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Examination, conservation and analysis of agilded Egyptian bronze Osiris

Article in Journal of Cultural Heritage · October 2002

Impact Factor: 1.57 · DOI: 10.1016/S1296-2074(02)01238-4

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Examination, conservation and analysis of a gilded Egyptian bronzeOsiris

David A. Scott a,*, Lynn Swartz Dodd b

aThe Getty Conservation Institute, Museum Research Laboratory, 1200 Getty Center Drive, Los Angeles, CA, 90049 - 1684, USA bUniversity of Southern California, Taper Hall of the Humanities, 328 MCO 355, Archaeological Research Collection,

Los An geles, CA, 90089-0355, USA

Abstract

A heavily corroded Egyptian bronze figurine of the god Osiris was examined and shown to have been originally gilt with gold leaf andinlaid with blue glass. Detailed formal comparison between this Osiris figure and the known corpus of bronze and stone sculpture leads tothe inference that the statuette dates to the time between the Third Intermediate Period and the fourth century BC, with a greater probabilityof originating from the Third Intermediate Period through to the 26th Dynasty, or even possibly as late as the fourth century on the basisof stylistic similarities. An extensive corrosion crust of atacamite and chalconatronite completely obscures inlaid glass decoration, foundduring the investigation, together with remnants of a gilded surface. Analysis of the glass by electron microprobe showed a compositionconsistent with early Egyptian blue glass with high sodium oxide and low potassium oxide content. The solid cast bronze is a leaded tin

bronze, and the gold is a gold foil applied to the bronze surface, originally alternating in decoration with the blue glass. The chalconatroniteand atacamite patina appear to be closely associated in the development of the unusual but extensive chalconatronite crust that now covers

part of the surface, as a natural corrosion process in this case, not derived from subsequent conservation treatment. The loss of the light bluecorrosion crust was prevented by consolidation with Paraloid B72, as examination over several months showed no sign of continuedchemical instability. © 2002 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.

1. Research aims

The purpose of the present paper is to undertake adetailed scientific investigation of the corrosive deteriora-tion and morphological characteristics of an Egyptian bronze Osiris in the Archaeological Research Collection of the School of Religion, University of Southern California(USC 5047). The bronze appears to be actively corrodingwith the continual loss of small fragments of light bluecorrosion from the heavily mineralized surface. As the bronze is of unknown provenience, it is also important toevaluate the technical art historical background of theOsiris, which is shown in Figs. 1 and 2, with some detail of the remaining gilding and a closer view of part of thecorrosion crust in Figs. 3 and 4. The requirements for conservation of the bronze are also assessed in the contextof this research.

2. Description

The bronze Osiris now appears completely covered in athick, green corrosion crust with lighter blue patches. The principally verdant colour of the once-gilded God is quiteappropriate for his symbolism as a god of regeneration inthe afterlife. The Papyrus of Ani from 1250 BC in theBritish Museum [1] illustrates a green Osiris, enthroned,sitting in judgement over the dead. However appropriatethis modern colour may be, this Osiris figure would not haveappeared green originally. This figurine was gilded and

details of the beard and royal insignia were highlighted withinset blue glass, as reconstructed in Fig. 5. The eyebrowsmay also have been inlaid. The Osiris figurine is, as usual,depicted with his arms and legs bound to his body bymummy bandages. Osiris is customarily shown mummi-form, and when colour is indicated, he is seen wrapped inwhite cloth as would have been the case when a body was prepared for burial during mummification. The bronzefigure shown here holds the crook and the flail, symbols of royalty, and also wears the white crown of Upper Egypt, thesouthern portion of the country. Visual examination does not

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Scott).

Journal of Cultural Heritage 3 (2002) 333–345

www.elsevier.com/locate/culher

© 2002 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.

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reveal any difference in the corrosion on the sides of thecrown, where fittings for feathers might have been attached,and so we assume that the crown was simply the WhiteCrown and that no atef feathers were affixed in antiquity.

Had the gilding of this ancient bronze Osiris figurineremained intact, he would have been entirely gilded (with blue inlay) as an example from the Bastis collection, shownin Fig. 6 illustrates. The ancient Egyptians referred to theflesh of their gods as gold, cf. The Destruction of Mankind/Myth of the Heavenly Cow: Haw = f m nbw “…his body (was) as/like gold...” [2]. Gilding was used not only onmetal but also on wood as examples from the BrooklynMuseum and the Pelizaeus-Museum, Hildesheim ([3], Fig.

68) illustrate. Gilding may have been used to create contrastwith the bronze material that might have had a duller glowthan the gold in its original cast state, or may have been polished to a high sheen as was the case with mirrors, or special alloys may have been subjected to a surface treat-ment, producing “black bronze”. Many objects are notentirely gilt, instead the gold is used as a partial decoration,leaving other parts of the surface free for glass inlay or chasing [4].

Figure 4 shows that the gilding is especially well preserved between the crossed arms and is present as

detached flakes within the voluminous corrosion crust. Thiscorrosion crust is primarily a thick, dark green, mineralizedlayer incorporating rounded quartz grains on the exterior surface, together with chalky-blue patches of corrosion that protrude beyond the dark green patina.

