Evolution & Natural SelectionAND

The Six Kingdoms of Life & Biological Communities

Presented by Sarah Piccorelli

Evolution

Here are some things you might need to know about evolution…

• Evolution is a process.

• Dictionary definition: growth to maturity and development of an individual living thing

• Species are thought to have descended from earlier species.

Natural Selection

Now that you have some background knowledge on evolution, we’ll move our focus to natural selection…

1. From one generation to the next, inherited traits that enabled species to survive in a given environment were preserved. Unfavorable traits were eliminated.

2. Charles Darwin is an important name to remember when you think of natural selection.

Results of Natural Selection

• Adaptation: evolutionary modification of an individual that improves that individual’s chances of survival and reproductive success in its environment…

But… What does that really mean??

From generation to generation, as the world around you changes, you change with it. In turn, you, as a class (or group of similar species living together), survive longer.

Charles Darwin & Natural Selection

1. The environment plays a crucial role in Darwin’s theory.

2. He proposed the idea of evolution by natural selection back in the 19th century and it’s still accepted today.

3. His theory of evolution by natural selection consists of four observations about the natural world.

Four Observations About the Natural World

You might want to take notes if you haven’t already started doing so…(hint. hint.)

1. High reproductive capacity

2. Heritable variation

3. Limits on population growth, or a struggle for existence

4. Differential reproductive success

High Reproductive Capacity&

Heritable Variation• Each species will produce more offspring than will reach

maturity.• Natural populations have the reproductive potential to

increase their numbers continuously over time.

• The individuals in a population exhibit variation.• Each individual has a unique combination of traits, such

as size, color, and ability to tolerate harsh environments.

Struggle for Existence&

Differential Reproductive Success• Only so much food, water, light, and growing space are available to

a population, and organisms compete with one another for the limited resources available to them.

• Not all of the offspring will survive to reproductive age because there are more individuals than the environment can support

• More factors of limited population growth? Predators and diseases.• The individuals that possess the most favorable combination of

characteristics are most likely to survive, reproduce, and pass their traits to the next generation.

• Reproduction is the key to natural selection, in that the best adapted individuals reproduce most successfully.

• New species are created when enough changes accumulate within geographically separated populations.

Kingdoms of Life• Archaea –

they live in oxygen-deficient enviornments and are adapted to harsh conditions

• Bacteria –the thousands of remaining kinds of prokaryotes

• Eukarya – classified as eukaryotes, organisms with eukaryotic cells

The Six Kingdoms

1. Animalia

2. Plantae

3. Fungi

4. Protista

5. Archaea

6. Bacteria

Biological Communities

• Vast assemblages of organisms are classified into communities.

• Community means an association of different populations of organisms that live and interact in the same place at the same time.

• Many organisms in a community are interdependent.

Interdependency

• Species compete with one another for food, water, living space, and other resources.

• Some organisms kill and eat other organisms.

• Some species form intimate associations with one another, whereas other species seem only distantly connected.

More About Communities…• In a community you’re either a producer, a

consumer, or a decomposer.• Communities vary greatly in size, lack precise

boundaries, and are rarely completely isolated.• They interact with and influence other

communities around them, even if how they do so isn’t always apparent right away.

• (example: A forest is a community, but so is a rotting log in that same forest.)

Continued…

• Organisms exist in an abiotic (nonliving) environment that is as essential to their existence as is their biotic (living) environment.

• A biological community and its abiotic environment comprise an ecosystem.

SummaryYour notes should look like:1. Evolution: Species are thought to have descended from earlier

species.2. Natural Selection: From one generation to the next, inherited

traits that enabled species to survive in a given environment were preserved. Unfavorable traits were eliminated.

3. Result of natural selection: adaptation4. Six Kingdoms : Animalia, plantae, fungi, protista,

archaea, and bacteria5. Community is a an association of different

populations of organisms that live and interact in the same place at the same time.

