Ethics—The Basicsby John Mizzoni

CHAPTER SEVEN: CARE ETHICS

Ethics—The BasicsCARE ETHICS

• The moral dilemma of Abraham: A conflict between two duties:

To obey God

To preserve human life

• How would a contemporary woman resolve this dilemma?

Ethics—The BasicsCARE ETHICS

Revisitation: What is a philosophical problem?

A philosophical problem is a cluster of closely related philosophical questions.

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What is it to live an ethical life?• Flourishing; developing excellence? (VE)• Following the natural law? (NLE)• Living up to the social contract? (SCE)• Increasing happiness for all? (UE)• Doing one’s duty? (DE)• Caring for the Creator/creation?

(FE: Franciscan Ethics)

Ethics—The BasicsCARE ETHICS

• Care ethics states that to live an ethical life is to care about those with whom we are in close relationship. Caring is the ethical ideal.

• According to Mizzoni, Care Ethics is a contemporary ethical theory developed in the 20th century.

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ETHICAL TRADITIONSANCIENT ETHICS Relative Ethics (580 B.C.E.-200 C.E). Universal Ethics

Virtue EthicsMEDIEVAL ETHICS Natural Law Ethics (200-1500 C.E.) Franciscan EthicsMODERN ETHICS Social Contract Ethics (1500-1900 C.E.) Utilitarian Ethics

Deontological EthicsCONTEMPORARY ETHICS Care Ethics (1900 C.E. –present)

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• The philosophers who developed and write about care ethics describe it as a feminine ethic. Most of them are feminists.

• They claim that males see ethics as being about principles, whereas females see ethics as being about relationships.

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Ethics of caring emerged as a response to male-dominated ideas in developmental psychology, especially those of Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987).

Ethics—The BasicsCARE ETHICS

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentSix Stages of Moral Development

Post-Conventional Stages (Abstractly Oriented Stages)

6. Universal ethical principles; mutual respect as a universal principle

5. Social contract orientation; justice and rights; contractual perspective

Conventional Stages (Socially Oriented Stages)

4. Authority and social order ;“Law and order” mentality; social systems perspective

3. Interpersonal conformity: “I’m a good boy/girl.” social norms; social relationships perspective

Pre-Conventional Stages (Egoistically Oriented Stages)

2. Self-interest : “What’s in it for me?”; reward; instrumental egoism perspective

1. Obedience; fear of punishment; blind egoism perspective

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Carol Gilligan (1936-present), a research assistant to Kohlberg, and a psychologist herself, argued that his ideas were too androcentric:• He originally only used privileged white male

subjects • He seemed to belittle female ethical concerns

based on caring and relationships

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Gilligan’s criticisms of Kohlberg’s interpretations, and her own views of moral development, are summarized in her 1982 book, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Despite many awards, Gilligan’s views are controversial.

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Christine Hoff Sommers (1950-present), a former ethics professor at Clark University, does not agree with Gilligan’s views. She feels that Gilligan and other gender feminists are not seeking equality with males, but dominance.

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Virginia Held, Distinguished Professor of philosophy at City University of New York, stated in 1990:

“Caring, empathy, feeling with others, being sensitive to each other’s feelings, all may be better guides to what morality requires in actual contexts than may abstract rules of reason or rational calculation, or at least they may be necessary components of an adequate morality” (“Feminist Transformations of Moral Theory” in Philosophy and Phenomenological Research , 50, 344).

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Annette Baier (1929-present) a Hume scholar and moral philosopher, believes that men and women make decisions about right and wrong based on different value systems: • Men follow an idea of justice• Women follow a sense of trust or caring

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Nel Noddings (1929-present), an educator, social psychologist, philosopher, and feminist, wrote her book, Caring: A Feminine Approach to Ethics and Moral Education in 1984.

Noddings believes that care ethics is better than other traditions. She thinks both men and women should practice it.

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Care Ethics Is Based on Feelings• Unlike utilitarianism, care ethics

emphasizes the feelings of love and joy, rather than pleasure and pain.

