executing entity/implementing partner: ministry of ......executing entity/implementing partner:...

i

Government of Lao People’s Democratic Republic

Executing Entity/Implementing Partner: Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, MAF, Vientiane, Lao PDR

Implementing Entity/Responsible Partner: National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute, NAFRI

United Nations Development Programme

Selected agriculture concepts, approaches, commodities for development of

Climate Change Training and Adaptation Modules for Lao PDR:

# 4: CROP PRODUCTION

Improving the Resilience of the Agriculture Sector in Lao PDR to Climate Change Impacts(IRAS Lao Project)

Project Contact : Mr. Khamphone Mounlamai, Project Manager Email Address : [email protected]

June 30, 2012

ສາທາລະນະລດັ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊນົລາວ

Lao People's Democratic Republic

ອງົການສະຫະປະຊາຊາດເພ ື່ ອການພດັທະນາ

United Nations Development Programme

ii

SUMMARY

The MAF in collaboration with the UNDP and other Government of Lao (GoL) and Non-

government Organisation (NGO) partners, has prepared five (5) modules or guides for

extension officers/workers who will be involved in promoting good practices and technologies for

climate change adaptation in the agriculture sector. Entitled the “Climate Change Training

and Adaptation Module” or CCTAMs, these guides are part of the target outputs of the MAF –

NAFRI project entitled “Improving Resilience in Agriculture Sector to Climate Change” or IRAS

Project. The CCTAMs being developed are:

1. Overview of Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) for Upland farming conditions;

2. Overview of CCA for Lowland Farming Conditions ;

3. CCA through On-farm and Community Level Water Management;

4. CCA in Crop Production;

5. CCA in Small Livestock

Process of preparation. Stakeholder consultations at the provincial and national levels

identified the key issues as a result of the combined effects of natural resources degradation,

inappropriate agricultural land use practices and climate change. Subsequent consultations

identified possible measures that can be applied.

Objectives of the modules. The CCTAMs discusses the challenges posed by the combined

effects of land degradation due to inappropriate land use practices and the effects of climate

change. They then provide an overview of the range of practices and technologies that may be

considered to adapt to climate change, at the same time addressing the issues of natural

resource degradation.

The Climate Change Adaptation in Crop Production. The recommended practices and

technologies for CCA in crop production are as follows:

1. Water management - managing the destructive force of surface run off and storing

surface water (farm ponds), ground water and soil moisture;

2. Soil fertility management – making the plants healthy against moisture stress and pest

and disease;

3. Innovative and nature based production systems - practicing innovative ecological

production such as systems for rice intensification (SRI), direct seeded mulch based

cropping systems (DMC SCV);

4. Use of climate smart varieties- using varieties that are drought resistant or tolerant to

submerged conditions;

5. Crop diversification - growing crops in addition to or as alternative to rice; these crops

are usually more tolerant to either too little or too much water;

THE CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION

iii

6. Growing vegetables under harsh climatic conditions - making vegetable growing

both at backyard level and market level more resilient to harsh conditions;

7. Growing fruit trees in the farm – using trees to help conserve soil, improve fertility

improve the microclimate and generate income;

8. Integrated pest management – preventing the pest situation from worsening due to

climatic aberrations and protecting the farmer from accident ;

9. Post harvest handling - minimize further losses from already existing low production

levels;

10. Timing of planting production systems - an early advisory system that would enable

a change the time of planting of the major crop to adjust to the availability of rains.

This CCTAM contains two formats of information. The first is the set of existing locally

generated extension materials produced by NAFES, NAFRI, and other GoL agencies as well as

NGOs that can contribute to climate change adaptation. These discuss entire production cycles.

The second format would be the direct description of climate adaptation technologies that are

not yet discussed adequately in existing extension materials. However, the second type would

focus on specific adaptation practices that may be applied to address the effects of climate

change. This CCTAM will occasional refer the reader to other CCTAMs which can discuss

certain topics in detail.

Benefits and Costs. The major benefits from the above technologies are reduction in crop

damage and crop loses (managing surface runoff, use of climate smart varieties and reduced

losses from pests and poor post harvest handling), reduction in production costs (lesser

inorganic fertilizer and pesticide purchases), diversification of sources of income (introduction of

sequential crops, vegetables and fruit trees). Certain technologies will reduce the cost of labor

for weeding,(e.g. mulching, SCV, etc.). If investments are made on water management and soil

fertility improvement, the benefits of other technologies can be sustained.

The major costs are associated with increase in labor requirements especially for the one time

construction of structures for water management, and certain technologies such as composting,

application of mulching, pruning of fertilizer and fodder trees and IPM. Other key costs are

seeds and planting materials. The major capital costs are the purchase of the weeder for SRI

and a hand operated seeder for use in conservation tillage.

Applicability in IRAS Project Sites. The technologies are generally applicable in all project

sites of IRAS. However the exact combinations of technologies to be applied as well as timing

will depend on the actual biophysical and socioeconomic situation in each village. Thus village

conditions need to be studied first and priorities established by farmers (methods discussed

under CCTAM #1 0.

Certain technologies are easy and can be applied immediately such as mulching and sequential

or relay cropping. Others require time but immediate actions need to be done in the first year.

New varieties and species need to be tried out first in smaller plots for one to two seasons.

Technologies requiring new planting approaches and skills (e.g. SRI, SCV) would require

familiarization of the technology in actual practice in other communities.


iv

List of Acronyms

AWD Alternative Wetting and Drying

ATIK Agroforestry Technology Information Kit

CCA Climate Change Adaptation

CCTAM Climate Change Training and Adaptation Module

DAFO District Agriculture and Forestry Office

DFID Department for International Development

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

FFTC Food and Fertilizer Technology Center

GoL Government of Lao

ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre

ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

IFAD International Fund for Agriculture Development

IRAS Improving the Resilience of the Agriculture Sector in Lao PDR to Climate Change

Impacts

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

IWMI International Water Management Institute

MAF Ministry of Agriculture

NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action

NAFRI National Agriculture and Forestry Research Institute

NGO Non-government Organisation

NVS Natural vegetative strips

PAFO Provincial Agriculture and Forestry Office

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

v

Table of Contents

SUMMARY ................................................................................................................................. ii

List of Acronyms ..................................................................................................................... iv

List of Tables .......................................................................................................................... ix

List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... xi

BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 1

SELECTED AGRICULTURE CONCEPTS, APPROACHES, COMMODITIES FOR

DEVELOPMENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE

FOR CROP PRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 4

1.0 ON-FARM AND COMMUNITY LEVEL WATER MANAGEMENT ......................................... 6

1.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION ...................................................................................... 6

1.2 OVERVIEW OF RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................................... 6

1.2.1 MINIMIZING WATER RUNOFF IN THE FARM .......................................................... 6

1.2.2 CONSTRUCTION OR IMPROVEMENT OF VILLAGE PONDS AND FARM

PONDS ............................................................................................................................... 7

1.2.3 IMPROVING EFFICIENCY OF WATER USE ............................................................. 7

1.2.4 IMPROVING THE SOIL WATER HOLDING CAPACITY ............................................ 7

1.2.5 ADAPTING TO FLOODED SITUATIONS................................................................... 7

1.2.6 PROTECTING THE COMMUNITY’S NATURAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM ............ 7

2.0 SOIL FERTILITY IMPROVEMENT ......................................................................................13

2.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION .....................................................................................13

2.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ......................................................................................13

2.2.1 ENHANCING THE ROLE OF LEGUMES IN THE FARMING SYSTEM. ...................13

2.2.2 ENHANCING THE ROLE OF TREES IN THE FARMING SYSTEM ..........................14

2.2.3 INTEGRATING THE LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION INTO THE FARMING

SYSTEM ............................................................................................................................14

2.2.4 USE OF BIO-FERTILIZER ........................................................................................14

2.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS .................................................................................................16

2.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES ....................................................................16

2.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME TOGETHER

WITH THIS CCTAM ..............................................................................................................16

3.0 INNOVATIVE, NATURE BASED PRODUCTION SYSTEMS ..............................................21



vi


3.2.1 THE SYSTEMS FOR RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI) ..............................................21

3.2.2 THE DIRECT SEEDED MULCH-BASED CROPPING SYSTEM (SVC) ....................21

3.2.3 ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN PERI-URBAN VEGETABLE GRAOWING