6. Many organisms in a community are interdependent.

Community Interactions in an Oak Forest

&Ecological Niches

Matt Maruzzi

Community Interactions in an Oak Forest

• Relationship between acorns, mice, deer, gypsy moths, and ticks

• “Bumper” crop of acorns occur every 3-4 years

• Bumper crop- Particularly productive harvest yielded for a particular crop

• Bumper crop of acorns allows the white- footed mouse population to thrive

• Mice also feed on gypsy moth pupae, which causes the trees in the forest to be healthier.

• Healthier trees attract more deer• More deer and mice causes there to be more

ticks • Ticks result in an increase in Lyme disease

The Ecological Niche

• Ecological Niche- Organism’s role in the ecosystem• Organisms in an ecosystem are believed to have an

ecological niche • Ecological niche of an organism may be bigger than it

actually is• Fundamental niche- Potential/ idealized ecological

niche of an organism• Realized niche- Lifestyle the organism actually

pursues and resources it actually uses

Green & Brown Anoles

• Green anole native to Florida

• Brown anoles introduced to Florida from Cuba outcompete green anoles

• Green anole’s niche is restricted

• Brown anole’s niche is increased

All organisms interact with one another!

Three Main Types of Interactions:

-Symbiosis

-Predation

-Competition

Competition occurs when two or more individuals attempt to use essential common resources such as food, water, shelter living space or sunlight

Competition occurs amongst individuals:

-within a certain population Intraspecific competition

-between spaces Interspecific competition

Flowering plants that live in pine forests may compete with conifers for soil nutrients and moisture.

Flowers supply nectar as a source of food for insects.

Some of these insects also prey on needle eating insects

The reduced number of needle easting insects means less impact on the conifers

Similar species have fundamental niches that overlap.

Competitive Exclusion- the notion that no two species can indefinitely occupy the same ecological niche.

Interspecific competition eventually excludes one of two species from its environmental niche.

Species can compete for necessary resources without aggressive interactions, but two species of absolutely identical niches cannot coexist.

Coexistence between species like this is only possible if the overlap is reduced.

Russian Biologist G. F. Gause conducted several experiments in which he concluded that certain conditions favored certain species. Either way, of two similar species in a mixed culture, one will eventually triumph over the other in a mixed environment.

Gause studied the interactions between two different species of the unicellular protist, Paramecium.

Both P. aurelia and P.caudatum populations develop and thrive at a certain point in their own single-species environment.

When both species are grown in a mixed environment, the P. aurelia pushes the the P.caudatum to extinction, proving the concept of competitive exclusion.

Because competition depletes limited resources and can cause extinction of some species, natural selection favors those species that avoid or reduce competition.

Resource Partitioning- the reduction in competition for environmental resources that occurs among coexisting species as a result of each species’ niche differing from those of other in one or more ways

In Central and South American rainforests, fruit-eating species such as birds, primates, and bats have overlapping niches. They collectively avoid competition through resource partitioning. Examples include: timing of feeding, nest sites, location of feeding etc.

SymbiosisSymbiosisSymbiosis is a close Symbiosis is a close relationship between relationship between two different species.two different species.Each member of the Each member of the symbiosis process is symbiosis process is called a symbiont.called a symbiont.In symbiosis each In symbiosis each symbiont may or may symbiont may or may not benefit from the not benefit from the relationship.relationship.Consists of Consists of Commesalism, Commesalism, Paratism, and Paratism, and Mutalism.Mutalism.

CoevolutionCoevolution

Coevolution is the Coevolution is the interdependent interdependent evolution of two evolution of two interacting species.interacting species.

Symbiosis is the result Symbiosis is the result of coevolution.of coevolution.

An example of An example of coevolutionary coevolutionary symbiosis is flowering a symbiosis is flowering a plant then have insects plant then have insects and other types of and other types of pollinators spread the pollinators spread the existence of the plant.existence of the plant.

