european history summary of the princeton

8/17/2019 European History Summary of the Princeton

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Renaissance

Georgio Vasari (16th century)

o Painter, architect, and writer

o Used Italian word for “rebirth” to describe the Renaissance

Renaissanceo Time in which significant contributions were made to Western civilization,

with particular gains in literature, art, philosophy, and political and

historical thought

o Individualism: People sought to receive personal credit for their

achievements, opposed to the medieval ideal of all glory going to God

Printing Press

o !llowed cultural trends to spread to other parts of "urope, which resulted

in the creation of the #orthern Renaissance movement

o #umerous individuals became literate

o $reated by %ohannes Gutenberg

Rise o Italian !ity "tates and #omination

o &ain Italian cities were $lorence% Venice% &ilan% 'ales% and Rome

o Wealthy merchants dominated political, economic, and artistic life and

formed oligarchies that dominated the independent states

o Italy's central location in the &editerranean (ea created lin)s between the

"ast Gree) colonies and Western *atin culture Rediscovery of ancient

Gree) and Roman te+t was accredited to Italian traders that traveled bysea

o &anufacturing guilds such as clothiers and metal wor)ers formed

o (ocial ierarchy

- &anufacturing guilds. /an)ers, administrators, and merchants

0 ()illed laborers 1e+ (tone masons2

Renaissance "irit

o &edieval mindset

/elieved God had created the world to prepare humans for

salvation or eternal damnation

uman lives were e3ually insignificant 4 Individual had no

importance

&edieval artists did not win fame as individuals and architects,

glassma)ers, and sculptors who decorated "urope wor)ed for theglory o God, not personal glory

o #ew celebration of individual

Unli)e feudal nobles, Italian merchants did not inherit their social

ran) and success depended mostly on s)ill5merit Prosperous merchants too ride in their achievements and

began portrait painting and autobiographies to illustrate the

interest in individual ersonality and ame*


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Wealthy patrons wanted their portraits recorded for roserity

Renaissance individualism stressed the importance of ersonality%

the develoment o uni+ue talents% and the ursuit o ame and

glory 6isplaying these demonstrated the trait of virtu

Pico de &irandola demonstrated the celebration of humans in

Oration on the Dignity of Man $rancesco Petrarch

o $ather o ,umanism

o (ought classical te+ts that were un)nown in the &iddle !ges

o Read letters of !icero7 an important philosopher and politician whose

writings provide an account of the collapse of the Roman Republic

o #idn-t re.ect !hristianity but argued for the universality of the ideas of

the classical age

o !ivic ,umanism: 8oung 9lorentines that viewed $icero's involvement in

political causes as :ustification to use their own classical education for

public good

• !astiglione

o Wrote The Courtier : a person who )new several languages, was familiar

with classical literature, and was s)illed in the arts 4 l’uomo universale.

o Women e+pected to be well educated and charming

• /oren0o Valla

o Wor)ed in ;atican libraries and realized that languages tell a history of

their own and proved that the Donation of Constantine was a forgery

• !hristine de Pisan $irst $eminist

o Wrote The City of Ladies to counter the popular argument that women

were inferior to men and incapable of moral choices Wrote women have

to carve out their own space or move to a


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o (culpture David was commissioned in 9lorence as propaganda to inspire

citizens against &ilan 6avid's pose recalls Greece and Rome

o 4as commissioned by 5ulius II

o 4ors include:

(istine $hapel Piet>

The *ast %udgment

Rahael (,igh Renaissance)

o $reated The School of Athens

6epicts a gathering of philosophers from various eras and created

movement in a 0?6 space Plato and !ristotle dominate the center

#emonstrates the Renaissance ideals o order% unity% and

symmetry*

Isabella #-steo Renaissance woman

o !rt patron which became the most socially acceptable role for a well?

educated Renaissance woman

/oren0o de &edici (/oren0o the &agniicent)

o Patron of the arts

o $osimo d'&edici assembled 9lorentine Platonic !cademy, which merged

platonic philosophy with $hristianity to create 'eo3Platonism*o $ommissioned /eonardo da Vinci

'orthern Renaissance

o While Italian humanists were $hristian, they thought less of religious

3uestions

o #ortherners sought ways to deepen their $hristian beliefs and was more of

a religious movement

o !hristian ,umanists: Wanted to combine classical ideals of calmness

and stoical patience with the $hristian virtues of piety, humility, and love

#esiderius rasmus ('orthern ,umanist) Prince o ,umanists

o Produced Gree) and *atin editions of the #ew Testament

o Wrote In Praise of Folly 4 a witty satire that po)ed fun at greedy

merchants, pompous priests, and 3uarrelsome scholarso !ritici0ed the hyocrisy o church leaders including Poe 5ulius II*

o Wrote in vernacular 4 native languageo Handoo! of the Christian "ni#ht 4 emphasized the idea of inner faith as

opposed to the outer forms of worship, such as parta)ing in sacraments

o Translated the #ew testament into *atin

o Wanted to reform the church 4 6id not agree with *uther

7homas &ore

o *ord chancellor under enry ;III


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o Wrote $to%ia 4 a novel describing an imaginary society, which featured

religious toleration, a humanist education for both men and women, and

communal ownership of property

o "+ecuted by enry because he didn't recognize him as the ead of the

$hurch of "ngland

Protestant Reormation

• The printing press was able to mass?produce /ibles, which made it easier for

people to interpret the /ible themselves rather than the $hurch

• Problems $acing the !hurch

- 8lac #eath created the idea of anticlericalism 4 a measure of

disrespect toward the clergy, stemming from their poor

performance during the crisisa !haucer-s The Canterury Tales and 8occaccio-s The

Decameron reveal some of the satirical edge with whichliterate society now greeted clergymen

b Pietism: #otion of direct relationship between the

individual and God, therefore reducing the power of the$hurch

c Great "chism: 0 popes e+communicating each other

. "imony: the selling of church offices

0 Peasant riests didn't )now much *atin@ 'eotism: passing of power positions to family

• 5ohn 4yclieo Auestioned the wealth of the church, teachings of penance,

transubstantiation, and selling of indulgences

o 9ollowers were )nown as /ollards

o Urged followers to read and interpret /ibles for themselves

o Translated /ible to "nglish

• 5an ,us

o $alled before the !ouncil o !onstance by Pope &artin ; and was burnt

as a heretic and burnt at the sta)e

• &artin /uther (19; 1


5/44


6/44

Peace of !ugsburg ended the civil war and gave the right to

German princes the right of


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supremacy of the /ible and reaffirmed $atholic teachings and

(cripture Re:ected *uther's . sacraments and reaffirmed E

sacramentsReormed !hurch =buses: Indulgences should no longer be sold

in e+change for financial contributions (imony is forbidden The

council instructed bishops to live in the dioceses they servedReasserted 7raditional Practices: $ouncil reaffirmed the

veneration of relics and images as valid e+pressions of $hristian

piety It confirmed ;ulgate as the authoritative $atholic edition ofthe /ible It decreed that *atin continue to be the language of

worship Resisted /imiting Paal =uthority: The council ruled that no act

of a council could be valid unless accepted by the oly (ee It

preserved the papacy as the center of catholic unity

o 7he 5esuits

Ignatius /oyola was a (panish soldier who e+perienced a

religious conversion and resolved to become a soldier of $hrist anddedicate his life to fighting for the Pope and $atholic $hurch