VILLAGES .........................................................................................................................22



3.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME

TOGETHER WITH THIS CCTAM ..........................................................................................23

4.0 USE OF CLIMATE SMART CROP VARIETIES (RICE).......................................................26



4.2.1 RICE .........................................................................................................................26



4.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME TOGETHER

WITH THIS CCTAM ..............................................................................................................32

5.0 CROP DIVERSIFICATION ..................................................................................................34



5.2.1 POTENTIAL ANNUAL CROP SPECIES FOR CROP DIVERSIFICATION ................34

5.2.2 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING THE SPECIES ......................................51

5.2.3 MULTIPLE CROPPING .............................................................................................51

5.2.4 PLANNING FOR INTERCROPPING .........................................................................52

5.2.5 PLANNING FOR SEQUENTIAL AND RELAY CROPPING .......................................53

5.2.6 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON CROP CHARACTERISTICS ...............................56



5.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COMES

WITH THIS CCTAM ..............................................................................................................59

6.0 GROWING VEGETABLES UNDER HARSH CLIMATIC CONDITIONS ..............................63




vii

6.2.1 PLANNING THE LOCATION AND ARCHITECTURE OF VEGETABLE

PRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................63

6.2.2 PLANNING FOR COMPANION PLANTING ..............................................................65

6.2.3 PREPARING THE GARDEN PLOTS ........................................................................67

6.2.4 RAISING ROBUST SEEDLINGS ..............................................................................67

6.2.5 WATERING THE PLANTS PROPERLY ....................................................................67

6.2.6 RAISING THE HOME GARDEN UNDER VERY WET CONDITIONS .......................68



6.5 COMPANION ESTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) TO COME

WITH THIS CCTAM ..............................................................................................................69

7.0 GROWING FRUIT TREES AND OTHER TYPES OF TREES IN THE FARM .....................73



7.2.1 CHOICE OF TREE SPECIES ..............................................................................73

7.2.2 WHERE AND HOW TO INCORPORATE FRUIT TREES ..........................................78

7.2.3 PLANNING FOR TREE–CROP INTERACTION (DISTANCING, COPPICING

ETC.) .................................................................................................................................78

7.2.4 PREPARING SEEDLINGS FOR HARSH ENVIRONMENTS IN THE FIELD .............79

7.2.5 ENABLING YOUNG TREES TO WITHSTAND CONDITIONS OF WATER

STRESS ............................................................................................................................80



7.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) TO COME

WITH THIS CCTAM ..............................................................................................................81

8.0 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT ................................................................................83



8.2.1 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) .............................................................83

8.2.2 PRACTICAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES ..................................................................84



8.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCAL EXTENSION MATERIALS) THAT COME

TOGETHER WITH THIS CCTAM ..........................................................................................85

9.0 POST HARVEST HANDLING .............................................................................................88


viii



9.2.1 RICE .........................................................................................................................88

9.2.2 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES ....................................................................................88


9.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS SITES .....................................................................................92

9.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME

WITH THIS CTTAM ...............................................................................................................92

10.0 ADJUSTING THE PLANTING PERIOD (FYI ONLY) .........................................................95

10.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION ...................................................................................95

10.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES ....................................................................................95

11.0 PHASING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF TECHNOLOGIES ..............................................96

Key References .....................................................................................................................99


ix

List of Tables

Title Page

Table 1a Examples of soil and water conservation measures that

match different situations

8

Table 2a Nutrient content of various farm materials that are used as straw.

15

Table 4a Specific variety recommendations for potential problem

areas/specific target characters.

26

Table 4b Generally recommended varieties for wet and dry

seasons at different terrace positions in regions in Lao

PDR.

28

Table 4c Description of widely grown varieties (improved variety). 29

Table 4d Description of widely grown varieties (traditional variety). 31

Table 5a Legumes recommended for crop diversification 36

Table 5b Vegetables recommended for crop diversification. 38

Table 5c Additional list of vegetables recommended for crop diversification.

42

Table 5d List of vegetable varieties and horticultural requirements. 44

Table 5e Cropping calendar – time of year preferred for raising specific species.

54

Table 5f Vegetables that can be harvested in less than a month. 56

Table 5g Partial list of crops known for their drought resistance. 56

Table 6a Crop locations and physical arrangements in the home

garden (vegetables and selected important multi-

functional trees).

64

Table 6b Indicative list of companion crops and antagonistic crops.

65

Table 6c Additional information on companion planting. 66

Table 7a Characteristics of tropical fruit trees prioritized for Lao PDR.

74

Table 7b Characteristics of tropical fruit trees potentially important for Lao PDR.

76

Table 7c Fruit varieties being studied by the NAFRI Horticulture 77


x

Center.

Table 7d Planning for tree-crop interaction. 79

Table 9a Some examples of maturity indices of vegetable crops. 90

Table 11 Proposed phasing of application of technologies. 96


xi

List of Figures

Title Page

Figure 1 On farm and community level water management 9

Figure 1.1 Prevalent problems in the upland 9

Figure 1.2 Manage surface runoff 9

Figure 1.3 Simple soil erosion measures that are not labor-intensive 10

Figure 1.4 Farm ponds 10

Figure 1.5 Improving efficiency of water use 11

Figure 1.6 Improving soil water holding capacity 11

Figure 1.7 Sustaining the natural water supply of the community 12

Figure 2 Soil fertility management 18

Figure 2.1 Enhance the role of legumes 18

Figure 2.2 Enhance the role of trees in the farm 18

Figure 2.3 Enhance the role of livestock in the farm 19

Figure 2.4 Use of biofertilizers such as composting and bioextracts 19

Figure 2.5 Mulching 20

Figure 3 Innovative, nature-based production systems 24

Figure 3.1 System of rice intensification 24

Figure 3.2 Direct seeded mulch based system 24

Figure 3.3 Organic agriculture 25

Figure 4 Use of climate smart varieties 33

Figure 5 Crop diversification 61

Figure 5.1 Multiple cropping 61

Figure 5.2 The three sisters 61

Figure 5.3 Community/farmer based seed production 62

Figure 6 Growing vegetables under harsh climatic conditions 70

Figure 6.1 Preparing the garden plots 70


xii

Figure 6.2 Integrated vegetable garden – alley cropping 70

Figure 6.3 Raising robust seedlings for dry prone areas 71

Figure 6.4 Under very wet conditions 71

Figure 6.5 During flooded conditions 72

Figure 7 Growing fruit trees and other types of tress in the farm

82

Figure 7.1 How to incorporate fruit trees and other trees in the farm 82

Figure 7.2 How to incorporate trees in the farm – continued 82

Figure 8 Integrated pest management and preventive methods

86

Figure 8.1 Integrated Pest Management involves studying the ecology of a particular cropping system

86

Figure 8.2 IPM methods include cultural practices 86

Figure 8.3 IPM does not ban the use of pesticides 87

Figure 9 Post harvest handling 93

Figure 9.1 Pre-harvesting 93

Figure 9.2 Harvesting 93

Figure 9.3 Cleaning, sorting, packing 93

Figure 9.4 Cooling, packing storage 94


1

BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION

The need for Climate Change Adaptation

The Ministry of Agriculture (MAF) in collaboration with the UNDP is presently implementing the

Project entitled “Improving the Resilience of the Agriculture Sector in Lao PDR to Climate

Change Impacts” or the IRAS Project. This Project addresses the need to adapt to climate

change in the agriculture sector.

The IRAS project document states that “the current and future climate-related risks to Lao PDR

and key areas of vulnerability have been analyzed in the country’s First National

Communication (STEA, October 2000) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate

Change (UNFCCC) and the National Adaptation Programme of Action (WREA, April 2009).

According to the updated Koeppen-Geiger classification from 2006, as cited by the IRAS Project

document, there will be more rainfall events in the centre and the north of the country during the

first half of the century and an expansion of climatic conditions at present prevailing in the south,

these slightly shrinking again in the second half of the century. These expected changes will

require resilience and early gained adaptive capacity of the agricultural sector and the farmers

to cope with the situation. Seen as a function of exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity, Lao

PDR ranks as one of the most vulnerable countries in South East Asia.