MutualismMutualism

Mutualism is a symbiotic Mutualism is a symbiotic relationship in which both relationship in which both species are benefitted.species are benefitted.This is the most common This is the most common example of symbiosis.example of symbiosis.An example of mutalism is An example of mutalism is when a flower is planted when a flower is planted and pollinator comes along and pollinator comes along to feed off the pollen. The to feed off the pollen. The pollinator gets a source of pollinator gets a source of food and the plant is spread food and the plant is spread through the process.through the process.

Flowers in SymbiosisFlowers in Symbiosis

Flowers are a big part in Flowers are a big part in Symbiosis. Symbiosis.

Flowering plants has Flowering plants has actually evolved to attract actually evolved to attract pollinators which creates pollinators which creates symbiosis.symbiosis.

This helps to increase This helps to increase symbiosis and benefits symbiosis and benefits both the pollinators and both the pollinators and the plant.the plant.

Mycorrhizae!!!!!Mycorrhizae!!!!!Mycorrhizae (fungi), shows the mutualistic Mycorrhizae (fungi), shows the mutualistic relationship between the roots of plants and relationship between the roots of plants and fungi.fungi.

Mycorrhizae is a popular example of mutualism.Mycorrhizae is a popular example of mutualism.

The fungi absorbs essential nutrients and The fungi absorbs essential nutrients and minerals and provides them to the plant. In minerals and provides them to the plant. In return the plant provides it with food made return the plant provides it with food made through photosynthesis.through photosynthesis.

PicturesPictures

WHAT IS COMMENSALISMS?WHAT IS PARASITISM?

Commensalisms and Parasitism

By: Kimberly Holsborg APES per.3/4

CommensalismCommensalism

Commensalism: An association between Commensalism: An association between two different species in which one benefits two different species in which one benefits and the other is unaffected. and the other is unaffected. In ecology, commensalism is a class of In ecology, commensalism is a class of relationship between two organisms where relationship between two organisms where one organism benefits without affecting one organism benefits without affecting the other.the other.

CommensalismCommensalism

► Example: Example:

► The relationship between two kinds of The relationship between two kinds of insectsinsects: silverfish and army ants. : silverfish and army ants.

- Silverfish tend to move along in permanent Silverfish tend to move along in permanent association with marching columns of army association with marching columns of army ants and share there surplus of food with ants and share there surplus of food with their raids. The army ants derive no benefit their raids. The army ants derive no benefit or harm from the silverfish.or harm from the silverfish.

An example of An example of commensalism:commensalism:

► cattle egrets foraging in fields among cattle or other or other livestock. As cattle, livestock. As cattle, horses and other livestock graze on the field, they cause movements that stir up various insects. As the insects are stirred up, the cattle egrets following the livestock catch and feed upon them. The egrets benefit from this relationship because the livestock have helped them find their meals, while the livestock are typically unaffected by it.

CommensalismCommensalism

ExampleExample::The relationship between a tropical tree and many The relationship between a tropical tree and many

epiphytes:epiphytes: ((EpiphytesEpiphytes- smaller plants including mosses, orchids, - smaller plants including mosses, orchids,

bromeliads, and ferns that live attached to the bark of bromeliads, and ferns that live attached to the bark of trees.)trees.)

-

The epiphytes anchors itself to the tree but does not The epiphytes anchors itself to the tree but does not obtain nutrients or water directly from the tree. Its obtain nutrients or water directly from the tree. Its location on the tree allows it to obtain an adequate location on the tree allows it to obtain an adequate amount of light, water (from rainfall), and required amount of light, water (from rainfall), and required nutrients and minerals (washed out of trees from nutrients and minerals (washed out of trees from rainfall). As a result, the epiphytes benefits from the rainfall). As a result, the epiphytes benefits from the association, leaving the tree unaffected.association, leaving the tree unaffected.