During exploratory mechanical cleaning of a small re-gion of the surface near the folded arms, we found theremains of blue glass inlay that were buried beneath thethick green corrosion crust. Following this discovery, care-ful examination showed that the blue glass is part of theoriginal decoration of the arms and also occurs in the beard.

Fig. 1. Gilded bronze Osiris (USC 5047) from the collections of theUniversity of Southern California. Frontal view. Copyright Bruce Zucker-man, West Semitic Research Collection. Scale in cm. Height 255.1 mm.

Fig. 2. Gilded bronze Osiris (USC 5047) from the collections of theUniversity of Southern California. Side view. Copyright Bruce Zuckerman,West Semitic Research Collection. Scale in cm. Height 255.1 mm.

334 D. Scott, L. Dodd / Journal of Cultural Heritage 3 (2002) 333–345


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There are instances of white (travertine limestone) and black (copper-rich metal) inlays ([5], plate 25; §206f) usedin the decoration of Osiris’s crook and flail and rarely red or green inlays ([3], fig 78) are found; the preserved glass onthe USC Osiris is uniformly blue. Glass still remains in the beard and in the crook and flail. The eyebrows were incised but the area is now so corroded and fragile that any

investigative cleaning in search of further remnants of glassinlays would damage the object so that it is difficult to saywith surety whether the eyebrows were once inlaid. It isvery likely that the now-vacant eyes were once inlaid andthey may also have been lined with blue glass or black inlay.

The dark green corrosion crust, overlying cuprite, iscracked in many areas of the surface, revealing further green

layers, approximately 1.5 mm below, and with cuprite below that. The fissures that have opened up in this dark green layer suggest periodic hydration and dehydration of

Fig. 3. Gilded bronze Osiris (USC 5047) View of the back with extensivealteration to chalconatronite at the base and at the shoulders. Scale in cm.

Fig. 4. Detailed view of the region between the crossed arms which retainsremnants of the gilded surface. Part of the corrosion crust can be seenwhich comprises dark green atacamite and light blue chalconatronite, withoccasional cuprite pustules, which have formed over the atacamite andchalconatronite surface. Magnification × 110.

Fig. 5. Gilded bronze Osiris (USC 5047) reconstruction sketch of left side profile and front. Drawing not to scale: left profile approximately same asobject.

Fig. 6. Osiris. Bronze fragment of head with inlaid eyes. Height 4.2 cm,width 4.0 cm and depth 2.4 cm. Stylistically and technically dated to theThird Intermediate Period.

D. S cott, L. Dodd / Journal of Cultural Heritage 3 (2002) 333–345 335


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the charming face from the Bastis collection ([15], Fig. 9) or the kneeling figure of Thutmosis IV ([16], 128). Unlike thefourth century examples, the eyes of the USC Osiris have alower lid that is nearly horizontal and the shape of the eyeis articulated by the vertical lift of the curve that defines theupper lid. These eyes are not almond-shaped as is commonduring the reigns of Thuthmosis II and IV [17] and onPtolemaic and Ramesside representations as well. The eyesof the USC Osiris also do not slant downward at the inner canthus, another common feature of Ptolemaic faces. Thespace between the eyes is fairly wide, equivalent to slightly

less than the width of one of the eyes. The eyebrows and theeyeliner are both articulated as incised lines and these parallel lines tilt downward toward the ear, rather thanextending straight out horizontally. The eyebrows do notmeet in the middle. Despite the corrosion, or perhaps because of it, it is possible to see a suggestion of a flatinverted triangular space between the eyebrows and thiscould be construed as a stylistic similarity to fourth centuryroyal portrait sculpture [10], or as reminiscent of the portraiture of Thutmosis IV where the area between the brows is flat and the nose root is low in relation to the eyes.

In this case, the feature may be seen as an archaizingtendency of a later period.The nose on the USC Osiris begins at the level below the

eyeball and descends in a pronounced curve until the noserejoins the face, a feature of the distinctive noses crafted by18th Dynasty artists sculpting for Amenhotep I and Thuth-mosis III, as well as Hatshepsut. In these cases, the pronounced nose profile is similar to the nose of the USCOsiris but the 18th and 19th Dynasty noses all originate between the eyebrows, whereas the USC Osiris nose startsmuch lower. The USC Osiris’s nose is fairly thin above itsroot between the eyes but it widens once it springs outwardfrom the face near the bottom of the eye. The widening

continues through the nostril area, a feature common onmany Late Period figures, as well as in portraits of Thut-mosis IV, to offer but one earlier example.

Even amid the corrosion, it is possible to see the curve of the side of the nostril as it meets the cheek. This well-defined feature has parallels in some of the relief sculptureof Shabako and Taharqa from Karnak, such as Fig. 8.