Climate change is expected to change the frequency, intensity and location of existing climate

hazards and challenge the existing coping mechanisms of the population; especially those living

in rural and remote places. (IRAS Project Document, 2010)

The IRAS Project

The objective of the IRAS Project is to minimize food insecurity resulting from climate change in

Lao PDR and to reduce the vulnerability of farmers to extreme flooding and drought events.

There are four expected outcomes:

Outcome 1: Knowledge base on Climate Change impacts in Lao PDR on agricultural

production, food security and vulnerability, and local coping mechanisms strengthened;

Outcome 2: Capacities of sectoral planners and agricultural producers strengthened to

understand and address climate change – related risks and opportunities for local food

production and socio-economic conditions

Outcome 3: Community-based adaptive agricultural practices and off-farm opportunities

demonstrated and promoted within suitable agro-ecological systems

Outcome 4: Adaptation Monitoring and Learning as a long-term process


2

The Climate Change Training and Adaptation Modules or CCTAMs

Under the IRAS project, the MAF in collaboration with the UNDP and other Government of Lao

(GoL) and Non-government Organisation (NGO) partners, is now preparing six (6) guides for

extension officers/workers who will be involved in promoting good practices and technologies for

climate change adaptation in the agriculture sector. Entitled the “Climate Change Training

and Adaptation Module” or CCTAMs, these guides are part of the target outputs of the MAF –

NAFRI project entitled “Improving Resilience in Agriculture Sector to Climate Change” or IRAS

Project. The CCTAMs being developed are:

1. Overview of Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) for Upland Farming Conditions;

2. Overview of CCA for Lowland Farming Conditions;

3. CCA through On-farm and Community Level Water Management;

4. CCA in Crop Production;

5. CCA in Small Livestock; and

6. CCA in Fisheries

Objectives of the CCTAMs

a. Provide an overview of the challenges posed by the combined effects of land

degradation due to inappropriate land use practices and the effects of climate change;

b. Provide an overview of the range of practices and technologies that may be considered

to adapt to climate change, at the same time addressing the issues of natural resource

degradation; and

c. Serve as a quick reference to existing relevant extension materials and making the latter

available to the extension officers/workers.

How were the CCTAMs prepared?

Stakeholder consultations at the provincial and national levels identified the key issues as a

result of the combined effects of natural resources degradation, inappropriate agricultural land

use practices and climate change. Subsequent consultations identified possible measures that

can be applied. The CCTAM assembles the key knowledge from communities and researchers

in the areas of natural resource management, sustainable agriculture and recent dialogue on

climate change adaptation.

How will the CCTAMs be used?

The first step is to determine the location-specific needs of farming communities. PAFO and

DAFO personnel may use CCTAM #1 (Upland Farming Conditions) and the CCTAM #2

(Lowland Farming Conditions) to obtain an overview of the upland and lowland situation as well

as problems associated with drought and flood conditions.


3

The PAFO and DAFO, together with local authorities and local partners, can use Part 3 of the

CCTAMs #1 (Upland Farming Conditions) and CCTAM #2 (Lowland Farming Conditions) to

facilitate a simple community based action planning process for adaptation to climate change.

Part 3 provides several participatory planning tools. The output will be priority issues and

actions.

Based on the priorities set by farming communities, Extension Officers in consultation with local

authorities will identify priority actions from among the options cited in the CCTAMs. Based on

the agreement with communities, the selected options will then be tested and demonstrated on

the ground. Results from several seasons of observation will be documented and used to revise

the CCTAMs and/or develop more detailed local guides.


4

SELECTED AGRICULTURE CONCEPTS, APPROACHES, COMMODITIES FOR DEVELOPMENT OF CLIMATE CHANGE

TRAINING AND ADAPTATION MODULE FOR CROP PRODUCTION

It is generally anticipated that climate change will affect crop production through an increase in

carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration, rise in temperature, increase or decrease in rainfall and the

availability of water, and extreme events such as floods and droughts. Together they have direct

effects on crop growth and development, grain quality, growth of pests and plant diseases.

While rise in carbon dioxide concentration will enhance crop growth and development slightly

improving crop productivity, the temperature rise associated with the increase in CO2

concentration will reduce or if not neutralize this advantage, thereby resulting in reduced yields.

Increased temperature influences effectively all process in crop production and will reduce yield.

Poor and erratic rainfall and lack of water affect crop growth and can reduce crop yields.

Extreme weather events like drought can affect the soil, crop growth and yields, while floods

and typhoons can destroy standing crops.

The CCTAM for crop production aims to discuss the measures that will:

Minimize production losses from the main crop (rice);

Compensate for potential income losses in rice production through crop diversification;

Build sustainability measures through soil management and introduction of trees in the

farm;

Prevent further aggravation of the usual loses from pest and disease and post-harvest

handling;

Reduce the threat to human health (another form of shock) due to pesticide use.

The criteria used in choosing the measures to be included in the CCTAM are based on:

Locally generated experience by farmer leaders and extension personnel;

Promising research results by local and international agencies working in Lao;

Information from other countries in the humid tropics with similar conditions;

Technologies which are not overly dependent on external inputs and high labour inputs.

The recommended practices and technologies for CCA in crop production are as follows:

1. On-farm and community water management

2. Soil fertility management

3. Innovative production systems (SRI, SCV and OA)

4. Use of climate smart varieties

5. Crop diversification

6. Growing vegetables under harsh climatic conditions

7. Growing fruit trees in the farm


5

8. Integrated pest management (IPM) and preventive methods

9. Post-harvest handling

10. FYI only - Timing of planting

The technologies were chosen in order to have a balance of short term measures (ensure

immediate productivity) and long term measures (ensure sustainability). Most of the

technologies are short term measures that can be implemented at the farm level.

This CCTAM contains two formats of information:

The first is the set of existing locally generated extension materials produced by NAFES,

NAFRI, and other GoL Agencies as well as NGOs that can contribute to climate change

adaptation. The materials, listed in this CCTAM, normally describe the entire production process

and corresponding agricultural technology of crops. Copies will be provided to the PAFO and

DAFO working in IRAS Project sites.

The second format would be the direct description of technologies that are not yet discussed

adequately in existing extension materials. The descriptions would be an organic part of

CTTAMs. However, they would focus on specific adaptation practices that may be applied to

address the effects of climate change such as rainfall aberrations, drought, floods and increase

in temperature, among others.

For instance, as part of promotion for crop diversification, one can use the existing publications

(by NAFES and NAFRI) on how to grow alternative crops other than rice. To supplement the

existing publications, the CCTAM would provide the decision framework for choosing what

species to grow and how crops can be combined with each other.

The first set of recommended practices and technologies for CCA adaptation in crop production

i.e. on-farm/community level water management is also discussed in detail in CCTAM #3 (Water

Management). On the other hand, the last recommendation i.e. timing of planting is not yet

ready for widespread use, as studies and on-farm trials are being undertaken. However, this

technology is going to be available within the next one to two years and is briefly discussed here

so that the PAFO and DAFO will gain an early perspective of this important technical innovation.


6

1.0 ON-FARM AND COMMUNITY LEVEL WATER MANAGEMENT

1.1 RATIONALE FOR THE ACTION

The predicted warming and changes in rainfall pattern could cause a significant decline in water

resources which could decrease water flows, may dry up rivers and lakes, reduce groundwater

recharge and further deplete water resources.

Drought is recognized as a primary constraint for rainfed rice production in Lao PDR. Severe

drought events have affected Lao PDR in the years 1998 and 2003. Unpredictability in the onset

of the rainy season and unreliable rainfall patterns, including rain immediately before or during

harvesting, are already causing losses, and growing confusion and worry in upland farming

communities .Floods also cause indirect damage to rice production through the destruction of

property and farmers’ production means, as well as of infrastructures supporting rice production

such as irrigation systems (e.g. dams, dikes and roads than 50 billion Kip or about 5 million

USD.

Water management would allow the farmer to adapt to the unpredictable availability of water

resulting from changes in climate patterns. At the same time, it reduces the destructive impact

of large volumes of water during extreme weather events.

Without proper water management, physical interventions in the farm (e.g. new varieties, new

crops, natural fertilizers, etc.) may not achieve their full potential. These interventions (e.g. new

varieties) could also be literally “washed away” by surface run-off during heavy rainstorm.