Wrote The S%iritual )*ercises 4 detailing a system of disciplined

meditation, prayer, and study"ociety o 5esus:

*ed by *oyola, the %esuits were a spiritual army that

emphasized iron discipline and absolute obedience =ctivities o the 5esuits:

!atholic ducation: %esuits founded hundreds of schools

for middle and upper class boys Prominent as confessors

and advisors to royal families

&issionary Cor: Cey role in preaching $hristianity in the

!mericas and !sia

!ombating Protestantism: (pearheaded the revival of

$atholicism in /avaria, the southern #etherlands, and

Polando 8aro+ue =rt

Purose:

• Painters, sculptors, and architects tried to spea) to the

faithful by creating dramatic wor)s of art that involvedworshippers

!haracteristics:• 6ramatic use of light and dar) 4 Tenebrism

• 6ramatic moments

• "veryday people who aren't idolized

• "+ Gentileschi 4 Judith Slaying Holofernes

Bloration


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• Portugal

o Prince ,enry the 'avigator:

Frganized voyages along the west coast of !frica and established

trading posts along the west coast of !frica, which thrived in the

business of gold and slaveso 8artholomeC #ia0:

(ailed around $ape of Good ope at the tip of !frica

o Vasco de Gama:

Reached the coast of India and returned to Portugal with cargo of

pepper and cinnamon

• "ain

o !hristoher !olumbus:

6iscovered $aribbean islands and propelled (pain to the front of

"uropean e+ploration

o ,ernando !ortes:

$on3uered !ztec empire in &e+ico

o $rancisco Pi00aro:

$on3uered Inca empire

o The (panish set out to establish haciendas or plantations to e+ploit

agricultural and mineral riches of the land

o ncomienda "ystem: Indigenous people forced to wor) under a system

of forced labor

#eveloment o &onarchial "tates

• !haracteristics o 'eC 'ation "tates:

- GroCing 8ureaucrati0ationa (alaried officials began to depend on the monarchy for

their livelihood In 9rance, the Intendant system was

established which employed individuals to collect ta+es on

behalf of the monarch. Bistence o a Permanent &onarchy

a "ngland did not establish a permanent army until

parliament was in full control, but other countries saw therising cost of warfare and invested in horsemen and

gunpowder0 GroCing 'eed to 7aB

a &onarchs needed to ta+ to pay for their permanent armies

although this was becoming impossible due to the Price

Revolution and the increased cost of managing acentralized state

Italy


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• 7reaty o /odi: $reated an alliance between &ilan and #aples and

included the support of 9lorence

• /udovico il &oro: /ecame a despot for &ilan and initiated hostilities

within #aples and the @ years later invited 9rance to Italy to satisfy their

long?lasting claims to #apleso !harles VIII arrived to Italy after "avonarola :ust led the

9lorentine population in a rebellion against the &edici amily andestablished a puritanical state

o This religious and political transformation of the city mar)ed the

end of 9lorence's leading role in the Renaissance

o The &edici family eventually burned (avonarola with the help of

the papacy

• The collapse of the Italian independence was the historical conte+t The

Prince was written in

ngland

• 7udors

o 4ar o the Roses: (eries of civil wars to determine which aristocratic

faction, 8or) or *ancaster, would dominate the monarchy

The *ancastrian family, ,enry 7udor (,enry VII), won

central authority

o ,enry VIII came into control ne+t and separated from the $atholic

$hurch

o Dueen li0abeth7

"ducated in Italian humanist program of classical settings

Virgin Dueen: was the title she was given because she didn't

regard marriage as compatible with her title

o !atholic &ary "tuart was the ruler of (cotland and an heir to the

"nglish throne

o 7reaty o 8erCic: "lizabeth enters into an alliance with (cotland,

recognizes %ames as an heir to the "nglish throne

"ain

&arriage o Isabella and $erdinand was the final stage of (econ+uista,

when the armies con3uered the last independent Islamic outpost in (paino Isabella and 9erdinand begand to demand religious uniformity in their

lands and formally e+pel the %ews

o %ews and &oors that converted so they could remain were hounded by

the "anish In+uisition 4 an effective method that the (panish

monarchy used to remove suspected Protestants


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!harles V gave the eastern, protestant apsburg lands that included !ustria,

/ohemia, and ungary to 9erdinand, while his son Phili, received the more

valuable territories of (pain and its holdings in the #ew World

8attle o /eanto (1


11/44

!chieved its goal of wea)ening the apsburgs and )eeping the

R" wea) and divided

merged as the strongest oCer in uroe*

$rance

• $rench 4ars o Religion (1


12/44

o !lso, abolished internal tariffs and created $ive Great $arms large,

custom free regions

o *ouis was able to control trading posts in India, slave?trading centers on

the west coast of !frica, and several islands of the $aribbean

o 7he $rench ast India !omany was organized by $olbert to compete

with the 6utch, which succeed for a small amount of time *ouis BI; revoed the dict o 'antes (“>ne ing% one laC% one aith”) in an

act to create religious unity within 9rance and began to demolish uguenot

churches and schools and too) their civil rights dict o $ontainebleau

o The flee of uguenots from 9rance to other countries, aided the .

countries at war with them

nglish Revolution

• 5ames VI o "cotland 4 inherited the throne once "lizabeth died childless and

was ill suited for the :ob and became 5ames I o ngland ("tuart)*

• ngland-s tCo house system7

o ,ouse o !ommons and ,ouse o /ords

Which %ames ;I summoned to raise additional revenue

• %ames ;I was eventually removed because of being an accused closet $atholic

which didn't satisfy the Puritans 1"nglish $alvinists2

•

!harles I ("tuart) received the throne and believed that the !nglican $hurch provided the greatest stability

o =rminius was a 6utch theologian of the early -Eth century who argued in

favor of free will as opposed to predestination

o 4illiam /aud =rchbisho o !anterbury

o Implemented 7onnage and Poundage: fi+ed ta+ on imported wine

o $ontinually as)ed for money from Parliament and the members who did

not agree were thrown in :ail

$aused the signing of the Petition o Rights 4 provisions included

that a )ing could not demand a loan without the consent of

Parliament and Parliament must be called freely Prohibited

imprisonment of individuals without cause and the housing ofsoldiers in homes without the owner's permission Futlawed

martial law

o $harles I didn't call Parliament for many years because of their demands7

!nyone suspected of propery 1practicing $atholicism2 would be a

capital enemy of the state

!ny of the Cing's advisors that recommend raising money without

Parliament would be capital enemies


13/44

!nyone who continues to pay tonnage and poundage would betray

the


14/44

=ct o Jnion (1??): political reunification of (cotland and

"ngland forming Great /ritain

7he 'etherlands

6ue to the geographical location and large marine fleet, the #etherlands becamethe center for trade