• Care ethics says that joy arises through our personal relationships with others.

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• This is unlike moral theology, which might relate love and joy to a personal relationship with God.

• Like utilitarianism, care ethics has an altruistic basis.

• However, care ethics states that humans are primarily relational beings, not just rational beings.

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Humans Are Relational Beings• Gilligan points out that the central

insight of care ethics is that self and other are interdependent.

• Attention to humans as relational beings makes care ethics unique.

• The one-caring does not merely think fondly of the cared-for.

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• The one-caring attends to the actual needs of the cared-for.

• Because the relationship is mutual, the cared-for responds to the caring with some kind of acknowledgement.

• Thus, the caring relationship is a concrete one, not an abstract one.

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• Care ethicists recommend that we accept the fact that:• We are relational beings who exist in

relationship with many people• It is an inescapable fact about human

nature that human beings exist in personal relationships with others

• This can also apply to moral theology

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• The notion of personal relationships is important for monotheistic religions, religious traditions that hold we can have a personal relationship with God.

• This notion is ignored in deism, the view that although God exists, human beings cannot enter into a personal relationship with God.

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•Some moral monotheistic traditions, such as Franciscan care ethics, apply the concept of the caring relationship of the one-caring and the cared-for to the relationship between God and humans.

•Spiritual joy is one of the aspects of a caring and loving relationship with God.

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Ethics of PrinciplesCare ethics emphasizes that

• Obedience to principles can blind us to the concrete needs of others

•Most ethical traditions reveal a masculine orientation, born out of traditional male life experiences

DO YOU KNOW ANY EXAMPLES OF THIS?

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Care Ethics vs. Ethics of PrinciplesDeontological/Non-Consequentialist Ethics• “Mothering is not a role, but a relationship” (Nel

Noddings, Caring, 1984:128).• While we might be inclined to think of care ethics

as a kind of duty ethics—the duty to care for others—care ethicists view caring not as a duty but as a relationship.

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Care Ethics vs. Ethics of PrinciplesConsequentialism—Utilitarian Ethics• Care ethicists reject an abstract and faceless

principle of impartiality for particular relationships that are concrete, partial, and personal.

• Although sentiment and altruism are shared by both ethical traditions, care ethicists reject the principle of utility and its abstract mathematical calculations.

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Care Ethics vs. Ethics of PrinciplesConsequentialism—Social Contract

Ethics• Care ethicists reject the rational egoism which

forms the basis of social contract ethics. Care ethicists value feelings over reason, and altruism over egoism.

• Care ethicists further reject the idea of a “contract,” as a distortion of the relationship between human beings.

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Care Ethics vs. Ethics of PrinciplesUniversal Love Ethics– Mo Tzu’s ethics– Christian ethics

Care ethicists reject an abstract principle of universal love, for particular relationships that are concrete and personal. It is impossible to be in a concrete, personal, loving, and caring relationship with all human beings, according to care ethics.

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Virtue Ethics and Partiality• Care ethics is similar to virtue ethics

– Both de-emphasize principles and actions– Both stress the person in relationship

• Care ethics stresses the social virtues/other-regarding virtues rather than personal virtues/self-regarding virtues

• Since care ethics redefines social virtues so they have a personal dimension, care ethics may be regarded as a form of virtue ethics

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Virtue Ethics and Partiality• Care ethics is similar Confucian ethics rather

than to Mo Tzu’s doctrine of universal love, since care ethics stresses distinctions or gradations in love rather than loving everyone equally.

• For example, filial piety, or loving and honoring one’s parents, is the mark of a good person in both care ethics and Confucian ethics.

