickers 2007).

Plant have chemical defense mechanism against predators that can have

adverse or lethal effect on humans example of highly toxic herb include poison

hemlock and night shad. (Vitiello 2007).

They are not marketed to the public as herbs because the risk are well known,

partly due to a long and colourful history in Europe associated with sorcery, ,magic

and intrigue (Muller 1999).

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On occasion tedious outcomes have been linked to her consumption. A case of

major potassium depletion has been attributed to chronic licorice ingestion. (Pinn

2001)

And consequently professional herbalist avoid the use of licorice where they

recognize that this may be a risk black cohosh has been implicated in a case of liver

failure. (Lin et al 2003).

Few studies are available on the safety of herbs for pregnant women, and onestudy found that use of complementary and alternative medicine are associated with a30% lower ongoing pregnancy and live birth rate during fertility. Treatment (Born2005).

Example of herbal treatment with likely cause effective relationship with

adverse event include aconite which is often a legally, restricted herb, ayurvedicremedies, broom, chaparral, Chinese herbs mixture comfrey, herbs containing certainflavoniod sugar gum, liquorice root and penny royal. (Davidson et al 2002).

Examples of herbs where a high degree of confidence of a risk bring term

adverse effect can be asserted include ginseng, which is unpopular among herbalist,

for this reason, the dangered herb goldenseal, milthistle, seena, against whichherbalist generally advice and rarely use aloevera juicen backthorn bark, and berry,

cascara sagrada bark, saw palmetto, nalerian, kaya, which is banned in the European

Union, St Johns wort, khat, betel nut, the restricted herb ephedra and guarana. (Elvin

2001).

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There is also concern with respect the numerous well established interaction of

herbs and drugs. In consultation with a physician usage of herbal remedies would be

clarified, as some herbal remedies have the potential to cause adverse interaction

when used in combination with various prescription and over the counter

pharmaceutical, just as a patient should inform a herbalist of their consumption of

orthodox prescription of example dangerously, low blood pressure may result from

the combination of an herbal remedy that lowers blood pressure together with

prescription medicine that has the same effect .herbs may amplify the effect of

anticoagulant. certain herbs as well as common fruit interfere with monochrome

P450, an enzymes critical to much drug metabolism. (spolarich et al 2006).

CONCLUSION

Medicinal plant have always been considered healthy source of life for all

people. Therapeutically properties of medical plants are very useful in healing various

disease and the advantage of these medicinal plant is being 100% natural. Nowadays

people are being bombarded with thousand of unhealthy product the level of

sensibility infront of disease is very high that why the use of medicinal plant can

represent the best solution.

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