Other examples:Other examples:

The most common The most common example is the example is the clownfish and the sea clownfish and the sea anemone. The anemone. The clownfish shelters clownfish shelters among the tentacles among the tentacles of the sea anemone, of the sea anemone, and the sea anemone and the sea anemone is not affected.is not affected.

Continued….Continued…. Barnacles:Barnacles: - live on whales and get to - live on whales and get to

be transported to different be transported to different areas of the ocean to feed. areas of the ocean to feed. The whales are not affected.The whales are not affected.

-Barnacles are highly -Barnacles are highly sedentary crustaceans that sedentary crustaceans that must attach themselves must attach themselves permanently to a hard permanently to a hard substrate, such as the shells substrate, such as the shells of mollusks or whales or of mollusks or whales or anything else on which they anything else on which they can gain a foothold. When can gain a foothold. When they attach to the shell of a they attach to the shell of a scallop, for instance, scallop, for instance, barnacles benefit by having a barnacles benefit by having a place to stay, leaving the place to stay, leaving the scallop presumably scallop presumably unaffected.unaffected.

A titan triggerfish creates feeding opportunities for smaller fish by moving large rocks too big for them to shift themselves.

This shows the symbiotic relationship commensalism, the bird getsfood from the back of the cow but the cow is not affected

What is Parasitism?What is Parasitism?

A symbiotic relationship in which one A symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits and the other is organism benefits and the other is adversely affected.adversely affected.

In parasitism one organism, the parasite obtains nourishment from another organism, the host.

Rarely will a parasite kill its host, but it may weaken the host.

Parasite can live outside the host, on their body or within the host.

Parasitism is a successful lifestyle, for the parasite… More than 100 parasites can be found living in or on the human species.

Many parasites do not cause disease, but…When a parasite does cause disease or

sometimes death to their host its knows as a pathogen.

Unlike predators, parasites increase their fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for their survival, e.g. food, water, heat, habitat, and transmission.

Parasites are classified based on their Parasites are classified based on their interactions with their hosts…interactions with their hosts…

Parasites that live on the Parasites that live on the surface of the host are surface of the host are called called ectoparasitesectoparasites::

Examples: mites, ticks, Examples: mites, ticks, head lice, mosquitoeshead lice, mosquitoes

This shows parasitism.  The tick gets the blood it needs to survive, but the dog is harmed by the tick transmitting disease into its blood.

Those that live inside the host are called Endoparasites which include:

parasitic worms: tape worms, flatworms, flukes

bacterium: crown gall disease (enters through wounds)

• Most humans become infected with the beef tapeworm by eating undercooked beef infested with tapeworms.

The tapeworm attaches to the wall of intestines where it rapidly grows by absorbing nutrients. (no symptoms, other then weight loss)

The mosquito takes blood from human and may inject disease which may harm the human. The mosquito gets food, but the human may become sick. (Malaria)

 Shistosoma mansoni endoparasite that lives in human blood vessels.

Mistletoe Plants

Mistletoe plants grow on a wide range of host trees, and commonly reduce their growth but can kill them with heavy infestation.

Crown Gall Disease

The bacterium is parasitic: It infects its plant host by entering through an open wound, inserts a small segment of its genetic code into the plant's genome, devours energy made by the plant, and forms knobby brown lesions on the plant stem.

PredationPredationMERICAMERICA

PredationPredation Predators kill and feed on other Predators kill and feed on other organismsorganismsAnimals eating other animalsAnimals eating other animals

– Carnivore-herbivore interactionsCarnivore-herbivore interactions

Animals eating plantAnimals eating plant– Herbivore-producer interactionsHerbivore-producer interactions

Like an “Arms Race”Like an “Arms Race”Predators have more effective ways to catch there Predators have more effective ways to catch there preypreyExert a strong force the on prey to KILL….KILLExert a strong force the on prey to KILL….KILL

Like An “Arms Race”Like An “Arms Race”