o Provided a connecting between raw material producers and the rest of

"urope through the /altic (ea

8an o =msterdam: issued its own currency and increased the amount of

available capital, while also ma)ing it the center for ban)ing in "urope

#utch ast India !omany: gave rise to .oint3stoc companies and allowed

profits to be shared among individuals

#utch Golden =ge

o igh standard of living and had a tolerant attitudes to %ews and

!nabaptists

,ouse o >range: eld e+ecutive power and held the title of stadholder , an

office with primarily military function

5an Vermeer: composed scenes of everyday life

Rembrandt: influenced by high /aro3ue such as The Night Watch

vents /eading to the "cientiic Revolution and the "cientiic Revolution

- 6iscovery of the #ew World

a (par)ed interest in navigation and astronomy. Invention of the Printing Press

0 Rivalry of #ation?(tatesa Placed increasing importance on technology@ Reformation

Renaissance umanism

a umanist interest e+tended to classical scientific te+ts

• "cholasticism: (ynthesis of $hristian theology with scientific beliefs of the

ancient authors

o =+uinas too) the words of !ristotle and combined them with the church

• Ptolemy: The geometric or Ptolemaic placed the "arth at the center of the

universe

• !oernican Revolution:

o Wrote Concernin# the (evolutions of the Celestial S%hereso (uggested heliocentric theory where the sun is the center of the universe

• Galileo:

o Wrote Dialo#ues on the To Chief System of the /orld

o 6esigned his own telescope to view the planets and stars

• "ir Isaac 'eCton

o Wrote Princi%ia


15/44

o Proposed the laws of gravity, showed white light was a mi+ture of colors,

and the father of calculus

$rancis 8acon• The Advancement of earning 1-JH2

• Novum Organum 1-J.H2

• Ne! Atlantis 1-J.E2

• e believed that evidence from nature is more reliable than tradition

• Inductive reasoning a)a empiricism 1specific general2

Rene #escartes

• Discourse on Method 1-JE027 reduced nature into &I#6 and &!TT"R

• e believed that the past was so suffocating that all must be doubted 1similar to

/acon2

•

6eductive reasoning a)a Rationalism 1general

specific2

/oth inductive and deductive reasoning proved to be complementary parts of a

systematic and logical way of see)ing the truth7 scientific method

8laise Pascal

• e wanted to balance the dogmatic thin)ing of %esuits with religious

s)eptics

• is life's attempt to find this balance is )nown as Pascal's Wager

7homas ,obbes

• eviathan

o Futlined that life without government D nasty, brutish, and short

o !ll men were born wic)ed and selfish

• e believed in the necessity of absolutism

5ohn /oce

• T!o Treatises on "overnment

• #ssay on Human $nderstanding % at birth, mind is ta&ula rasa D blan)

slate

• e believed that man is born free in nature

• When men enter a social contract with the state, he doesn't give up rights

1life, liberty, and property2

• #o slavery

• Women D men

Immanuel @ant

• 'ritique of (ure )eason 1-EK-2 4 argued against the idea that all

)nowledge was empirical

• e thought the "nlightenment was that it was necessary for individuals to

cast off those ideas of the past that had been accepted simply because of


16/44

tradition5intellectual laziness and instead use one's reason to probe for

answers to 3uestions on the nature of man)ind

• The ultimate reward was freedomL

%hiloso%hes D "nlightened 9rench thin)ers 1not :ust 9rench, but mostly2o &a:ority of their discussion groups were at salons organized by wealthy

women

o Together, they formed the


17/44


18/44

o $rederic II (the Great) 1Prussia2

"stablished intellectual centers

!bolished serfdom 1e+cept serfs living on private 1%un)er's2

estates2 "nded capital punishment and limited the use of corporal

punishment on serfs!hronological >rder o Prussian Rulers

6evastated after Thirty 8ears war

Gained some territory due to Peace of Westphalia

Relatively poor agricultural land and labor shortages led to serfdom

o Prussian nobility, a)a %un)ers, ensured control over serfs

$rederic 4illiam aa Great lector

o &ade agreement with %un)ers so he could have enough money to build an

army7 %un)ers provide him with revenue and he will agree to their control

over the serfso e left his son 9rederic) III 1Cing 9rederic) I2 an e+cellent army

$rederic II aa the Great

o Refer to enlightened despots section O

&aria 7heresa

o Pushed a series of reforms that removed some hardships that were placed

on the serfs

5oseh II (&aria 7heresa-s son)

o see enlightened despots section for details O

/eoold II (5oseh II-s brother)

o /ac)ed away from %oseph's enlightened policies in order to put an end to

a series of aristocratic and peasant revolts

4ar o the =ustrian "uccession (1?9 1?9)

• /egan with R" $harles ;I because he lac)ed a male heir

• Pushed other "uropean states to accept the Pragmatic "anction, which allowed a

female to succeed to the throne of !ustria and control assorted absburg lands

• 6ied without son, so his daughter &aria Theresa came to throne

• 9rance and Prussia had


19/44

This conflict became a general "uropean war between !ustria, Russia, (weden,

6enmar), and Great /ritain 1feared 9rench e+pansion in !ustrian #etherlands2 vsPrussia, 9rance, and (pain In the end7

7reaty o =iB3la3!haelle

• !ustrian throne was safe and reserved for the apsburgs

#ilomatic Revolution• &aria wor)ed out an alliance with 9rance 1only if 9rance

got !ustrian #etherlands2 6espite their recent hostile

relationship, 9rance was increasingly wary of the growing

of Prussian power (weden and Russia also :oined thisalliance

• Great /ritain had bro)en away from !ustria and became

allies with Prussia /ritain did not contribute to war as

much but rather aided Prussia financially Their main focuswas winning the 9rench and Indian War 19rench colonies in

India and $anada were confiscated2

The 6iplomatic Revolution led to the "even Eears 4ar, which started when

9rederic) attac)ed in order to put down his enemies 3uic)ly before they had a

plan to defeat Prussia This I#ITI!**8 paid off 1defeated 9rench !#6 !ustrianarmy2 but it bac)fired when the Russian army arrived and too) /erlin 1RIP2 Peter

III of Russia showed mercy and did not completely destroy Prussia

• (o 9rederic) was the winner of "urope, and /ritain was the winner of the 9rench

and Indian WarRussia

Ivan the 7errible

o When he died Russia entered the


20/44

• Then the pope died and was replaced by Pope /enedict BI; in -E@H

$harles III too) this opportunity to put forth his belief7 $hurch should

have #F authority in his )ingdom

• &ade agreement with new pope to ta+ church officials and hold them

e3ual under law

Poland• !lways vulnerable to attac)s because no natural borders

• 9IR(T partition 1-EE.27

o Russia, Prussia, !ustria forced Poland to give up 0H of

territoryQRIP

o Poland 3uic)ly made the Polish?*ithuanian parliament and

produced "urope's first written constitution #ever fully

implemented

• ("$F#6 partition 1-EN027

o Russia and Prussia wanted to remove constitution

o &ore land lostQRIP RIP

o Polish revolt of -EN@ under Coscuisz)oQwas ta)en prisoner

• TIR6 partition 1-EN27

o Poland was wiped off the mapQRIP RIP RIP

o Fnly be revived after WWI

$rance

• Papal decree attac)ed the %ansenists, a $atholic sect that help beliefs on

predestination that were similar to $alvinism

• (arlements 4 law courts primarily made up of nobles who had the

prerogative right of registering royal edicts before they could be enforced

• /ouis V wanted to support the decree but was bloc)ed by the parlement0

• 6uring *ouis B;'s reign, there were financial troubles because of the

(even 8ears War $ouldn't reform because parlement was in the way

again

• In frustration, he abolished them, but *ouis B;I brought them bac) to win

the favor of the nobility

7, $R'!, RV>/J7I>'