The mouth is approximately the width of the nostrils andis curved slightly upward, almost in the manner of thePtolemaic smile, but to a lesser degree. The two lips are of equal thickness and the outer corners of the mouth are

Fig. 7. Statuette of Amasis. 26th Dynasty. Height: 22.5 cm. Provenienceunknown, now in Copenhagen National Museum Inv no 3603. Limestone.(Pl. LXIV in Mysliwiec, Karol. Royal portraiture of the dynastiesXXI–XXX. Mainz am Rhein: P. von Zabern, c1988.).

Fig. 8. Shabako relief block reused in the Osireion of Taharqa, Karnak.25th Dynasty. Height 32.5 cm. Sandstone. (Plate XXXI in Mysliwiec,Karol. Royal portraiture of the dynasties XXI–XXX. Mainz am Rhein: P.von Zabern, c1988.).


https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274798225_Egyptian_Sculpture_of_the_Late_Period_Revisited?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274798225_Egyptian_Sculpture_of_the_Late_Period_Revisited?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274798225_Egyptian_Sculpture_of_the_Late_Period_Revisited?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==


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which, in several instances, have been found to have higher arsenic levels.

This composition, showing the use of a leaded tin alloy,would be quite typical for later Iron Age Egyptian figurines,e.g. a 25th Dynasty bronze statuette (BM 63595), showed0.19% iron, 0.04% nickel, 86.4% copper, 7.10% tin, 4.20%lead, 0.07% antimony, 0.1% arsenic and 0.01% zinc [26].With a few exceptions, lead levels above 2% are rarelyencountered prior to the late New Kingdom when during the19th Dynasty, high lead levels in copper alloys first becomecommon [8,27]. Exclusion of a later date using this criterion

is not possible, however, because examples dating to the20th Dynasty contain only 5% lead [26] and in the ThirdIntermediate Period, many items still have lead levels under 5% [8].

XRF analysis of the gilding, probably applied in the formof a gold leaf 0.023 mm (23 µm) thick, showed a composi-tion of 81.3% gold, 15% copper, with about 3.7% silver,although it is uncertain if the copper content is actually partof the gilding metal, or just derived from the underlying bronze. Investigation of a tiny flake of gilding, removedfrom the surface did not provide a clear answer to thisquestion, since analysis gave a composition of 84.4% gold,12.4% copper and 3.15% silver, which suggests that somediffusion of copper into the gold leaf may have occurred,since it is very difficult to prepare gold foil containing thismuch copper. Gold purities ranging between 70% and 85%characterize products of the Middle and New Kingdom,while Late Period examples more often have high gold purities of 85% and above, which may indicate refining,although rare high purity examples are known earlier, as arelater low purity examples [20].

XRF, in vacuum, of the associated glass fragmentsrevealed that the detectable components are principally Si,K, Ca, Co, Ni, Cu, Fe, Zn, and Sb. However, it is not

possible to quantify glass analysis by this method reliably,especially since sodium and magnesium are not detectable,even in vacuum. Consequently, a small sample,2 mm × 1 mm in section, was mounted, polished and coatedfor electron microprobe analysis. Examination of the glasssection reveals that the condition of the glass is excellentand very little, if any, weathering has taken place. Possiblythese fragments, which must have acted cathodically in thecontext of corrosion, were rapidly covered over with bronzecorrosion products during burial and became embedded in athick, hard copper corrosion crust which had protected them

from decay.

5. Electron microprobe analysis

The electron microprobe analysis of the glass sample wasundertaken on a Cameca SX100 electron microprobe em- ploying a 20 µm spot size at 9.00 nA, 15 kV for 100 sacquisition time. Nineteen elements were sought during theanalysis and the results, expressed as element oxides, aregiven in Table 1.

The glass is essentially a soda-lime glass. Sayre andSmith [28] found that Egyptian glass of the second millen-nium BC and early first millennium BC shows a sodiumoxide content from 15% to a little over 20%, a calciumoxide content of 5–10%, a silica content of about 60–70%together with small concentrations of minor componentoxides. Magnesia (2–5%) and potash (1–3%) were found to be consistently high, and that is exactly the range of thesetwo constituents found here, with 4.3% MgO and 1.3%K 2O. Interestingly, the high level of zinc oxide in this Osiris blue glass was also noted as an anomaly in New Kingdomcobalt blue glasses by Sayre and Smith, and must originate

Table 1Electron microprobe data for the blue glass inlay from the Osiris: sample taken from the upper forearm just above the bent elbow. Analysis spots 1–4 showthe elemental oxide compositions in weight percentages

Oxide Spot 1 Spot 2 Spot 3 Spot 4 dect. limit k-ratio correction Na2O 16.512 16.308 16.54 16.177 0.0351 0.0657 1.8647P2O5 0.412 0.525 0.457 0.388 0.0528 0.0012 1.479 NiO 0.121 0.081 0.176 0.176 0.066 0.0008 1.2128PbO 0.004 0 0.069 0.002 0.1068 0 1.555