Prey have better ways to escape predatorsPrey have better ways to escape predators– Evolves a countermeasure to surviveEvolves a countermeasure to survive

PursuitingPursuitingAny trait that increases hunting efficiency Any trait that increases hunting efficiency for the predatorsfor the predators

Mostly predators because they all larger Mostly predators because they all larger and mostly smarter then there preyand mostly smarter then there prey

PursuitingPursuitingOrcas (killer whales) hunting in packs to Orcas (killer whales) hunting in packs to herd salmon in a cove, so it is easier to herd salmon in a cove, so it is easier to catchcatch

PursuitingPursuitingA bear attacking a person who is aimlessly A bear attacking a person who is aimlessly walking through the woods.walking through the woods.

AmbushAmbushPredators try to blend in with there Predators try to blend in with there surroundings with “camouflage” to sneak surroundings with “camouflage” to sneak up on preyup on prey

AmbushAmbushThey also try to “attract” there prey They also try to “attract” there prey

Plant DefensesPlant Defenses

Adaptation's that help protect them from Adaptation's that help protect them from being eatenbeing eaten– SpinesSpines– Thorns Thorns – Tough, leathery leavesTough, leathery leaves– Thick wax on leavesThick wax on leaves

These discourage animals from grazing These discourage animals from grazing

Plant DefensesPlant DefensesProduces protective chemicals that are inedible Produces protective chemicals that are inedible even toxic to herbivoreseven toxic to herbivores

Ingredients can be:Ingredients can be:– Marijuana, Opium poppy, tobacco, peyote cactusMarijuana, Opium poppy, tobacco, peyote cactus

For example: Nicotine For example: Nicotine

found in tobacco is so found in tobacco is so

toxic to insects, that it istoxic to insects, that it is

used in some commercialused in some commercial

Insecticides.Insecticides.

MilkweedsMilkweeds

Produce alkaloids and cardiac glycosides

Poisonous to all animals except a small group of insects.

Predators also learned avoid these insects

Defensive adaptations of Animals Defensive adaptations of Animals Underground burrowsUnderground burrows– Woodchucks, WoodpeckersWoodchucks, Woodpeckers

Mechanical DefensesMechanical Defenses– Quills of porcupine, Shell of a turtleQuills of porcupine, Shell of a turtle

Animals Living in GroupsAnimals Living in Groups– Honeybees, PigeonsHoneybees, Pigeons

Warning colorationWarning coloration– Poison arrow frog, Striped skunkPoison arrow frog, Striped skunk

Cryptic Coloration (camouflaged)– Caterpillars, blend in with twigs– Seahorse blend in with coral

Defensive AdaptationsDefensive Adaptations

Defensive AdaptationsDefensive Adaptations

Defensive AdaptationsDefensive Adaptations

Does the Extinction of species Does the Extinction of species threaten the normal functioning and threaten the normal functioning and

stability of ecosystems?stability of ecosystems?

By Amanda DenizardBy Amanda Denizard

Species richness, Ecosystem Species richness, Ecosystem services, and community stabilityservices, and community stability

Ecologists and conservationists have Ecologists and conservationists have been debating whether the extinction of been debating whether the extinction of species threatens the everyday species threatens the everyday functions and stability of ecosystems.functions and stability of ecosystems.

Ecosystems supply human societies Ecosystems supply human societies with tons of environmental benefits with tons of environmental benefits

Ecosystems with a larger amount of Ecosystems with a larger amount of species richness have a higher quality species richness have a higher quality of ecosystem services than ones with of ecosystem services than ones with lower species richnesslower species richness

Ecosystem service: Ecosystem service: Important environmental Important environmental benefits that benefits that ecosystems provide to ecosystems provide to humans. humans.