- -EKN 4 !ncien Regime

. $onstitutional &onarchy

0 Girondins

@ %acobins 6irectory

J $onsulate

E #apoleonic "mpire

8eore


21/44

• *ouis B;I D )ind but stupid

• !lso had a vv problematic wife, &arie !ntoinette

• !gain, financial issues due to war

• /ac) in the -Eth $, the nobility had been granted freedom from most ta+ation

*ouis B;I now had to convince them to give that up

states General• 9irst "state7 clergy

• (econd "state7 nobles

• Third "state7 everyone else

!bbe (ieyes wrote a famous pamphlet defending the Third "state and how it

should get more credit

• $ahiers D grievances 1to the Cing2

7ennis !ourt >ath in 1?H

• 9irst and second estates assumed that each estate would receive one vote, ma)ing

the third estate always lose• Third estate wanted a meeting where all three estates met together

• Cing refused, and so they promised to continue to meet until the constitution of

the )ingdom is established and consolidated upon solid foundations

8GI''I'G >$ $R'!, RV>/J7I>'

"torming o the 8astille

• People thought that the Cing didn't care about them and that he was

organizing troops to reestablish royal absolutism, so they panic)ed and

gathered weapons to defend themselves from the royal troops

• KH,HHH people demanded the surrender of the /astille fortress so they

could confiscate the arms they thought were inside Their anger was fueled

by the price inflation of bread

• The mob freed prisoners and stole the /astille's gunpowder and weapons

• *ouis made the $ommune of Paris and created a #ational Guard under

*afayette

Great $ear

• &ore nasty rumors heavy ta+ation poor harvests D fearful peasantry

• This panic was called the Great 9ear

• The peasants thought the nobility were using the increasingly anarchicalsituation to steal from the peasants

• Thus, the peasants attac)ed some of the noble estates and burned

documents that verified some of their old manorial obligations

• In !ugust @, -EKN, #ational !ssembly realized the only way to stop this

madness was to renounce their feudal rights Peasants D free

• In Fctober -EKN, women's bread march


22/44

!onstitutional &onarchy

• /aayette K 5eerson D Declaration of the )ights of Man and 'iti+en

o This declared that all men were lyme de Gouges D The )ights of Womeno Women should have rights as well, li)e to be educated, to control their

own property, and to initiate divorce

o Was successful and women gained some rights, but later they were ta)en

away during the 6irectory and #apoleon's reign

o Women did #FT gain right to vote or hold political office, however

RIP L the !hurch

o $onfiscated $hurch's property

o $onstitutional static of $atholic $hurch needed to be altered

o Cing signed the $ivil $onstitution of the $hurch, made the $hurch a

department of the stateo $lergy D civil servants paid by state, clergy had to swear an oath of loyalty

to 9rench state

o Pope Pius ;I was li)e /8" and denounced the $ivil $onstitution !#6

the Declaration of the )ights of Man and 'iti+en

nd o &onarchy

Girondins

• Wanted 9rance to go to war so that it could discredit

the monarchy and diffuse revolutionary ideas

elsewhere

5acobins

• Wanted to overthrow monarchy and create arepublic

• &arat, 6anton, Robespierre

• Gained support of sans1culottes because they were

not antagonistic towards lower classes

San0culottes 4 laboring poor of Paris because men wore trousers instead of )nee breeches

of the aristocracy and middle class

#ue o 8runsCic promised to destroy Paris if the royal family was harmed/ouis VI was guillotined in -EN0

7he Reign o 7error (1?H;)

• Inspired by the counter?revolutionary revolt that

began in &arc in a western region of 9rance )nownas the ;endee

• *ed by Robespierre, $ommittee of Public (afety

e+ercised dictatorial power

o "+ecuted the 3ueen, his rivals, and

thousands of other


23/44

o $harlotte $orday 1Girondin sympathizer2

)illed &arat 1hero of sans1culottes2

• *azare $arnot 4 drafted entire population for

military service 2levee en masse3

o !rmy D successful because they were

actually motivated as opposed to the welltrained but unmotivated !ustrians and

Prussians

o 6efeated 9rist $oalition

7hermidorian Reaction

o Revolt against Robespierre becauseQ

o Robespierre continued to pursue his dream

of creating a Republic of ;irtue

o The #ational $onvention feared for their

lives and :ust wanted peace, so they

e+ecuted Robespierre

o is death D end of radical phase of 9rench

Revolution7he #irectory (1?H< 1?HH)

• Thermidorians abolished $ommittee of Public (afety

• #ew constitution D . house legislature7 $ouncil of the !ncients and

$ouncil of 9ive undred

• 6irectory consisted on rich bourgeoisie, so it was corrupt and unpopular

• Public discontent continued to rise and the 6irectory failed to deal with

inflation, food shortages, and corruption

• 9I#!**8, #apoleon /onaparte overthrew the 6irectory and seized

power'aoleon

$irst !onsul M held all power and made all decisionsM defeated (econd

$oalition

Popularity rose

!oncordat o 11 4 $atholicism was the religion of the great ma:ority of

the 9rench 1still tolerant to others though2 Pope Pius ;II was happy and

recognized the 9rench government

'aoleonic !ode 1-KH@2 4 guaranteed e3uality before the law, freedom of

religion, abolition of privilege, and protection of property rights

o Increased authority of husbands within family Women couldn't

buy5sell property without consent of male

• $ensored press and suppressed all political opposition 1loss of liberty for

people2

• -KH@ 4 made himself emperor

=s emerorN


24/44

• 9rance was at peace with /ritain because Treaty of !miens, but still wanted to

limit their influence

• Third $oalition D !ustria Prussia /ritain

• 6efeated !ustria at /attle of !usterlitz

• !bolished R" and created $onfederacy of the Rhine

• Prussians had previously was at peace with 9rance, but when they saw their

e+pansion and control over German territories, they :oined the Third $oalition

• In response, #apoleon defeated Prussians at /attle of %ena

• "stablished !ontinental "ystem in an attempt to ban /ritish goods from arriving

on the continent

#eeat o 'aoleon

Reasons: peninsula war in (pain, growing nationalism in 9rench occupied

"urope, and the -K-. invasion of Russia

"P=I'

o !s 9rench were on their way to defeat Portugal, they had to pass through

(pain 1ally of /ritain2#apoleon decided to occupy (pain as wello (pain rose to e+pel the 9rench, and #apoleon was forced to leave 0H,HHH

troops behind

o (panish used guerilla warfare

GR>4I'G '=7I>'=/I"&

o German states really wanted to unify

o In Prussia, /aron von (tein and $ount con ardenberg helped bring

reforms li)e ending %un)er monopoly and abolishing serfdom

RJ""I=' I'V=7I>' I' 11A

o #apoleon was warned not to constantly see) new lands to con3uer, but he

did

o Wanted to defeat Russia

o e too) his


25/44

• Poland did #FT become independent and its territories were given to

Russia

• 6id #FT want 9rance to ever dominate "urope again

• 9rance was allowed to hold onto all territorial gains made prior to

-EN.