Thus, the ideal first step is to prevent or minimize surface run-off and enhance the conservation

of water in various forms – impounding of surface water, enhancing groundwater, and

increasing soil water holding capacity. At the same time, soil especially top soil, must be saved

to support plant production. It takes time and a lot of money for fertilizers to restore soil fertility if

the top soil is gone. By controlling surface run-off, soil erosion is also minimized.

1.2 OVERVIEW OF RECOMMENDATIONS

A separate guide (CCTAM #3- Water Management) on on-farm and community level water

management describes seven (7) sets of practices. These are briefly summarized below

1.2.1 MINIMIZING WATER RUNOFF IN THE FARM. These are the actions that aim to manage

the powerful force of surface runoff. Key measures include contour plowing, soil erosion control

structures, diversion canals, gully checks and other forms of water and soil conservation. A

labor saving and low cost technology called the natural vegetative strips or NVS is introduced.

Table 1a provides a summary of different soil and water conservation methods. Details are

provided further in CCTAM #3 ( Water Management)


7

1.2.2 CONSTRUCTION OR IMPROVEMENT OF VILLAGE PONDS AND FARM PONDS.

These are actions that aim to improve, construct and maintain the ponds to be able to store

more water over longer period of time. These are highly recommended in both upland and

lowland farms.

1.2.3 IMPROVING EFFICIENCY OF WATER USE. This involves actions that make the most of

the available water either from irrigation systems or underground water sources. An example

would include the Alternative Wetting and Drying (AWD) system being demonstrated under

irrigated rice conditions. Another example would be the use of bucket micro-irrigation system,

an inexpensive drip irrigation method for smallholder vegetable production.

1.2.4 IMPROVING THE SOIL WATER HOLDING CAPACITY. By ensuring soils can hold

moisture for a longer period, the farmer can plant more crops in the same piece of land within a

year. Various methods for improving the availability of soil moisture are described under Section

2 and 3 of this CCTAM.

1.2.5 ADAPTING TO FLOODED SITUATIONS. These include various measures to allow

farming to continue during floods.

1.2.6 PROTECTING THE COMMUNITY’S NATURAL WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM. These

include recommendations for community level efforts to protect the headwaters of community

watersheds and ensure groundwater is safe and sustainable by adopting measures for recharge

of groundwater.


8

Table 1a Examples of soil and water conservation measures that match different situations

Actual Situation Recommendation

A. Slope category ( topography of the terrain )

Flat to undulating (8-8%)

Plant grasses or trees on farm boundaries

Undulating to rolling terrain ( 8-18%)

Practice simple contour plowing Practice mulching.

Rolling to moderately steep (18% to 30%)

Practice Natural Vegetative strip ( NVS ). Practice vetiver grass stips , napier grass strips.

Moderately steep to mountainous (30% to 50%)

Contour hedgerows ( using leguminous trees) Contour bunds with contour canals

Mountainous (Above 50%)

Implement multi story agroforestry

B Examples of Soil and Water conservation methods ( all laid along contour lines )

Limited labor and limited access to planting materials

Natural Vegetative Strip ( NVS)

Labor available , planting materials available. Areas of low rainfall.

Contour bunds (ridge ) with contour canals ( furrows).

With high labor availability and planting materials . Areas of high rainfall

Terrace construction

With access to planting materials. Grass strips ( vetiver , napier grass etc); leguminous hedgerow ( Leucaena, Gliricidia, Caliandra etc )

Where there are plenty of rocks and stones.

Contour rockwall

Where there are plenty of tree trunks, branches, drift woods, branches .

Fascines as soil barriers ( materials are bundled and laid horizontally against wooden pegs)

c. Special Conservation Structures

Where there are long gullies. Check dams made of rocks , grasses or combination In combination with soil traps

Please also see CCTAM # 3 On- farm and Community Level Water Management

Source:

UP SURP. 2003. National Land Use Committee in Planning and Local Governance

IIRR and FAO 2001.Resource management for upland areas in Southeast Asia


9

Figure1 On farm and community level water management

Figure 1.1. Prevalent problem particularly in the uplands: Surface run off & gully erosion.

Effects: loss of valuable soil; landslides in the uplands, local flashfloods in the lowlands (Photos

by IWMC et al MSEC)

Figure 1.2. Manage surface runoff. If the upper portion of the farm is exposed to high surface

erosion from a higher area, establish a diversion canal to divert the runoff and protect the farm

(left). Gully checks may be established on gullies to slow down the flow of water, promote

infiltration into the soil; and collect valuable soil (center and right).


10

Figure 1.3. Simple soil erosion control measures that are not labour intensive

Figure 1.4. There is a need to improve farm ponds to lessen evaporation and seepage.

Harvesting rain from the roof can provide water for the household, livestock and small vegetable

garden


11

Figure 1.5. Improving efficiency of water use. One way is through the application of Alternative

wetting and drying or AWD (left). For small gardens, the bucket drip irrigation is an option (right)

(Left photo from IRRI)

Figure 1.6. Improving soil water holding capacity is the third form of water storage for crops


12

Figure 1.7. Sustaining the natural water supply of the community


13

2.0 SOIL FERTILITY IMPROVEMENT


The projected increase in the intensity of rainfall and frequency of flood events will likely

increase surface runoff and soil erosion. This will eventually lead to a decline in soil fertility, and

consequently crop yields. Increases in temperature with limited moisture would tend to

negatively affect beneficial soil microorganisms and in the process affect the decomposition

processes.

Losses in rice crop production from dry spells, very wet conditions, or pests and diseases can

partly be minimized if the plants are healthy. Healthy soils produce healthy plants. The full

potential of improved varieties can also be obtained if the soil is able to provide the needed

plant nutrients for optimum growth.

In CCTAM #3 (Water Management), we learn about how to conserve the water and soil. Once

the physical interventions are made to control soil erosion, the next task is to improve soil

fertility. There are many ways to do this. One of the most effective ways is to adapt to the way

Mother Nature improves soil fertility in the humid tropics. In CCTAMs #1 and #2, we learn about

the issue of high surface runoff and high leaching or drainage of soil nutrients due to excessive

rainfall in the humid tropics where Lao PDR belongs.

The major agent for minimizing the runoff and leaching process and making soil nutrients

accessible to the root zone of the plant is the organic matter. Organic matter helps retain soil

moisture and “holds” soil nutrients for plant roots to have easier access to the nutrients. It also

provides fertility improvement.

Build-up of organic matter is the key ingredient in many types of measures that improve soil

fertility and moisture retention such as composting, green manuring, multiple cropping with

legumes, zero tillage, etc.

This concept of fertility improvement is not about increasing the amount and concentration of

nutrients in the soil (e.g. inorganic fertilizers) but rather helping the plants to have easier access

to soil nutrients from both inorganic and organic fertilizers through the build-up of organic

matter.

2.2 RECOMMENDED PRACTICES

The specific measures for fertility improvement that emphasizes the build-up of organic matter

would include the items listed below.

2.2.1 ENHANCING THE ROLE OF LEGUMES IN THE FARMING SYSTEM. This is done

through multiple cropping (e.g. rotational cropping and intercropping) using leguminous species


14

such as peanut, mung bean, rice bean, cowpea, winged bean, etc. Please see also Section 5

(Crop diversification) of this manual for details. Legumes are important because:

a) They “fix” or capture nitrogen from the atmosphere and deposit this in the soil upon

decomposition;

b) If planted after cereals, they help break the life cycle of pests.

2.2.2 ENHANCING THE ROLE OF TREES IN THE FARMING SYSTEM (please see Section 7

of this manual). Trees play a major in fertility improvement through the following functions:

a) Enhance water infiltration through the build-up of organic matter under the tree;

b) Protect beneficial microorganisms in the soils from intense heat of the sun and

contribute to the organic matter build up;

c) Pump up nutrients from the deeper parts of the soil and help make this available to the

plants via leaf litter from the tree biomass.

2.2.3 INTEGRATING THE LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION INTO THE FARMING SYSTEM (see

also separate CCTAM #4 Small livestock). Integration of small livestock production in cropping

operations includes:

a) Ensuring that livestock waste remains in the farm as part of natural fertilizer for crops

made possible by the practice of on-farm forage/fodder production and feeding;

b) Through the above practice, the farm family especially the women folk and children can

reduce the time needed to look for feeds, thus, be able to do more productive tasks in

the farm and home;

c) Reduce the incidence of loss of livestock, which could happen if the livestock is allowed

to range freely.