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Feminine Ethics• There are different types of feminists• Christina Hoff Sommers, author of Who

Stole Feminism, categorizes feminists into two general types:• Gender Feminists, who accent gender differences

to create privilege for women or advance individual agenda

• Equity Feminists, who seek equality between men and women in civil and legal rights

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Feminine Ethics• Since feminism is a broad spectrum, not

all feminists endorse care ethics• A feminine ethic is rooted in

• Receptivity• Relatedness• Responsiveness (Nel Noddings, Caring, 1984, 172)

• All of humanity [men and women] can participate in feminine ethics

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Feminine Ethics• Although men and women may think

differently about ethics, there is no reason to believe that one style of thinking is inferior to the other

• Both styles may be complementary:• “Masculine” ethics focuses on intellect, logic,

principles, and rationality• “Feminine” ethics focuses on will, caring,

relationships, and feelings

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Feminine EthicsPerhaps, just as left-brained people need to

develop the right sides of their brains, and vice versa, men need to develop an appreciation, understanding, and application of feminine ethics, and women need to develop appreciation, understanding, and application of masculine ethics. Then both ethics are useful for informing us about choices.

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Unified Ethics?

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Is Care Ethics Relativist or Universalist?

Although care ethics may appear to be relativist, it is universalist:1. Fundamental universality of feelings

and sentiments for others2. Universal phenomenon of human

beings in relationships with others

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Is Care Ethics Relativist or Universalist?

• Ethical universalism is not the same as a principle of universality. Although care ethics is universalist, it rejects Kant’s principle of universality, which is the core of deontological ethics.

• Care ethics focuses not on principles, but on close personal relationships.

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What Is the Origin of Ethics, According to Care Ethics?

• Ethical standards are ultimately based on feelings that have their root in a universal human nature.

• These feelings bind people together.

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What Is Human Nature, According to Care Ethics?

Human beings are feeling beings and relational beings whose lives are inextricably bound up in concrete personal relationships with others.

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How Do We Decide Right and Wrong, According to Care Ethics?

• Care ethics relies not on principles to determine right and wrong, but focuses on the concrete needs of those with whom we are in close personal relationship.

• Caring is the mark of ethical action.

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Applications of Care Ethics• Personal Applications

• Dilemma of job vs. family• Social/Political Applications

• Going beyond close relationships• Child care, health care, education• Economy and law

• Global/International Applications

Applications of Care EthicsConcept of degrees of intensity in

care ethics

neighbors

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self

familyfriends

nation

world

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Advantages of Care Ethics• It is a distinctly feminine ethic, long

ignored by male philosophers• It has modern appeal, paralleling the

liberation of women• It is more holistic, embracing men

and women as having unique differences

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Advantages of Care Ethics• It recognizes the importance of

feelings in making ethical decisions

• It recognizes the role of the will in making ethical decisions, and not just the role of the intellect

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Disadvantages of Care Ethics• Care ethics is not comprehensive; for

now, it deals only with those who are personally close to us

• Care ethics is based on generalizations about masculine ethics and feminine ethics• Such generalizations may be oversimplifications• This may lead to repression of other viewpoints

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Disadvantages of Care Ethics• Care ethics is anthropocentric

It says little or nothing of ethical behavior toward nonhuman animals, though Noddings discusses caring for pets, but not all animals (Caring, 1984: 149-155).

• Care ethics does not resolve certain moral issues satisfactorilyWhat if you witness your spouse murder someone? Should you protect her/him from legal consequences?

CAN YOU THINK OF OTHER ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES?

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Care Ethics in Biblical Times“So humble yourselves under the

mighty hand of God, that he may exalt you in due time. Cast all your worries upon him because he cares for you”. (I Peter 5:6-7, NAB)• This New Testament view states that

God has a caring relationship with us.

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Care Ethics in American History“I believe…that every human mind

feels pleasure in doing good to another” (Thomas Jefferson, letter to John Adams, 1816).

(this quote may refer to more to altruism than to an ethic of caring)

CAN YOU THINK OF ANY EXAMPLES?

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Care Ethics in Popular Culture

Many artists recorded the song, “You’ve Got a Friend,” which illustrates care ethics.

CAN YOU THINK OF ANY EXAMPLES?

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Care Ethics in Popular Culture“I feel the capacity to care is the thing which gives life its deepest significance” (Pablo Casals, Spanish cellist, conductor, activist, and U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom awardee).

CAN YOU THINK OF ANY EXAMPLES?