• They also created a series of states that would serve as a barrier tofuture 9rench e+pansion

• Cingdom of #etherlands was created 16utch !ustrian #etherlands2

• Prussia got Rhine River Territory

• Piedmont got Genoa

!onservatism

• "dmund /ur)e 4 )eflections on the )evolution in 4rance

o Tradition was the only trustworthy guide to social5political action

o Fpposed innovation and reform 1loo) at what happened during the 9renchRevolutionQ it was chaos2

• &aistre's 4 #ssay on the "eneral (rinciple of (olitical 'onstitutions

o $hurch D foundation of society because all political authority stemmed

from God'ationalism

• Grimm brothers recorded old German fold tales to reveal traditional

German national spirit

/iberalism

• Tas) of government was to promote individual's natural rights

• *oc)e and (mith D fathers

• 6avid Ricardo 4


26/44

Psychological (ocialism 4 $harles 9ourier 1created

blueprint for smaller and more sufficient communities2

Industrial (ocialism 4 Robert Fwen

o /uilt #ew *anar) and #ew armony 1industrial

communities Wor)ers housed nicely, children got

educationOReormO

$rance

• %uly Frdinances 4 roo) away right to vote from upper bourgeoisieM rigid

censorship

• %uly Revolution 1-K0H2 4 spar)ed revolutions around "uropeM overthrow $harles

B, shifted from one monarchy to anotherM ended with crowning of *ouis Philippe

• %uly &onarchy ? came to e+istence when *ouis Philippe was crowned

"ain

• Cing 9erdinand ;II restored F#*8 if he could honor the constitution drawn by

$ortes 1(panish parliament2 e said ofc

• e immediately dissolved $ortes and he began a rebellion and sent armies down

to (outh !merica to put down rebellions against the (panish

Italy

• Cing 9erdinand of #aples promised to rule as constitutional monarchy, but

life

• (ecret nationalistic societies li)e the $arbonari formed to oppose the

monarch and they revolted

• &etternich wanted to stop revolt and called !ustria, Prussia and Russia

$reated the Troppau Protocol7 "uropean powers had right to intervene inrevolutionary situations

Greece• /ritain, 9rance, Russia helped the Gree)s and Russians attac)ed Fttomans

•


27/44

• Poor *aw of -K0@ 4 forced the destitute to enter into wor)houses where

conditions were purposefully miserable to discourage people from see)ing

assistance

• 9actory !ct of -K00 4 reduced number of hours children could wor) in factorsM

established ade3uate wor)ing conditions

• $orn *aws 4 imposed high tariffs on imported grain to support domestic growersGR=7 R$>R& 8I//":

• -K0. 4 allowed more men to vote and too) problems away from small districts

• -KJE 4 e+tended to suffrage to most of /ritain's wor)ers

• -KK@ 4 granted voting rights to men in different social classes and primary

education for everyone

Revolutions o 19

• $aused by urban wor)ers see)ing improved conditions

• Irish potato famine

$rance

•*ouis Philippe of 9rance's chief minister Guizot believed that everyone whoresented their lac) of political rights should :ust get rich

o &ore censorship

o /anned political meetings

• e was forced fled to "ngland due to all the revoltsM he forced resignation of

Guizot

• *ouis /lanc and his supporters set up national wor)shops to prove :obs for

unemployed

• %une 6ays D termination of wor)shopsM violent struggle in streets of Paris

German "tates

• 9ran)furt Parliament 4 Tried to unite Germany during -K@K revolutions and

failed

!hartism 4 belief that problems of wor)ing class could be corrected by changes in

political organization of countryPeole-s !harter o 1;

- Universal male suffrage

. (ecret ballot0 !bolitions of property re3uirements for members of Parliament

@ Payment to members of Parliament

"3ual electoral districts

J !nnual parliaments with yearly elections

In the end, only five of the si+ acts of the $harter were established parts of the

/ritish $onstitution 1annual parliaments didn't pass2

Great /ritain $hartist &ovement7


28/44

• -K@K was a pea) year of !hartism 3 belief that probs of wor)ing class could be

fi+ed by changes in the political organization of the country The People's

$harter of -K0K was proposed to be debated at the house of commons in -K@K,includes universal adult?male suffrage, anon ballots, and more support for e3ual

representation in prlmnt This stemmed from the belief that the current prlmnt

wasn't meeting their needs sufficiently• Tensions were very high during -K@K and there was fear of a revolution by the

chartists The charter eventually passed and in the early .Hth century, most of the

clauses were added to the /ritish $onstitution

Industrial Revolution7

• (aid to begin in -EJH when people started developing factory and localizing labor

This ended things li)e domestic labor and the cottage industry The real industrial

revolution occurred in the -KHHs as a whole Great /ritain was leading the way inindustrialization

o 9actors contributing to Industrial Rev7

!fter the Glorious Revolution of -JKK, a time of great stability was

ushered in $omparatively much more religious toleration 1e+ception7

#etherlands2 "+panding population due to improved diet5hygiene This also

created more1especially low?wage2 laborers and more consumers,

simply amping up the economy "econd =gricultural Revolution o 1th !7 $rop Rotation,

"nclosures 1privatized and economized farming2, and (elective

breeding all began *ow countries also led the way in this withthings li)e di)es, advanced draining techni3ues, varied crops, and

e+tensive use of manure

There was also an incentive in the *ow $ountries because therewas a high population density, so more people needed to be

provided for There were also more educated people bc in the -Eth

$, the golden age for them started and they had the ban)ing 5commerce industry, shipbuilding industry, and maritime trade

In Great /ritain7 %ethro Tull created the seed drill to efficacies

agriculture, devices li)e flying shuttle and spinning :enny1cloth

and thread production respectively2 sped up labor, transortation

was great bc rivers were everywhere and an e+tensive road systemwas built, and there was abundant coal and iron %ames Watt

invented the steam engine allowing factories to be built away from

rivers 1earlier they would use water power2 #ote all this prosperity came with the price of slavery and

colonization, with reliance on cotton imports, a ma:or material in

this time period "econd Industrial Revolution: $aused by the vast capabilities of

steam and iron /egun with the advent of railroads, whichincreased production, speed, efficiency, and therefore capital gains


29/44

/essemer's Process for creating steel, (iemens' method of ma)ing

steel, "dison's incandescent lamp, electrical power stations, lightafter dar), electric tramways, more opera houses and theaters

7ransortation: "urope's Rail networ) grew, in -KJN, 9rench

built (uez $anal 1G/ too) it in -KE2, (teamships, ice?ma)ing

machines were used to transport perishables many places,increasing trade, /enz invented internal combustion engine powered by Gasoline, Wright brothers invent flight