2.2.4 USE OF BIO-FERTILIZER (COMPOST, BIO-EXTRACT, ETC.). Information on the

preparation and use of these materials are available from several sources. Examples of

technologies are provided by attached extension materials to this section. Specific technologies

include the following:

a) Composting - this is the process of assisting the natural biological process of breaking

up organic wastes such as food waste, manure, leaves, etc., into an extremely useful

humus-like substance through the action of various microorganisms. Compost is used to

improve soil fertility and condition of the soil.

b) Bio-extract - is a liquid derived from the fermentation of vegetables and fruits with sugar.

It contains vitamins, minerals, hormones and enzymes. It is an organic substance and

an effective microorganism that helps develop soil productivity. Bio-extract can also

come from animal extracts (fish, crabs, snails, etc.). It can be applied (sprayed) directly

http://www.benefits-of-recycling.com/foodwastecomposting.html

http://www.benefits-of-recycling.com/compostingmanure.html

http://www.benefits-of-recycling.com/compostingleaves.html


15

to plants or to organic materials in the soil. Aside from its soil fertility value, it is useful as

a disinfectant in livestock operations and can be easily prepared at home.

c) Mulching - in agriculture and gardening, mulch is a protective cover placed over the soil

to retain moisture, reduce erosion, provide nutrients, and suppress weed growth and

seed germination. Materials for mulching would include rice straw and leaves. Mulching

in gardens and landscaping mimics the leaf cover that is found in forest floors. This

protects the soil from extreme heat of the sun and supports beneficial soil

microorganisms.

Sometimes undesirable organisms like disease-causing fungi, bacteria and nematodes may be

added to the soil with the application of organic plant materials. Stirring the mulch occasionally

eliminates the mold. During rainy season, mulch should be applied only when the plants are at

least a month old to deter pest attack. To avoid introducing weed seeds use only the middle of

the straw, not the roots or flowers.

Table 2a. Nutrient content of various farm materials that are used as straw.

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash

Corn cobs x x xxx

Corn silage x x x

Corn stalks x x x

Rice straw xx x x

Rice bran xx x x

Rice hulls

Egg shells x x X

Feathers xxx x X

Sugar by-product X xxx X

Coffee grounds X x X

Tea grounds xx x X

Seaweed xx x X

Fish bones xx xx xx

Banana stalk X xx xxx

Banana skins X xx xxx

Banana leaves X xx xxx

Tobacco leaves xx x xx

Tobacco stalk xx x xx

Fresh manure:

Cattle X x X

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gardening

http://cougar.eb.com/soundc11/m/mulch001.wav

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landscaping

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest


16

Chicken xx x X

Horse X x X

Swine x x X

Bat X xxx X

Duck X x X

Note: xxx - good source xx – fair source x – poor source

Source: IIRR, 1993

2.3 BENEFITS AND COSTS

The above measures will enhance the organic matter content of the soil and make nutrients

(macro-nutrients and micro-nutrients) more readily accessible to the plant. These ensure that

current crop yields are sustained in the face of climate change, especially as most farmers

would not be able to afford to increase the volume of fertilizer application. These measures may

also be able to increase crop yields if applied with other agronomic practices (e.g. minimum

tillage, crop diversification, etc.).

Most of the practices recommended involve low external inputs. The main costs are cost of

seeds in the case of introducing legumes and legume inoculants and labor costs for multiple

cropping with legumes, preparation of compost, bio-extract and other related actions.

2.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS PROJECT SITES

The proposed actions are generally applicable in irrigated and rainfed rice-based farming

systems as well as other production systems (e.g. pig and chicken raising) in Savanankhet and

Sayaboury.

2.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME TOGETHER WITH

THIS CCTAM

Topic/Title of Publication (Including code # for NAFES

Publications)

Source of Publication

a) Topic: Enhancing the role of legumes See Section 5, this

CCTAM

b) Topic: Enhancing the role of Trees See Section 7, this

CCTAM

c) Topic: Enhancing the role of animals See CCTAM # 5 (

Livestock)


17

d) Topic: Enhancing the use of bio fertilizers

Making Compost (C.1L) NAFES

Preparation of Bio extract SAEDA

Preparation of Bio Compost SAEDA

Straw for Improving Soil (C12 B) NAFES


18

Figure 2. Soil Fertility Improvement

Figure 2.1. Enhance the role of legumes

Figure 2.2. Enhance the role of trees on farms


19

Figure 2.3. Enhance the role of livestock in the farm

Figure 2.4. Use of Bio fertilizers such as composting (left) and bioextracts (right)


20

Figure 2.5. Mulching


21

3.0 INNOVATIVE, NATURE BASED PRODUCTION SYSTEMS


Higher temperature and propensity for drought increases the evapo-transpiration of plants and

evaporation from the soil. High surface runoff and soil erosion result to soils with low fertility.

Lack of soil moisture and lack of fertility affect many farms. How can production systems be

improved without necessarily changing varieties or species?

In CCTAM #3 (Water Management), we discussed the ways to store surface water and improve

the efficiency of water use in rainfed or irrigated rice paddies (especially during land

preparation). In this section, we will discuss about innovative production systems (already being

adopted by many rural communities in Lao PDR) that:

a) improve the access of plants to nutrients in the soil as demonstrated by the SRI;

b) conserve and use of moisture in the soil, therefore, allowing multiple cropping (as

demonstrated by the direct seeded, mulch-based cropping system or SCV); and

c) avoid the use of chemicals in the production system, thereby, allowing natural

processes to provide for fertility improvement and crop protection.


3.2.1 THE SYSTEMS FOR RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI)

The system for rice intensification or SRI is a scheme that involves low cost production of

bountiful rice harvests. The underlying strategy is to build hardy roots capable of effectively

capturing soil nutrients. This is achieved by transplanting seedlings while they are still young

and by limiting the days that the crop is submerged to water. Plants have wider spacing and

only one plant is established per hill.

A simple manual plant weeder will help the farmer deal with the weeds under dry conditions.

Natural fertilizers are applied, which makes nutrients readily available for the roots to absorb.

These actions produce healthy plants capable of producing bountiful harvests. SRI is widely

being practiced in parts of the Mekong region. In Lao, it is being practiced in selected districts in

Luang Prabang, Sayaboury and Xieng Khouang particularly where the Department of Irrigation

has implemented it under several projects.

3.2.2 THE DIRECT SEEDED MULCH-BASED CROPPING SYSTEM (SVC)

The direct seed mulch-based cropping system or SVC is a method referred to as conservation

agriculture. It involves zero tillage and is being adopted by many farmers in Sayaboury and

other northern provinces. Rice, corn and other important crops are planted without having to

plow the soil. This is done by maintaining a thick layer of crop residue from the previous crop


22

and directly planting the seeds through the biomass in the soil with the help of a simple seeder.

The seeder injects the seed into the friable soil beneath the biomass layer.

The crop residue layer provides many readily available plant nutrients to the plant roots. Soil

moisture is effectively conserved while plant nutrients are made readily available to plant roots,

which make growing of several crops throughout the year possible. Leguminous species are

rotated with cereals like upland rice and maize.

3.2.3 ORGANIC AGRICULTURE IN PERI-URBAN VEGETABLE GRAOWING VILLAGES

Organic agriculture is being piloted in several peri-urban villages in Lao PDR and holds promise

as a means of getting the most of agriculture under water-stressed conditions. Since the system

uses bio-organic fertilizer, organic matter is enhanced and soil moisture and fertility is

maintained. Organic agriculture is most promising for small scale vegetable production, which is

a fall back when supplemental crop based income is needed to compensate the losses of the

main crop.


SRI has been proven effective to increase rice yields by many farmers in the Northern provinces

(including Sayaboury). It uses available water efficiently and reduces the cost of planting

materials. The challenge is the labor requirement for careful weeding operations and snail

control. Weeding effort can be mitigated by a manual weeding machine.

SCV has also been proven to work well in upland crop production especially in the Northern

provinces. This is also being tested in Othouphone, Savanakhet. The system has low labor

requirement as weeding is eliminated. However, it requires the procurement of grain legumes as

cover crops and herbicides in the first few years to suppress weed growth. It also requires the

use of a manually operated seeder.