MgO 4.416 4.318 4.376 4.211 0.0235 0.016 1.6622Al2O3 2.898 2.912 2.971 2.942 0.018 0.0106 1.452SiO2 62.25 60.642 62.3 60808 0.0264 0.2287 1.2725K 2O 1.304 1.32 1.341 1.288 0.0174 0.0093 1.1592CaO 9.044 9.141 8.834 9.197 0.0196 0.0574 1.1261TiO2 0.103 0.091 0.074 0.097 0.0203 0.0005 1.2274MnO 0.263 0.268 0.239 0.257 0.0371 0.0016 1.2424FeO 0.455 0.468 0.455 0.4 0.0524 0.0029 1.2217CoO 0.267 0.26 0.293 0.296 0.066 0.0017 1.2507ZnO 0.47 0.474 0.494 0.391 0.106 0.0029 1.2902CuO 0324 0.203 0.267 0.262 0.0966 0.002 1.2824SnO 0.019 0.02 0 0.057 0.059 0.0001 1.407Sb2O3 1.758 2.407 1.353 2954 0.068 0.0104 1.4134SrO 0.514 0.51 0.546 0.601 0.2747 0.0025 1.7505BaO 0.013 0.013 0.14 0.012 0.0099 0.0001 1.4884

Total 101.15 99.96 100.8 100.52


https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236537597_Analytical_Studies_of_Ancient_Egyptian_Glass?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236537597_Analytical_Studies_of_Ancient_Egyptian_Glass?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==


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from unusual copper or cobalt ore sources, since otherwise,such a high zinc content is inexplicable.

The cobalt, nickel, zinc, and copper concentrations in our Osiris glass are also comparable, except that the NewKingdom glass samples contained only 0.1–0.01% copper,whilst the Osiris glass contains 0.25% copper, showing thatthis blue glass is coloured by both cobalt and copper. AnEgyptian cobalt source has been suggested by Kaczmarczyk and Hedges [29]. The alum deposits of the Kharga andDahkla oases also contain manganese, iron, nickel, and zinc.On the basis of trace mineral analysis, Kaczmarczyk andHedges ([29], 373–4) suggest that the Egyptian cobaltsource was only in use from the 16th to the 11th centuriesBC, while an Iranian source was in use in later times [9].

The opacifying agent in the Osiris glass is antimony, present at relatively high amounts of about 2%, againcharacteristic of Egyptian glass from the second-first mil-lennium BC. Antimony is known from faience manufactureduring the reign of Thutmosis III, while in glass it is so far

documented as early as the mid 14th century, during theAmarna period, and also later [20,30].In the later part of the First Millennium BC, the compo-

sition of Egyptian glass changed and a “Roman” composi-tion started to assert itself, with low magnesia and low potassia [30,31]. The earliest glasses of this type found bySayre and Smith were from glass inlays from funeral objectsassociated with the late Pharaoh, Nectanebo II (360–341BC). The magnesium oxide content of the Osiris glass istypical for the high magnesia glass (HMG) group, whichuses plant alkali, differentiated from glass of the Roman period, where both magnesia and potash are present at levelsusually below 1%, consistent with the use of natron [32].

The ratio of potassium oxide to magnesium oxide foundhere is very similar to examples of Egyptian glass from Tellel Amarna published by Nicholson and Henderson [33]. Theevidence from the glass analysis therefore suggests a datefor the Osiris of earlier than 500BC.

6. X-ray radiography

A Phillips 450 kV X-ray tube was used in order to assesswhether the bronze is actually a solid cast or a hollowlost-wax bronze casting. The bronze could barely be pen-etrated using X-radiography at 420 kV, 10 mA for 180 s,

confirming the impression that the statuette is a solid bronzecasting.

7. X-ray diffraction

X-ray diffraction, in situ, using a Gobels mirror and aSiemens D5005 X-ray diffractometer, showed that the light blue patches of corrosion are chalconatronite, sodium copper (II) carbonate trihydrate, Na2Cu(CO3)2·3H2O; the dark green corrosion crust that covers the entire figure is atacam-

ite, one of the copper trihydroxychlorides Cu2(OH)3Cl. Achart of the X-ray diffractogram for the latter is shown inFig. 9. The in situ identification was followed by Debye- –Scherrer powder diffraction analysis, the data for chalcon-atronite being given in Table 2.

Examination of the dark brown pustules that occur over the surface was also carried out by Debye–Scherrer powder diffraction, which showed the same atacamite diffractiondata as the principal corrosion crust. This result indicatesthat the pustules are principally composed of atacamite, butthe result did not account for the dark brown colour of thesurface. Consequently, the sample used for X-ray diffractionwas crushed, mounted, and examined under the polarizedlight microscope. In some places, the atacamite crystalscould be seen to be tipped with cuprite which had formed onthe immediate surface of these pustules, but which repre-sents a very thin surface phenomenon.

8. Polarized light microscopy

The atacamite particles appear as equant crystallinefragments, tending towards boulder-shaped, rounded par-ticles which appear pale green in bright-field illuminationand have a refractive index greater than that of the mountingmedium of 1.662 (reference data: = 1.831; b = 1.861; v = 1.880). A photomicrograph is shown in Fig. 10. Mc-Crone et al. [34] state that the orthorhombic mineral isslightly pleochroic, but this was not evident in the samplesexamined here. Under crossed polars, the particles are predominantly yellow with tinges of red; some remaining a pale grey-white. Occasional particles are seen with finelyradiating fibrous characteristics, from the mode of growth of the corrosion product.