$ommunication and "ducation7 G/ established national postal

system, universal public education systems developed, -K@@ first

telegraph line was completed, -KEJ /ell invented the telephone

&otion pictures first shown in -KNHs (cientific7 (ynthetic dyes, the #obel prize, T#T, &endeleev

developed periodic table, Planc) created 3uantum physics, 9reud's

Psychoanalysis, &orton began use of !nesthesia, *ouis Pasteurdiscovered microbes, and washing was discovered to prevent

disease $harle's 6arwin's


30/44

• "ocialism and &arB: &ar+ and "ngels wrote the $ommunist &anifesto, which

stated that all struggles of man are caused by class and capitalism In 6as Capital,

&ar+ wrote about the abuses of capitalism towards the proletariat Will add st simon and 9ourier later, also will tal) about

international, &ar+'s socialist organization which dissolved in .

yrso (ocial $lasses7

*ater, since the 9rench revolution created a concept of meritocracy,

birth privileges were eliminated there In G/, noble families whose wealth was based on large amounts of

land declined since refrigerated goods 1agricultural products2 came

much cheaper from !merica, !rgentina, and !ustralia 6uring this time, the middle class was e+tremely prosperous and

lived in lu+ury The ;ictorian period resulted in the end of things li)e animal fights

due t the prudish morality, but also a lessening of opportunities for

women regarding wor) and education The end of the ;ictorian period brought more feminist changes in G/, 9rance, and U(

$rimean War 1-K@?-KJ2 G/, 9rance, Fttoman "mpire, (ardinia ; !ustria, Russia

• $aused by controversy over which nation would inherit the holy lands of Fttoman

"mpire !lso caused by Great /ritain's fear over the balance of power tipping inRussia's favor

• Fttoman's lost a naval battle against Russia after declaring war on Russia 1id)

why yet2

• Then 9rance and Great /ritain declared war on Russia &ost people did not die of

battle wounds but rather disease

• 9lorence #ightingale was inspired by this to revolutionize the nursing profession

• Russia withdrew after the fall of (evastopol 1remember because topple2 and also because !ustria threatened to wage war if Russia did not agree to peace

• (!R6I#I! "#T"R"6 %U(T TF G"T F# #!P III'( GFF6 (I6"

Results

o Russia ended up not having any warm water ports and was effectively

capped

o Russia was forced to give up any ports along 6anube

o $oncert of "urope, Idea that "uropean nations should wor) together

spawned at the congress of ;ienna was shattered This led to /ritain

having a policy of isolationism

o Inspired Italian Unification

Italian Unification• /efore -KH, =ustria mainly controlled Italy, 6irectly ruling *ombardy and

;enetia The absburgs ruled Tuscany and &odena Poe had the Paal "tates,supported by good relations with !ustria 9rench /ourbons had Cingdom of the

Two (icilies

• -K0H #ationalist uprising 3uelled by !ustria, discredited secret societies that had

started the revolts, because they seen as unsuccessful


31/44

• Giusee &a00ini 3 (trong nationalist, who wor)ed under )ing ;ictor "mmanuel

I 1r-K@N?-KEK2 of Piedmont?(ardinia, began Risorgimento, &ovement to unite

Italy into one

Eoung Italy

o Frganization he started to form one free, independent, republican Italy

o &embers had to swear loyalty to creating the )ind of Italy &azzini had inmind

o -K@K #ationalist rebellions seemed to succeed but were eventually

suppressed

• (tarted in (icily and moved north so rulers granted constitutions to their own state

1liberal, but still not unified2

• *ombardy and ;enetia rebelled against !ustria, led by $harles !lbert, the Cing of

Piedmont in a


32/44

#apoleon made a separate peace with !ustria

Realized that defeating !ustria could be long and costly

Prussia was mobilizing to help !ustria, and 9rance did not want to

fight !ustria !#6 Prussia, so Piedmont got *ombardy and$avour was mad at #apoleon

•

#ationalists seized control in Parma, &odena, and part of the Papal states• eld plebiscites 1vote to as) the people what they want2, and the people voted to

:oin Piedmont #apoleon agreed to the anne+ation in e+change for #ice and

(avoy, meaning northern Italy is united

• Giusee Garibaldi3 Italian patriot who supported &azzini and republicans

;ery military, sword of revolution $avour was afraid of him and his influence,and wanted him out of the wayM sent him to southern Italy 1(icily2 to help the

revolutionaries there against the /ourbons $ontrol spread through (icily, and

then #aples, and then continued north en route to Rome $avour did not want him

to ta)e Rome, e was afraid the 9rench would get involved to help the pope$avour also did not want democratic republicanism (o $avour sent the Piedmont

army to stop Garibaldi in #aples Garibaldi didn't fight bac)• Plebiscites in the Cingdom of Two (icilies, Papal (tates, and #aples, and the

people voted to :oin Piedmont > Cingdom of Italy was proclaimed in -KJ- under

Cing ;ictor "mmanuel II

• Problems? ;enetia is still ruled by !ustria, and Rome is under 9rench protection

-KJJ !ustro?Prussian War

• Italy was bac)ed by Prussia

• !ustrians defeated the Italian army, but Prussia defeated !ustria and gave

;enetia to Italy• 9ranco?Prussian War7 withdrawal of 9rench troops from Rome and the Italian

army anne+ed Rome• Pope was v angry about the unification and efforts to reconcile did not succeed

• Problems after the unification

o #orth was more developed and wealthier than the south, therefore more

literate with a more productive economy as well as middle class &anyleft Italy


33/44

German Unification7

• Rooted in #apoleonic "ra7 domination of large parts of Germany increased

demand for unified state and reduced amount of independent German states,

aiding in the process

• Prussia too) advantage over !ustria because it was in the ollverein while !ustria

was specifically e+cluded Prussia was the most industrialized in "urope Prussia

also had

Ftto ;on /ismarc) o Prime &inister to William I 1r -KJ-?-KKK2, originally a %un)er 1Prussian

noble2

o Plan to uniy Germany7 - &a)e Prussia better at fiting . 9ite 6enmar)

w5 !ustria 0 9ite !ustria w5 Italy !nne+ northern states @ 9ite 9rance !nne+ more places and call it Germany

1* Improve Prussian &ilitary ?

- William I wanted more military spending, parliament refused, he enlisted/ismarc) who collected ta+es and improved the military anyway by

modernizing the army with new weapons

. /ismarc) delivered his


34/44

- Prussia secured alliance w5 Italy who wanted to remove !ustria bc unity

/ismarc) secured a promise of non?participation from 9rance

. Prussia then declared war on !ustria, citing dispute over governance ofolstein

0 Prussia was e+tremely powerful and easily defeated !ustria, but remained

diplomatic w5 !ustria to prevent involvement in the 9ranco Prussian War@ !fter defeating !ustria, /ismarc) anne+ed small northern German states

allied with !ustria during the conflict

b* 9ranco?Prussian War 1-KEH2- ! )insman of a Prussian )ing 1ohenzollern2 was going to ta)e vacant

throne of (pain, but #ap III said no because balance of power, demanding

an apology (o William I said srry, but /ismarc) rewrote the message,

)nown as the


35/44

• #ap III made many concessions to his tyrannical regime7 eased censorship

1wanted to ma)e people stop hating him but now they had a vehicle to spread

their hate about him more2, in -KN he declared a constitutional monarchy• he might have later changed those but I'll do research on that laterX

• 9ollowing the collapse of the (econd "mpire, the Third 9rench Republic 1-KEH?