SCV trainers may be tapped from the network of successful adaptors. The immediate contact in

Vientiane is the National Conservation Agriculture Center (NCAC).

Organic agriculture practices have been proven effective in the pilot sites of the DOA0

HELVETAS Project called PROFIL. These practices include the use of nature based fertilizers

such as compost, bio-extracts, etc., as well as natural crop protection. If the niche market for

organic agriculture is being aimed, certification as organic product may be required from the Lao

Certification Body. The challenge of organic agriculture practices is the labor demand for

preparation of natural fertilizers and pest control.


23


SRI and SCV have been tested in several parts of Sayaboury. SCV is being tested in

Othouphone Savanakhet. According to the DOI, SRI was found to be most successful in upland

terrace paddies where the production system is more self-contained and not dependent on a

common decision-making among farmers on irrigation water management.

SRI trainers from Luang Prabang may be tapped to help other farmers learn about the

technology. Contact the Department of Irrigation for the list of communities with farmer trainers.

SCV is applicable in upland conditions in Savanakhet. SCV trainers may be tapped from the

network of successful adopters. The immediate contact in Vientiane is the National

Conservation Agriculture Center.

Organic agriculture practices are applicable in small scale vegetable production in small

townships in Project sites. The practices in preparing natural fertilizers and natural crop

protection can be applied. However, the certification process need not be adopted at this time.

Facilitators and farmer trainers of organic agriculture may be accessed from the DOA of MAF or

the PROFIL Project.

3.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME TOGETHER WITH THIS CCTAM

Topic/List of Publications Source

Systems for Rice Intensification – DOI guidelines MAF DOI

SRI Lao website http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/laos/index.html#presentations

Cornell U, USA

Direct Seeded, mulch based cropping systems (SCV) NAFRI

Organic Agriculture Manual NAFES – PROFIL

Organic Agriculture Pamphlets NAFES PROFIL

SUPPLEMENTAL REFERENCES (GLOBAL)

http://sri.ciifad.cornell.edu/countries/laos/index.html#presentations


24

Figure 3. Innovative, nature-based production systems

Figure 3.1. System of rice intensification (SRI): a young rice seedling (left); transplanting of

young rice seedlings for good root growth (center); need less water to also promote good

nutrient uptake. To control the weeds the farmer runs a weeder between rice plants. (Source:

WWF 2007)

Figure 3.2. Direct Seeded Mulch Based System. No tillage; mulch covers the soil -keeps soil

moisture intact. Therefore it can support several crops in a year (left); and direct seeding to the

soil though the mulch avoids opening up the soil which causes loss of moisture (right).


25

Figure 3.3. Organic Agriculture. This system does not use chemical fertilizers or pesticides and

there is high demand for these products in urban areas.


26

4.0 USE OF CLIMATE SMART CROP VARIETIES (RICE)


The grain yield of major crops including rice reduces by 5-7% for every 1 deg C rise in mean

daily temperature. A simulation study using the CCAM climate model in Savannakhet Province

projects a 10 percent yield reduction under simulated CO2 concentration of 540 ppm. Also,

farmers in Thailand and Lao PDR recognized that extreme climatic events have caused a loss

of 30-50 percent in productivity during moderate flood years.

To adapt to the changes in climate patterns, the farming community may also choose crop

varieties that are tolerant to extreme weather events such as long dry periods and flooded

conditions. This allows the farmer to continue crop production even during these periods.


4.2.1 RICE

As of May 2012, NAFRI recommends certain rice varieties (improved varieties and indigenous

varieties) for conditions of drought, flood, low temperature and other special conditions. These

are based on the report of NAFRI (Mr Phoumin Inthapanya, Mr Phetmaniseng Xangsayasane

both of NAFRI RCCRC and Jackue Mitchell and Shu Fukai of the University of Queensland

under ACIAR support) and are indicated in Table 4a.

Table 4a. Specific variety recommendations for potential problem areas/specific target

characters.

Problem area/ Specific target

characters

Recommended Varieties (under key lines)

TDK PNG TSN RD OTHERS

1 Drought‐prone TDK9, TDK11, TDK12 PNG1

PNG3

NTN1

2 Flood prone TDK1 sub1 IR64sub1

3 Low temperature

TDK5, TDK6, TDK8, TDK11

4 Salinity areas KDML105

5 Fe toxicity areas TDK9, TDK10, TDK11 TSN1 RD10

Muang-nga Doktiew

6 Low soil fertility TDK9, TDK11, TDK12 TSN1 KDML105

7 GM problem Muang-nga Ta-khiat Lay-keaw

8 Aroma G RD Kal Noi


27

6 Hom-nang-nuan

9 Aroma NG KDML105 HTDK1 VTE-450-1 Homsavanh Homchampa

Adapted from: NAFRI (RCCRC) and University of Queensland 201x. Recommended Rice Varieties for Lao PDR (unpublished)

In addition, NAFRI recommends particular varieties for specific seasons, regions and location in

the rice terraces within the farm. Please see Table 4b.

Upper terraces tend to dry up faster than the middle and lower terraces, following the general

flow of water. Lower terraces tend to be more fertile and can be flooded during the wet season

and can have longer growing seasons, thus, long maturing varieties are useful here.

The middle terraces are more prone to drought. It is the largest type of growing area in Laos

and many varieties are recommended here. The top terraces have a relatively low short growing

season. Therefore, the recommended varieties for this position would be the short maturing and

drought resistant varieties.

The recommendations for particular regions also take into account the need to avoid

susceptibility to common biotic problems such as brown plant hopper blasts.


28

Table 4b. Generally recommended varieties for wet and dry seasons at different terrace positions in regions in Lao PDR.

Season

Regions

Terrace Position

Lower Middle Top

Wet

Northern TDK1, TDK5, TDK6, TDK11, TDK8, RD10, Kai Noi

Central‐upper

RD6*, RD8, TDK10

TDK1, TDK1sub1, TDK8, TDK6, TSN1, VTE450‐1*,

TDK4, VTE450‐2, KDML105, RD15, Hom Nang Nouane, Chao Dok Dou

TDK9*, TDK11, TDK12, RD10 , NTN1

Central‐lower

RD6*, TDK10,

TDK1, TDK1sub1, TDK8, TDK6, PNG1, TSN3, TSN1, TSN5

TDK9*, RD15, TDK11, PNG1, PNG3, TDK12, RD10, NTN1

Southern

RD6*, TDK10

TDK1, TDK1sub1, TDK8, TDK6, PNG1, TSN3, PNG5, Chao Dok Dou, PNG6, KDML105*

TDK9*, TDK11, PNG1, PNG3, TDK12, RD10, NTN1, KDML105*

Dry Whole TDK1, TDK5, TDK6, TDK8, TDK11, TSN3, TSN5, PNG1, PNG5, PNG6, NTN1, RD10

Adapted from: NAFRI (RCCRC) and University of Queensland 201x. Recommended Rice

Varieties for Lao PDR (unpublished) Note: Sayaboury is under the Northern region while

Savanakhet is under “Central Lower “regions

The key characteristics of the varieties cited in Tables 4a and 4b are indicated in Table 4c.


29

Table 4c. Description of widely grown varieties (improved variety).