Examination of a microsample of one of the very dark pustules on the surface showed that this too was indeedcomposed of atacamite; some of these crystals could be seento be covered with a very thin layer of cuprite, too small tohave been able to be detected by the X-ray diffraction study.This explains the very dark, almost black, appearance of these excrescences: the red-brown of the cuprite over thedark green of the atacamite producing a black appearance.

Under plane polarized light, the chalconatronite particlesappear almost colourless and have no obvious blue or green

tone at all. Some of the particles show radiate, fibrous or finely disseminated appearance in melt-mount of RI 1.662,while some crystalline fragments can be seen to have arefractive index less than that of the medium (referencedata: = 1.483; b = 1.530; c = 1.576).

Under crossed polars, some of these crystalline tabletsshow a second-order blue colour parallel to the longdirection of the wave-plate, indicative of a negative sign of elongation. Extinction in clear particles tends to be parallelto the long axis of the crystal, whilst more fibrous-looking particles show undulose extinction, similar to some syn-


https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231754928_Application_of_Compositional_Analysis_to_the_Study_of_Materials_and_Objects_of_Art_and_Archaeology?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231754928_Application_of_Compositional_Analysis_to_the_Study_of_Materials_and_Objects_of_Art_and_Archaeology?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231754928_Application_of_Compositional_Analysis_to_the_Study_of_Materials_and_Objects_of_Art_and_Archaeology?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231754928_Application_of_Compositional_Analysis_to_the_Study_of_Materials_and_Objects_of_Art_and_Archaeology?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231754928_Application_of_Compositional_Analysis_to_the_Study_of_Materials_and_Objects_of_Art_and_Archaeology?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231754928_Application_of_Compositional_Analysis_to_the_Study_of_Materials_and_Objects_of_Art_and_Archaeology?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==


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thetic preparations of the mineral made in the laboratory[35,36].

Photomicrographs can be seen in Figs. 11 and 12. A

reference sample of chalconatronite from the collections of the British Museum (mineral identification: BM1973:460),appears as angular, colourless, crystalline fragments in clear relief since all three refractive indices of chalconatronite arewell below that of the medium. Under crossed polars, thesecrystals show a grey-white birefringence with some par-ticles revealing a second-order straw yellow and a red- purple tinge: most particles possess clear extinction.

Evidence for some calcite particles, mixed with chalcon-atronite, was found in some preparations, as clear, crystal-line fragments, showing typical birefringence under crossed polars, and with one refractive index very close to that of themounting medium at 1.66.

9. Conservation

The principal conservation issue is the continued loss of small fragments of atacamite and chalconatronite from thethick, heavily mineralized crust. It was decided to consoli-date this layer with an application of 3% Paraloid B72 inacetone (known as Acryloid B72 in the United States; aco-polymer of ethylmethacrylate and methylacrylate), applied by brush, observing the surface under binocular

magnification of × 40 to assess the degree of saturation of the surface or alteration of surface gloss. Following conser-vation treatment, the visual appearance of the surface did

not undergo significant change.Observation of the bronze over a period of 12 monthsfollowing treatment suggested that this consolidation hashelped to retain the mineralized surface as the loss of partsof this surface has now abated.

10. Discussion

Thomas [37] found that for appreciable quantities of atacamite to be found on an object, it is necessary for theequilibrium concentrations of copper and chloride ions atthe metal surface to be higher than those found in mostgroundwater. Typically, a chloride ion activity greater than10 –2 g-ion per litre, 3550 ppm, is necessary for atacamite toform. The dry, natron-rich environs of Egypt provide idealopportunities for this kind of chloride-rich patina to de-velop. One possible sequence being:

Cu+ + Cl− = CuCl (1)

4CuCl + O2 + 4H2 O = 2Cu2 OH 3 Cl + 2H+

+ 2Cl− (2)

Fig. 10. X-ray diffraction data, measured in situ, for the dark green corrosion showing atacamite to be present.


https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259789656_A_Review_of_Copper_Chlorides_and_Related_Salts_in_Bronze_Corrosion_and_as_Painting_Pigments?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259789656_A_Review_of_Copper_Chlorides_and_Related_Salts_in_Bronze_Corrosion_and_as_Painting_Pigments?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259789656_A_Review_of_Copper_Chlorides_and_Related_Salts_in_Bronze_Corrosion_and_as_Painting_Pigments?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==


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Table 2Debye-Scherrer X-ray powder diffraction data for the light blue corrosion,identified as chalconatronite

Osiris light blue corrosion Na2Cu(CO3)2H2O ICDD 22–1458I/I* d d I/I*20 9.198 – – 40 7.879 7.820 50100 7.101 – – 100 6.951 – – 100 6.870 6.900 10020 6.055 5.590 4050 5.505 – – 50 5.167 5.180 7020 4.584 4.570 4090 4.181 4.180 8080 3.681 3.680 9040 3.450 3.450 405 3.220 3.290 105 3.139 3.120 4020 3.032 3.040 1020 3.014 3.000 5020 2.994 2.980 4070 2.883 2.890 6040 2.783 2.780 30