-N@H2 was soon created The republic had to stop a revolt in Paris, which resultedfrom the rise of the Paris $ommune /y -KE it was firmly established with a .?

house legislature and a wea) monarch

• /oulanger affair ? General /oulanger was gaining popularity in his radicalist

ideas of destroying the government so the government made him mysteriouslydisappear, lessened the trust of the gov by the people

Great /ritain

• Great "+hibition of -K- ? showed off industrialization and s)ill in the !rystal

Palace

• G/ had a very great time of peace and prosperity in -KHHs

•

Politically, the nation was becoming more democratico Great Reform /ill of -K0. ? e+panded the size of the "nglish electorate

o Poor *aw of -K0@ ?provided public relief for the destitute and

unemployed, but it was nasty and unethical in some ways

o In -KJE, /en:amin 6israeli too) office and was very democratic

o (econd Reform /ill ? "+tended voting privileges to urban heads of

households, later given to rural heads of households as well

o The monarch 1in this case A ;ictoria2's power decreased continuously

with the increased polarization and control of two main political parties

Russia

!le+ander II

o !bolished serfdom in -KJ-, but life still remained hard if not harder forthe serfs afterwards

o $reated emstvos, which were, localized governments li)e states in

!merica today with less control $ontrolled by gentry

o Unwillingness to ma)e actually star) democratic reforms led to his

assassination in -KK- by the organization, People's Will

o (ucceeded by !le+ander III, even less democratic than his father

• &ore stuff laterYY

!ustria

• In -KJE the gov of ;ienna signed an agreement with &agyars to create !ustria?

ungary, a dual state, still under the control of the emperor, 9rancis %oseph• The &agyars hypocritically ensured that the lands within their control ie $roatia,

(erbia, Romania didn't have any control after reaching independence

• !ustria ungary attempted to ta)e more control over the /al)an regions later

Fttoman "mpire

• (ic) man of "urope


36/44

• Tried to implement a process of modernization during the reign of (ultan =bdul

&e.id 1r-K0N?-KJ-2 )nown as the 7an0imat* !ttempt to adopt Western methods

of waging wars to bring reinvigorate economy, and to introduce e3uality 5freedom of religion

• Western education responsible for forming a group of intellectuals who wanted

reform, the 8oung Tur)s They eventually were able to transform the state to aconstitutional monarchy

• When brutal (ultan =bdul ,amid II came to the throne, the constitution was

revo)ed in an attempt to sub:ugate non?&uslims is policies led to the deaths of

many !rmenians 1Precursor to !rmenian genocide occurring under 8oung Tur)safter -N-2

• !fter his reign, 8oung Tur)s restored constitutionalism

(ocial and $ultural developments

Religion

o Religious institutions and beliefs made a recovery after -K- oweverthis is mainly because rulers saw religion as a good way to pacify themasses which it was

o In -K-, (pain declared $atholicism its official religion while in !ustria,

$atholic reforms were repealed Pope Pius IB was forced to flee his city in-K@K and then was restored to power by the 9rench in -KEH e wrote that

socialism was wrong and that the pope could never be wrong in religious

matters, alarming moderate catholic population Pope *eo BIII issued a

boo) stating that the church should focus on helping the poor and so people in 9rance and Italy did

o 6avid (trauss published a boo) critically e+amining the life of %esus in

which he stated that the bible was simply a collection of mythso The wor)ing class in G/ had very little connection to religion

o %ews received full political rights in !ustria?ungary and Germany, access

to parliament in G/, yet soon after, a wave of anti?(emitism spread and in-KE0, a depression led to an increase in pre:udice

o 6reyfus !ffair helped give rise to anti?(emitic 9rench groups

o In Russia, pogroms were commonplace, and were tools for redirecting

anger

o Theodore erzel called for ionism, belief of all %ews returning to a

sacred homeland 9irst ionist $ongress held meeting in (witzerland in-KNE

Womeno $ult of domesticity lead everyone to thin) that women should only be

housewives, catering to their husband and familyo 9rancces Power $obbe was one of the first women to ma)e a living as a

:ournalist and later fought against $ontagious disease act which allowed

for women suspected of having (T6s to be inspected against their willo (uffragists were women who wanted the right to vote


37/44

o "mmeline Pan)hurst and her followers were called suffragettes and were

very militant in their pursuit to vote often using violent riots

o In -N-K women could finally vote in G/

o This was contributed to by the amount of women that were put in the

wor)place as a result of the dire need for manpower during WWI

o &aria &ontessori was a famous educator and physician who wasrenowned for her teaching strategies

o (ome men such as 6 *awrence, were upset by this and pointed that

women should be passive and now they were becoming greedy

"mergence of (ocial (ciences

o /asically, everyone was li)e anthropology, sociology, archaeology and all

that stuff was vv important so they developed further

o !lso romanticism sprung up in the late -Kth $ and was a reaction to

rationalism and enlightenment ideas

o Pages .JE?.E- are all about this new springing up of the arts and such

Imperialism

o "uropean nations


38/44

*iberia because it was a friend of the U( 1a dumpster for all their

freed slaves2

o (epoy Rebellion

/y the year -KE the /ritish had established complete political

control of India !s 4estern education was introduced and

missionaries eroded indu society resentment among Indian people grew and it was :oined by unease among the old governing

class when the /ritish decided to formally abolish the &ughal"mpire

The mutiny of the (epoy 1native troops in the /ritish army2 began

in -KE, when Indian soldiers who had refused to eat meat were

punished The Indian garrison at 6elhi :oined the mutineers and proclaimed

/ahadur (hah, the titular &ughal emperor as their leader The

capture of 6elhi turned the mutiny into a widespread revolt /ut

the leaders were not united, because they sought to revive former

indu and &uslim regimes, which traditionally had been opposedto each other

The /ritish had some advantages They did receive reinforcements

from /ritain, and they had a base in /engal, and in the Pun:ab the

(i)hs were so hostile to the &uslims that they supported the/ritish against the &ughal restoration in 6elhi

The /ritish recaptured 6elhi in the fall of -KE, further campaigns

followed the ne+t year and by the spring of -KK the /ritish wereagain in full control of India

The 7ritish 'ontrol of 8ndia resulted in some &enefits such as

elimination of the caste system, improved infrastructure and

irrigation, etc

&ore e+amples of imperialism7

• 9rance seized Indochina

• /ritain had control over ong Cong after the opium war and a lot of the $hinese

economy

• 6utch controlled Indonesia

• U( seized the Philippines after the (panish !merican War

• %apan sized Corea in -N-H after Russo %apanese War

• Russia and G/ were both fighting the


39/44

/elgium and waged a long war with 9rance Then, G/ declared war on Germany and the

Triple !lliance was formed

Germany 3uic)ly got to Paris, but soon after, 9rance retaliated and they were in a

stalemate for the ne+t 0 years Trench Warfare that occurred here was e+tremely deadly

/ritain later decided to wage war on Tur)ey who was on the side of the central powersTur)ey won at Gallipoli

In -N-E Russia became embroiled in Revolution and essentially withdrew from the war