(this includes clean air, (this includes clean air, water, and fertile soil)water, and fertile soil)

Some ecosystems that Some ecosystems that are more commonly are more commonly known are forests, known are forests, grassland and fresh grassland and fresh water systems.water systems.

http://www.nhdfl.org/about-forests-and-lands

http://www.roseclan.zoomshare.com/files/Mountain_stream.jpg

Community stabilityCommunity stability: the absence of change.: the absence of change. Community stability is the the result of Community stability is the the result of

resistance and resilience.resistance and resilience. ResistanceResistance: the ability of a community to : the ability of a community to

withstand environmental disturbances, withstand environmental disturbances, natural or human. natural or human.

ResilienceResilience: The ability of a community to : The ability of a community to recover quickly to its former state following recover quickly to its former state following the disturbance. the disturbance.

http://korbelgftei.wordpress.com/

Lake Victoria: the worlds Second largest freshwater

lake In East Africa.

Home to about 400 different speices of cichlids(sik’ lids), small colorful fishes.

These fishes thrive throughout the lake ecosystem on algae and provide protein to the diets of 30 million humans living in the area.

Compared to 50 years ago more than Compared to 50 years ago more than half of the cichlids and other native half of the cichlids and other native fishes are extinct today. fishes are extinct today.

As a result, the the algal population As a result, the the algal population increased rapidly. When the algae die increased rapidly. When the algae die their decomposition uses up the their decomposition uses up the dissolved oxygen in the water.dissolved oxygen in the water.

A major contributor to A major contributor to the destruction of Lake the destruction of Lake Victoria is the Nile Perch. Victoria is the Nile Perch.

Human Caused factors Human Caused factors are also to blame for the are also to blame for the disappearance of the disappearance of the cichlids.(pollution, cichlids.(pollution, overfishing, sediment overfishing, sediment pollution, ect .) pollution, ect .)

Biologists are currently Biologists are currently trying to find a fishing trying to find a fishing level that will be level that will be sustainable but also sustainable but also maintain speices maintain speices richness of native richness of native species.species.

http://animal.discovery.com/adventure-fishing/big-fish-species/nile-perch.html

Zahraa Badat

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

Community DevelopmentCommunity Development•A

community develops gradually, through a sequence of species.

•Succession: process of community development over time, usually described in terms of the changes in species composition of the plants growing in an area

•Climax community: stable and persistent community

•Mature climax community are not in a state of permanent stability but rather a state of continual disturbance, as a community changes in species composition and abundance while appearing to stay uniform

Primary SuccessionPrimary Succession

•Ecological succession that begins in an environment that has not been previously inhabited.

•Pioneer community: the initial community that develops during primary succession (ex. Lichens)

•Lichens → mosses → grasses → shrubs → trees

Primary Succession on Sand DunesPrimary Succession on Sand Dunes•H

enry Cowles developed the concept of succession in the 1880s.

•He studied succession on sand dunes around the shores of Lake Michigan.

•The shrinking lake exposed new sand dunes that displayed a series of stages in the colonization of land.

•grasses → shrubs → poplars → pine trees → oak trees

Secondary SuccessionSecondary Succession•E

cological succession that takes place after some disturbance destroys the existing vegetarians; soil is already present

•During summer 1998, wildfires burned about 1/3 of Yellowstone National Park, and this natural disaster provided a chance for biologists to study secondary succession.

•Less than a year later, trout lily and other herbs covered the ground, and ten years after the fires, a young forest dominated the area.

Old Field SuccessionOld Field Succession•B

iologist have studied secondary succession on abandoned farmland extensively.

•The first year after cultivation stops, crabgrass dominates the field.

•The second year, horseweed is the dominant species.

•During the third year, other weeds (broomsedge, ragweed, aster) establish themselves.

•In 5 to 15 years, the dominant plants are pines, and throughout the next century or so, depending on the environmental changes produced by these plants, pines give way to hardwoods such as oaks.

Secondary Succession on Abandoned Secondary Succession on Abandoned Farmland Farmland