10 2.694 2.690 3020 2.625 2.630 2030 2.531 2.530 6040 2.438 2.430 6050 2.274 2.280 305 2.217 2.210 4050 2.153 2.150 2040 2.084 2.082 6040 2.076 – – 20 2.068 2.061 6030 2.020 2.015 3030 2.006 2.010 6020 1.994 1.991 6010 1.917 1.917 5010 1.859 1.860 405 1.824 1.821 30

10 1.777 – – 30 1.723 1.710 105 1.679 1.981 210 1.619 – – 5 1.564 1.552 15 1.498 – – 10 1.432 1.425 35 1.412 1.418 35 1.390 1.387 25 1.373 1.370 23 1.268 – – 3 1.235 – – 3 1.208 – – 3 1.188 – – 3 1.160 – –

Nota bene: the last 7 entries for 22-1458 are from the author’sreference data and do not appear in the ICDD files.

Pourbaix [38] illustrates diagrams for the copper–chlo-rine–water system at this concentration of chloride ionswhich show that the field of stability for the copper trihydroxychlorides occurs in more oxidizing and acidicenvironments from about pH 6.0. Woods and Garrels [39]found that under more acidic conditions, paratacamite,rather than atacamite, is the favoured product, and that

atacamite precipitates under more alkaline conditions.

Fig. 11. Polarized light photomicrograph for a sample of chalconatroniteremoved from the back of the Osiris. The light blue corrosion is almostcolourless under the microscope so a partially crossed polar view isillustrated here. The crystals have a grey-white birefringence with somecrystals showing a second-order straw yellow and a red-purple tinge.Partially crossed polars; magnification × 128.

Fig. 12. The same specimen as Fig. 12 under crossed polars; magnifica-tion × 128.


https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247862767_Phase_relations_of_some_cupric_hydroxy_minerals?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247862767_Phase_relations_of_some_cupric_hydroxy_minerals?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==


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These alkaline conditions may also be produced by theseEgyptian natron deposits. For example, with a natrondeposit rich in sodium carbonate, the reaction betweencupric chloride, sodium carbonate and water may produceatacamite, along with an array of other products, as thefollowing rather complex equation suggests:

16Na2 CO3 + 18CuCl2 + 27H2 O = 9Cu2 OH 3 Cl +27Cl− + 5HCO3

−

+ 11H2 CO3 + 32Na+ (3)

Sharkey and Lewin [40] found that the concentrations of CuCl2 and NaCl were critical in determining which isomer of the copper trihydroxychloride system might be expectedto form. With copper and NaCl alone, paratacamite formed,the addition of NaCl to CuCl2 between 0.1 and 1 M Cl

–

favoured atacamite, with higher concentrations again pro-ducing paratacamite.

Another interesting aspect of this study is the extensiveformation of chalconatronite that has taken place over the

atacamite corrosion crust, where large patches of the surfaceare of chalconatronite, as can be seen from Figs. 2 and 3.The bronze has undergone no prior conservation work, andthe chalconatronite retains quartz and calcite mineral grainsfrom the burial environment, as does the atacamite layer.

Chalconatronite was first identified by Frondel andGettens [41] in 1955 as a bluish-green chalky crust withinthe hollow interior of an Egyptian bronze figurine of thedeity Sekmet from the Saite-Ptolomaic period (663–630BC) in the Fogg Museum of Art. The mineral was alsoidentified on an Egyptian bronze group of a cat and kittensin the Gulbenkian Collection in Lisbon; on a Coptic censer,

dating from about the seventh century AD, in the Freer Gallery of Art, Washington, DC; on a copper pin from the basilica of St. Mark’s in Venice [42], and as isolated crystalson Roman copper and iron armour from an excavated site atChester, England, where conservation treatment had beencarried out many years earlier [43]. Interestingly, Frondeland Gettens [41] also found that atacamite and cuprite wereassociated with the chalconatronite, very similar to theassociations seen here.

One of the synthetic methods for the preparation of sodium copper (II) carbonate trihydrate is the precipitationof the crystals from a concentrated solution of sodiumcarbonate containing bicarbonate and copper ions, and this

was the route utilized by the first laboratory synthesis of thecompound by Deville [44] in 1852. The nature of the possible atacamite to chalconatronite transition, was alsohighlighted by an experiment carried out by Thomas [37] inwhich a 4.7 mmol solution of cupric chloride dihydrate wasadded to 100 ml of a stirred solution of 50 mmol of sodiumcarbonate at 25 °C. When this solution was allowed toevaporate to dryness, the resulting mixture is of solublesodium salts and chalconatronite; viz.

CuCl2 + 2Na2 CO3 = Na2 Cu CO3 2 + 2NaCl (4)

Further reaction may then take place between availablecupric ions and sodium chloride:

Cu++ + NaCl = CuCl2 + 2Na+ (5)

The reaction provides the possibility of a cyclical chain

of events, since the sodium chloride formed in reaction (4)may then be consumed in reaction (5) to produce moreCuCl2.