Then !merica :oined the war because of the immerman Telegram from Germany to(pain about capturing !merica and because of Germany's unrestricted submarine warfare

1sin)ing of *usitania2

! new German government led by Prince &a+ von /aden decided to contact Pres

Wilson to sue for peace and as) for an armistice based on his -@ points

"ffects of the War7

#ations mobilized their entire economies for wartime after realizing this would ta)e a

very long time This led to increased women in the wor)force and eventually more rightsfor them This also resulted in a destitute Germany that would later be the perfect

environment for itler to come and ta)e advantage of the vacuum of power, and fear ofthe people $lemenceau and *loyd?George were the main reasons why Germany suffered

so much as a result of the Treaty of ;ersailles

The Russian Revolution

•

The Russian army was poorly e3uipped for WW-• #icholas II was an inept ruler who decided to ta)e personal command of the

army #icholas left his ignorant wife "mpress !le+andra in charge of the state

• In early -N-E, food shortages in Petrograd led to spontaneous demonstrations and

stri)es

• #icholas's troops ignored his commands to restore order, instead :oining the

stri)ers #icholas II abdicated in -N-E, ending Romanov rule

• The Provisional Government too) over, led by !le+ander Cerens)y and made up

of members of the 6uma 4 the Russian parliament that arose out of the -NH

revolution

• The Provisional Government continued the war against Germany despite

unpopular views on pursuing the war, playing a )ey role in its demise

• Wor)ers and soldiers continued to form soviets, dominated by moderate socialists

1&enshevi)s2, with a minority of the /olshevi)s, the most e+treme of the social

groups

• &enshevi)s initially supported the provisional government because they believed

that a bourgeois revolution needed to precede a socialist revolution


40/44

• ;ladimir *enin led the /olshevi)s, urging his followers to overthrow the

provisional government e wanted a small party of professional revolutionaries

to seize power on behalf of the wor)ing class

• Fn #ovember J, -N-E, the /olshevi)s occupied most government buildings

*enin proclaimed establishment of a new /olshevi) government

• Treaty of /rest?*itovs) 4 removed Russia from the warM Russia lost a 3uarter ofits "uropean territory to the Germans and a third of its population owever, thetreaty was never fully implemented by the !llies because of Germany's defeat in

the war

• !nti?communist groups 1White armies2 attempted to overthrow the /olshevi)s

1Red army2, who were led by *eon Trots)y The civil war lasted from -N-K to-N.H, and the /olshevi)s ultimately won

The German Weimar Republic

• The republic was created in #ovember -N-K, initially led by 9riedrich "bert, a

moderate (ocialist

• Reasons why it failed7 liberal democracy was foreign to the Germans who had

been ruled by the CaiserM it was wrongly blamed for the humiliating nature of the

Treaty of ;ersaillesM there were many economic problems, including huge war

reparations

• The republic faced staggering reparations payments and suffered from terrible

inflation as a result of the government's wild printing of money

• Gustav (tresemann was the $hancellor of Germany and the leader of the German

People's Party e was able to improve Germany's economy and wor) out a newagreement on reparations

• The 6awes Plan 4 provided !merican loans to Germany to help the German

economy and reduce reparation payments

•The *ocarno Pact 1*ucarno !greement2 4 Germany accepted current borders between 9rance and Germany

• The Cellogg?/riand Pact 4


41/44

• The !merican stoc) mar)et crash caused enormous financial losses

• Governments cut budgets, reduced spending, and raised ta+es on imported goods,

accelerating the downward economic spiral

• %ohn &aynard Ceynes 4 a /ritish economist who argued that governments needed

to increase their e+penditures and run temporary deficits 1


42/44

concentration camps $amps also contained


43/44

• /ritain's economic decline 4 reliance on older factories, where German plants

were rebuilt with the latest technology /ritain also lac)ed central economic

planning and had to deal with the higher wage demands of aggressive unions

• &argaret Thatcher 4 leader of the $onservative partyM /ritain's first female prime

minister er economic policies 1Thatcherism2 included tight control over the

money supply to reduce inflation, sharp cuts in public spending, and a cut inta+es

• $harles de Gaulle 4 established the 9ifth 9rench Republic in -NK is foreign

policies included granting !lgeria full independence, withdrawing 9rench military

forces from #!TF, developing 9rance's own nuclear weapons, and opposingGreat /ritain's entry into the ""$ in order to help 9rance ta)e a leading role in

"urope

• In %une -N@K, the United (tates and /ritain introduced a new currency into their

occupation zones without (oviet approval The (oviet Union cut off Western landaccess to West /erlin Truman offered full support, ordering a massive airlift of

food, fuel, and other supplies to the citizens of West /erlin The /erlin !irlift

mar)ed an important test of containment and ended in &ay -N@N, when (talinlifted the bloc)ade with no preconditions

• The U(, Great /ritain, and 9rance combined their zones and created the 9ederal

Republic of Germany 1West Germany2, and the (oviet Union responded with the

$ommunist?dominated German 6emocratic Republic 1"ast Germany2

• Chrushchev attac)ed (talin in a speech at the $ommunist's Party twentieth

national congress in -NJ e criticized (talin's government and denounced his

reign of terror

• Chrushchev's program of de?(talinization included shifting resources toward

producing more consumer goods, curbing the power of the secret police, and

granting more freedom to writers and intellectuals

• !le)sandr (olzhenitsyn published One Day in the ife of 8van Denisovich This

novel described the horrors of life in a (talinist concentration camp

• /oris Pasterna) wrote Doctor 9hivago, which celebrated the human spirit and

challenged the principles of communism

• (putni) 4 a satellite launched into orbit around the earth by the (oviet Union It

became a symbol of (oviet technological advancements and played a )ey role inthe space race between the (oviet Union and the U(

• The $uban &issile $risis 4 Chrushchev constructed nuclear missiles in $uba,

which were detected by the U( This played a )ey role in Chrushchev's ouster

from power in -NJ@ The $uban &issile $risis is also an e+ample of

brin)manship• 6Ztente 4 a period of warmer diplomatic relations between the U( and the (oviet

Union

• elsin)i !ccords 4 high point of $old War dZtente It ratified the "uropean

territorial boundaries established after WWII It set out basic human rights

provisions and inspired resistance movements in RussiaVs satellite nations


44/44

• /rezhnev 6octrine 4 the (oviet Union would support with all the means at its

disposal any established communist state in "astern "urope that was threatened

by internal strife

• Prague (pring 4 period of reform when $zechoslova)ia's capital bloomed with

new ideas as a result of the communist leader !le+ander 6ubce)'s attempt to

loosen controls on censorship The goal of Prague (pring was to bring about amore humanistic socialism with limits

• &i)hail Gorbachev 4 the new leader of the (oviet Union in -NK e introduced a

policy called glasnost 1openness2, which encouraged (oviet citizens to discuss

ways to reform their societies e also launched a program called perestroi)a1economic restructuring2 to revitalize the (oviet economy ! third policy,

demo)ratizatsiya 1democratization2, called for the election of a new legislature,

the $ongress of People's 6eputies

• ;elvet revolution 4 the peaceful overthrow of (oviet communism in

$zechoslova)ia in -NKN

european history summary of the princeton

Documents