The atacamite appears to occur on the surface in twomodifications, firstly as thick sheets of corrosion, andsecondly, as eruptions of atacamite in the form of small pustules over this surface, which are covered with a thinlayer of cuprite, which accounts for their brown/black appearance, as the thin skin of red cuprite is underlain by thedark green of the atacamite. The association of atacamite,chalconatronite and cuprite may be significant in the envi-ronmental parameters required for chalconatronite forma-

tion.

11. Conclusions

The study of this bronze Osiris, from the differentviewpoints discussed in this paper, has provided newinsights concerning patina and corrosion of Egyptian bronzes from very chloride-rich environments. Firstly, it isnot obvious, from previously published work, that it is possible for an overall patina of atacamite to exit as a

coherent crust. The assumption has been that such occur-rences of the copper trihydroxychlorides are limited toexcrescences over the patina but do not form a continuouscovering. The publication of this heavily corroded Osirisshows that these assumptions are incorrect. Secondly, theaetiology of the chalconatronite was found to be unrelatedto prior conservation treatment, and represented an associa-tion between atacamite, chalconatronite and cuprite, whichmay be one of the requirements for its natural formation inhighly saline environments. Despite the heavy corrosion of the bronze, an extensive amount of technical art historicalinterpretation was possible. Formal comparison between theUSC Osiris and the known corpus of bronze and stone

sculpture enabled us to infer that this Osiris dates to the period between the Third Intermediate Period and the fourthcentury BC.

The determination that the chalconatronite was spallingaway from the surface of the bronze due to thermomechani-cal rather than chemical instability, led to the decision toapply a surface consolidant to the corroded surface, in anattempt to provide greater cohesion of this layer. Thetreatment appears to have been successful, as observation of the bronze over a period of 12 months reveals no further loss of the mineralized surface.


https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6091207_Chalconatronite_a_New_Mineral_from_Egypt?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271683455_Chalconatronite_A_By-Product_of_Conservation?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271683455_Chalconatronite_A_By-Product_of_Conservation?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6091207_Chalconatronite_a_New_Mineral_from_Egypt?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6091207_Chalconatronite_a_New_Mineral_from_Egypt?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6091207_Chalconatronite_a_New_Mineral_from_Egypt?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271683455_Chalconatronite_A_By-Product_of_Conservation?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-460c1315-69b6-47f7-ad44-a01650d65bf4&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2Mjk1Njk0MjtBUzoxOTUzNTEwNzcyMzI2NDVAMTQyMzU4NjczNDcxNw==


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Author’s biography

David A. Scott, BSc., BA, Ph.D., FIIC, FRSC, is theSenior Scientist in charge of the GCI Museum ResearchLaboratory. He was a lecturer in conservation at UniversityCollege, Institute of Archaeology, Department of Conserva-tion and Materials Science, from 1981 to 1987. In 1987, he joined the GCI as Head of the Museum Services Laboratory.He was appointed as an editor for Studies in Conservation in1984. His principal interests are the analysis of Museumobjects, the characterization of pigments, ancient metals andtheir microstructure, and the archaeometallurgy of preHis- panic Colombia and Ecuador.

Lynn Swartz Dodd,BA in Art History from Smith Col-lege, Northampton, MA, 1984, MA in Near Eastern Lan-guages and Cultures, UCLA, 1997, Ph.D 2002, research oncultural identity and the recreation of statehood in the earlyIron Age-Late Bronze Age transition of North Syria. Since1998 she has been at USC where she is visiting assistant

professor and curator of the use Archaeological ResearchCollection.

Acknowledgements

Thanks are due to Prof. Bruce Zuckerman, School of Religion, University of Southern California, for bringing theissue of conservation to the attention of the authors, to EricDoehne, Associate Scientist, Getty Conservation Institute,for carrying out the electron microprobe analyses, to Narayan Khandekar, Associate Scientist, GCI MuseumResearch Laboratory and to Megan Dennis, GCI postgradu-

ate research intern for 2000–2001, for taking some of the photographs of the Osiris figure.

References

[1] E. Dondelinger, Papyrus Ani BM 10.470, Vollstandige Faksimile-Ausgabe im Originalformat des Totenbuches aus dem Besitz desBritish Museum Codices selecti phototypice impressi, 62, Akade-mische Druck-u, Verlagsanstalt, 1978–1979.

[2] L.S. Dodd [trans] (1998) cf. F. Abitz, Pharao als Gott in denUnterweltsbüchern des Neuen Reiches, No. 146, Orbis biblicus etorientalis, Universitätsverlag, Freiburg, 1995. And Hornung E., Der ägyptische Mythos von der Himmelskuh: Eine Ätiologie des Un-volkommenen. Second ed. 1991.

[3] The Pelizaeus-Museum, in: A. Eggebrecht (Ed.), Pelizaeus-Museum, Hildesheim: The Egyptian Collection, Phillip von Zabern,Mainz, 1996, Fig. 78, small gold on silver amulet, 8.65 cm.

[4] Mathaf al-Misr-i, Egyptian treasures from the Egyptian Museum inCairo. 1999, F. Tiradritti, Editor. H. N. Abrams, New York. Statuetteof Maat: CG38707, 362, far left, 36 cm high, limestone with gilding,Ptolemaic 304-30 BC; Isis nursing Horus, JE91327, 362, left, gilded

bronze, 22.1 cm high, Late Period, 712–332 BC; Saqqara; Inlaidstatue of Nefertum, 363, possibly JE39483, 46.5 cm high, bronzewith remnants of possible blue inlay in lotus blossom on head;Statue of a kneeling king holding a wedjat eye, JE91436, 26 cmhigh, Saqqara; Late Period, 712–332 BC; the kilt and wedjat eye andwhite crown are gilt. And also JE94436, 26 cm complete: 359.

[5] G. Roeder, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin: Mitteilungen aus der Ägyptischen Sammlung (vol. 6) (1956) Ägyptische Bronzefiguren.

Berlin. §206f, plate 25 a-d Berlin 8671. Osiris with blue, and red andwhite alternating inlays. Possibly traces of green.

[6] M. Wuttmann, B. Bousquet, B. M. Chauveau, P. Dils, S. Marchand,A. Schweitzer, L. Volay, First preliminary report on the work at theSite of ‘Ayn Manâwîr (Kharga Oasis), Bulletin de l’Institut françaisd’archéologie orientale 96 (2000) 385–451.

[7] W. B. Emery, Preliminary report on the excavations at NorthSaqqara, 1968–9, J. Egyptian Archaeology 56 (1970) 5–10.

[8] J. Ogden, Metals, in: P.T. Nicholson, I. Shaw (Eds.), AncientEgyptian Materials and Technology, Cambridge University Press,Cambridge, 2000, pp. 153.

[9] G. Roeder, Ägyptische Bronzewerke, J.J. Augustin, Gluckstadt(1937).

[10] J. Josephson, Egyptian Royal Sculpture of the Late Period. 400–246B.C., Verlag P. von Zabern, Mainz on Rhine, 1997.

[11] P. S. Griffin, The selective use of gilding on Egyptian polychromed bronzes, in: T. Drayman-Weisser (Ed.), Gilded Metals: History,Technology and Conservation, Archetype Publications, London,2000, pp. 104–120.

[12] Abd el-Hamid, Ma’arouf, Trouvailles récentes faites à Karnak et endehors de l’enceinte d’Amon, Karnak IX (1989–1992), ÉditionsRecherche sur les Civilisations, Paris, Cahiers de Karnak, IX, 1993, pp. 213–221 Fig. 4. Note that the existence of sculptural blocks fromthe Taharqa Osirieon at Karnak throws doubt on a contention that the broken Osiris at Karnak must be New Kingdom due to the lack of any Osiris cult presence there in the later periods.

[13] E. Hofmann, Statuetten, Gefässe und Geräte, in: WissenschaftlicheKataloge. Ägyptische Bildwerke, Verlag Gutenberg, Melsungen,1991, II, Kat. Nr. 129. Inv. Nr. 1766.

[14] J. Baines, A bronze statuette of Atum, J. Egyptian Archaeology 56(1970) 135–140.

[15] B.V. Bothmer, Antiquities from the Collection of Christos G, VerlagP. von Zabern, Mainz on Rhine, Bastis, New York, 1987 fig. 10(catalog,... et al., Ed. E.S. Hall; photography, J. Justin Kerr, David A.Loggie, S. Wells).

[16] E. Russmann, Eternal Egypt, Masterworks of Ancient Art from theBritish Museum, University of California Press, California, 2001128.

[17] B. Bryan, Portrait sculpture of Thutmosis III, J. Am. Res. Center Egypt 24 (1987) 3–20.

[18] D. Spanel, Through Ancient Eyes, Egyptian Portraiture, Birming-ham Museum of Art, Birmingham, 1988 127.

[19] D. A. Scott, The application of scanning X-ray fluorescence mi-croanalysis in the examination of cultural materials, Archaeometry43 (2001) 475–482.

[20] J. Riederer, Die naturwissenschaftliche Untersuchung der Bronzendes Agyptischen Museums Preussischer Kulturbesitz in Berlin,Berliner Beitraege zur Archaeometrie 3 (1978) 5–42.

[21] J. Riederer, Der Beitrage der Metalluntersuchung am RathgenForschungslabor zur Kunst und Kulturgeschichte, Jahrbuch für Preussisch Kulturerbe 9 (1980) 5–16.

[22] J. Riederer, Die naturwissenschaftliche Untersuchung der Agyptis-chen Bronzen des Pelizaeus Museums in Hildesheim, Berliner Beitraege zur Archaeometrie 9 (1984) 5–16.

[23] J. Riederer, Metallanaelysen Aegyptischer Bronzestatuetten ausDeutschen Museen, Berliner Beitraege zur Archaeometrie 10 (1988)5–20.

[24] J. Riederer, Metallanalyse der Bronzestatuetten, Gott und Götter imalten Agypten, Philipp von Zabern, Mainz, 1992, pp. 128–232.



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examination of a gilded bronze osiris

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