Variety Growing Duration/ Flowering

Date

Pest and Disease Resistance Ratings Region Season

Terrace Position BPH BI BL

B NB BD GL

H GM Fe tox

TDK

TDK1 135‐140 MR MR MR S S S MS S N, CU, CL, S WS Middle

TDK4 Mid Oct MR MR R MR R S S S CU WS Middle

TDK5 125‐130 MS MS MR MS R MS S MT N WS All

Whole DS All

TDK6 135‐140 MS MS MR MS R MS MS MT N, CU, CL, S WS All, Middle

Whole DS All

TDK8 135‐140 MS MR MR MS R S S MS N, CU, CL, S WS Middle

Whole DS All

TDK9 Late Sept S R MR MS R S S T CU, CL, S WS Top

TDK10 Mid Oct S R R MS R S S T CU, CL, S WS Lower

TDK11 135‐140 MS R MR MR S S S T N, CU, CL, S WS All, Top

Whole DS All

TDK12 Early Oct S MS MS MS R S MS MT CU, CL, S WS Top

TDK1 sub 1

140‐145 S MR MR S R S S S CU, CL, S WS Middle

RD

RD6 Late Oct MS MR MS MS R S S MT CU, CL, S WS Lower

RD8 Late Oct S MR MS MS R S S MT CU WS Lower

RD10 Mid Oct S S S S R S S T N, CU, CL, S WS All, Top

Whole DS All

RD15 Early Oct S MR MS MS R S S MT CU, CL WS Middle

TSN

TSN1 140‐145 MS MR MR MS R MS MS T CU, CL WS Middle

TSN3 135‐140 MS R R MR MR R S MT CU, CL WS Middle

Whole DS All

TSN5 135‐140 MS R R R R S S MS CL WS Middle

Whole DS All

PNG

PNG1 125‐130 S R MR S R R MS T CL, S WS Middle, Top


30

Variety Growing Duration/ Flowering

Date

Pest and Disease Resistance Ratings Region Season

Terrace Position BPH BI BL

B NB BD GL

H GM Fe tox

Whole DS All

PNG3 130‐135 R MR S MS R S S MT CL, S WS Top

PNG5 125‐130 S S MR S R S S MT S WS Middle

Whole DS All

PNG6 130‐135 S R MR MS R S S MT S WS Middle

Whole DS All

VTE

VTE 450-1*

Early Oct S MR MR MS R S S MT CU WS Middle

VTE 450-2

135‐140 S MR MR MS R S S MT CU WS Middle

KDML

KDML 105

Mid Oct S S S S R S S T CU,S WS Middle, Top

NTN

NTN1 130‐135 MS MS MS S R MS S MS CU, CL, S WS Top

Whole DS All

Source: NAFRI 2011. Recommended Rice Varieties for Lao PDR (unpublished) Legend: *non-glutinous Region: N-Northern, CU-Central Upper, CL-Central Lower, S-Southern, Central Lower includes Savanakhet

Season: WS-Wet Season, DS-Dry Season

Pest and Disease Resistance Ratings: R=Resistant; MR=Mildly resistant; MS=Mildly susceptible; S=Susceptible; VS=Very

susceptible; T=tolerant; MT=Moderately tolerant.

BPH=Brown plant hopper; Bl=Blast; BLB=Bacterial Leaf Blight; NB=Neck Blast; BD=Bakanae Disease; GLH=Green Leaf Hopper;

GM=Gall Midge; Fe Tox=Iron (Fe) toxicity.


31

Table 4d. Description of widely grown varieties (traditional variety).

Varieties Flowering Time Pest and Disease Resistance

BPH BI BLB NB BD GLH GM Fe tox

Nang‐nuan 5‐10 Oct S S S S R S S MT

Hom‐nang‐nuan 15‐20 Oct S MS MS S R S S MT

Muang‐nga 10‐15 Oct S R S R R S R T

Ta‐khiat 5‐10 Oct S R S R R S R T

Mak‐hing 10‐15 Oct S S S S R S S T

Dok‐mai 10‐15 Oct S S S S R S MS MT

Lay‐keaw 15‐20 Oct S S S MS R S MS MT

Dok‐tiou Late Sept Early Oct S S S R R S S T

Kai‐noi Late Sept S S S MS R S R T

Dodeng Late Sept S R R MR R S S T

Chao Dok Dou Mid Oct S MR MR MS R S MS MT

Source: NAFRI 2011. Recommended Rice Varieties for Lao PDR (unpublished) Legend: Pest and Disease Resistance Ratings: R=Resistant; MR=Mildly resistant; MS=Mildly susceptible; S=Susceptible; VS=very

susceptible; T=tolerant; MT=Moderately tolerant. BPH=Brown plant hopper; Bl=Blast; BLB=Bacterial Leaf Blight; NB=Neck Blast; BD=Bakanae Disease; GLH=Green Leaf Hopper; GM=Gall Midge; Fe Tox=Iron (Fe) toxicity.


32


Drought and flood tolerant varieties would enable farmers to adapt to climate aberrations better

and ensure chances of harvest within a season. The costs would include the cost of new seeds.

All other production practices would be the same.


The information available indicates what varieties would be suitable to IRAS project sites. Rice

seeds can be sourced from the various NAFRI seed production centers. Drought tolerant

varieties are generally accepted. Sub mergent varieties are still undergoing final observations.

4.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME TOGETHER WITH THIS CCTAM

Topics/List of Extension Materials Source

NAFRI (unpublished)

Recommended Rice Varieties for Lao PDR

NAFRI

NAFRI – SEARCICE Manual for Conservation of Genetic Resources and Seed Production

NAFRI


33

Figure 4. Use of climate smart crop varieties

4.1 Laos is a one of the center for rice biodiversity in the world. Many indigenous rice varieties

form the basis for selecting varieties that are drought tolerant and submergence tolerant( Photos

from http://mikejackson1948.wordpress.com/tag/lao-pdr/)

4.1. As of 2012 NAFRI, I collaboration with development partners and villagers is

recommending 6 varieties that are drought tolerant, two that can tolerate submergence. Most of

these varieties are from TDK lines. Other varieties are recommended for low temperature ( 4);

saline conditions (1); areas with high iron content (7) , and areas with low soil fertility ( 5). See

discussion in this CCTAM.( Photos from NAFRI and IRRI)

https://mikejackson1948.files.wordpress.com/2012/03/picture16.jpg


34

5.0 CROP DIVERSIFICATION


Variability in the amount and distribution of rainfall is the most important factor limiting yield of rainfed rice. Project Temperature increases will also be expected to reduce yields. The use of drought or flood tolerant varieties may be a solution. However many farmers would not easily switch to new varieties for various reasons. In this case, adjustments may be made in terms of production systems or adding new crops into the farming system. Crop diversification is growing other annual crops in addition to/or instead of the main crop such as rice. This is done in order to “compensate” the low yields or zero yields of the main crop i.e. rice, due to weather aberrations within the growing season, as well as to drought or flood. There are four ways to diversify with new crops:

a) It may totally replace the main crop and becomes the alternative crop;

b) It is planted before the main crop is established. Usually this is between the early onset

of the rainy season and the peak rainfall when rice seedlings are transplanted;

c) It can be planted immediately after or just before the main crop is harvested, utilizing the

residual moisture of the soil;

d) It can be grown at the same time with the main crop in order to take advantage of full

rainfall.

Alternative crops may be annuals or perennials. Section 5 discusses about annual crops.

Section 6 further discusses the practices to grow vegetables successfully under harsh climatic

conditions while Section 7 discusses the introduction of fruit trees and other types of trees in the

farm.


5.2.1 POTENTIAL ANNUAL CROP SPECIES FOR CROP DIVERSIFICATION

Tables 5a, 5b and 5c are the summary of recommended legume and vegetable species for crop

diversification. It is based on recommendations from two sources and timeframes. The first

source is the list prepared by NAFRI in 1998 for the whole country. The second is the 2005

recommendation by NAFRI NAFES and NUOL for upland conditions. Additional information is

incorporated in the original sources of information in terms of growing period, soil and water

requirements of these species.

These tables also indicate the growing period (referred to as “crop cycle” in the table) and

environmental requirements (elevation, soil and water). The information comes from FAO

EcoCrop database. The information on crop cycle indicates the range of days of harvesting the


35

crop. The lower value refers to the earliest time a crop can be harvested while the higher value

refers to the latest time one can harvest the product in the field. In reality, farmers would not

wait until the latest period. The usual harvesting period would be between 1 to 3 months only.

Table 5d describes the recommended horticultural practices for many recommended vegetables

as prepared by NAFRI.


36

Table 5a. Legumes recommended for crop diversification

Species and Production Intensity1

Crop cycle (DAS)

Elevation (m)

Soil Requirement Water

Requirement (mm/yr)

Remarks2

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) / 4

30-240 between sea level and 2000

pH 5.5-7.5 light to medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile

500-1500 -wet and dry season -does not tolerate extended flooding and salinity

French bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) / 4

50-270 600-2000 pH 5.5-7.5 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile

500-2000 -dry season -sensitive to flooding

Mungbean (Vigna radiata) / 2

50-120 up to 2000 m pH 5.5-6.2 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile

650-900 -wet and dry season

Peanut (Arachis hypogea) / 4

90-150 1500-1650 pH 5.5-6.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

600-1500 -wet and dry season -There should preferably be no rain on a crop once pods are mature.

Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) / 1

90-365 between sea level to 2000

pH 5.0-7.0 texture: medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile

600-1500 -wet season -Does not tolerate

waterlogging

Rice bean (Vigna umbellata) / 1

40-130 suited to humid tropical

lowlands at elevations up

to 2000

pH 6.0-7.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

700-1500 -wet season -Tolerant to some degree of waterlogging

Soybean (Glycine max) / 4

75-180 between sea level and 3000


600-1500 -wet and dry season -sensitive to waterlogging

1 Production Intensity refers to: 1 – low of labor and inputs, 2 – high labor and low input, 3 – low labor and high input, 4 – high labor and input

2 NAFRI and NAFES in 2005 indicated which species are suitable for dry, wet, wet and dry or dry and wet seasons. In addition, other recommendations for water requirement from

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1993-2007, http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropFindForm (May 2012) are included here.


37


Crop cycle (DAS)

Elevation (m)


Requirement (mm/yr)

Remarks2

Sugar bean (Pisum sativum) / 2

60-140 1000-1200 pH 5.5-7.0 light, medium to heavy textured, well-drained, highly fertile

800-1200

Winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) / 2

50-270 up to 2500 pH 5.5-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile

1000-2500 -wet season -Never survives waterlogging

yambean (Pachyrrhizus erosus) / 1

150-270 up to 1750 pH 6.5-8.0 light to medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

1300-1700 -wet and dry season -Frequent watering during rapid growth

Yard long bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis) / 2

50-150 700-1000 m pH 5.5 -7.0 medium to heavy textured, well-drained, moderately fertile

1500-2000 -wet season -Tolerant to some degree of waterlogging

(The list here matches the list of upland species recommended by NAFRI & NAFES, 1998)


38

Table 5b. Vegetables recommended for crop diversification.


Crop Cycle (DAS)

Elevation (m)


Requirement (mm/yr)

Remarks4

Angled loofah (Luffa acutangula) / 2

40-150 <500 pH 5.5-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

1200-2000 -dry season more successful -excessive rain may reduce flowering and fruiting

Bittergourd (Momordica charantia) / 4


2000-2500 -dry season

Mottle gourd (Lagenaria siceraria) / 2

60-120 600-2700 pH 5.5-7.0 light or medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

1200-1800 -dry or wet season

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var capitata) / 4


500-1000 -wet and dry season -Weekly irrigation is recommended

Carrot (Daucus carota) / 4


600-1200 -dry season -Needs a lot of moisture during the first 30 days of growth

Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) / 4

60-120 >1000 pH 6.0-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

600-1100 -dry season -sensitive to waterlogging

Chinese cabbage (Brassica chinensis) / 4

40-90 1500 pH 6.0-7.5 medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile

800-1600 -wet and dry season - High water requirement





39


Crop Cycle (DAS)

Elevation (m)


Requirement (mm/yr)

Remarks4

Chinese kale (Brassica oleracea L. cv. Group Chinese Kale) / 4

60-85 up to 3000 pH 5.4-6.0, light, medium, heavy textured, well-drained, moderately fertile

450-1000 -dry season -irrigation often produce optimum yield

Chinese mustard (Brassica juncea) / 1

50-100 up to 2000 pH 5.5-6.5 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

700-2400 -wet and dry season -Regular watering to maintain uniformly moist soil

Chinese radish (Raphanus sativus) / 3

50-80 DAS

pH 6.0-7.0 light to medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

1000-1500 -wet and dry season -sensitive to waterlogging and water deficiency

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) / 4


1000-1200 -dry season -Requires constantly available water

Eggplant (Solanum melongena) / 4

70-120 800-1200 pH 5.5-6. medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

1200-1600 -wet season -Require ample moisture at all times

Garland chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum coronarium) / 1

30-55 - pH 6.0-6.5 medium to heavy textured, well-drained, highly fertile


Garlic (Allium sativum) / 4

90-120 500-2000 pH 6.0-6.6 light to medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

750-1600 -dry and wet season -Does not grow well in areas with excessive rainfall

Lettuce, head and leaf type (Lactuca sativa) / 4

35-85 1000 pH 6.0-7.0 light to medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile

1100-1400 -dry and wet season -Needs a relatively high water requirement


40


Crop Cycle (DAS)

Elevation (m)


Requirement (mm/yr)

Remarks4

Pepper

hot (Capsicum frutescens) / 4

120-180 between sea level up to

1800


600-1500 -wet season -Uniform rainfall is preferred

sweet (Capsicum anuum) / 4


600-1250 -wet season -Low tolerance to flooding

Morning glory/Kangkong (Ipomoea aquatica) / 1

30-70 DAS

- pH 5.0-7.0 shallow, poorly drained, highly fertile

2000-2500 -marshy, waterlogged areas

Multiplier onion (Alluim cepa var. aggregatum) / 1

60-100 between sea level up to

2500

pH 6.0-7.0 light textured, well-drained, highly fertile

450-600 -dry season -moist conditions but not excessive

Onion (Allium cepa) / 4


350-600 -dry and wet season - Sensitive to water deficit

Pak Choi (Brassica rapa Pak Choi) / 3

21-45 - pH 5.5-7.0 light to medium textured, well-drained, moderately fertile


Pumpkin/squash (Cucurbita maxima) / 4

80-140 up to 2000 pH 5.5-7.5 wide range of soil type, deep, well-drained, highly fertile

600-1000 -wet season -Can tolerate dry and wet conditions fairly well

Smooth loofah (Luffa cylindrical) / 2


1200-2000 -wet season

Snake gourd (Trichosanthes cucumerina) / 1

50-130 days

<1000-1500 pH 6.5-7 light, medium or heavy textured, well-drained,

2000-2500 -does not tolerate dry soils but also sensitive to waterlogging


41


Crop Cycle (DAS)

Elevation (m)


Requirement (mm/yr)

Remarks4

moderately fertile

Spring onion (Allium fistulosum) / 3


850-1600 -wet season -Moist soil is required throughout the growing period, but excessive soil water and high humidity encourage diseases

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum) / 4


600-1300 -dry season -Sensitive to waterlogging

Watermelon (Citrullus lunatus) / 4

80-110 up to 1000 pH 6.0-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

500-700 -dry season -excessive rainfall can reduce number of fruits and promote disease

The list here corresponds to NAFRI’s list of recommended vegetables in NAFRI & NAFES, 1998)


42

Table 5c. Additional list of vegetables recommended for crop diversification.


Crop Cycle (DAS)

Elevation (m)


Requirement (mm/yr)

Remarks6

Bitter cucumber (Citrullus colocynthis) / 2

80-180 - pH 4.5-7.5 light textured, well-drained, moderately fertile

300-500 -wet season

Chayote (Sechium edule) / 1


800-2000 -wet season -Requires evenly distributed rainfall

Chinese water chestnut (Eleocharis dulcis) / 2

200-240 50-1200 pH 6.9-7.3 heavy textured, poorly drained (saturated > 50% of yr), highly fertile


Chive (Allium schoenoprasum) / 1

70-100 up to 2000 m pH 6-6.6 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

450-1600 -dry and wet season -Regular watering throughout growth

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) / 1


500-1400 -dry and wet season

Dill (Anethum graveolens) / 1


800-1200 --dry and wet season -Water only when rainfall

is sparse

Hindu lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) / 1

120-200 - pH 6.0-6.5 heavy textured, poorly drained (saturated > 50% of year), moderately fertile


Leek (Allium ampeloprasum L. cv. Group Leek) / 2


750-1000 -dry season -Keep moist, not

waterlogged





43


Crop Cycle (DAS)

Elevation (m)


Requirement (mm/yr)

Remarks6

Peppermint (Mentha piperita) / 1

40-330 1000 pH 5.5-6.5 shallow, well-drained, highly fertile

1000-2200 -dry and wet season -Requires a high water

requirement

Spiny bitter cucumber (Momordica cochinchinensis) / 1

60-240 - pH 6.5-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

1500-2500 -wet season

Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) / 1

80-270 up to 1000 m pH 6.0-7.0 medium textured, well-drained, highly fertile

1000-1600 -dry and wet season - Needs to be watered from below, avoiding stem and leaves

Sweet melon (Cucumis melo) / 4

50-120 near sea level up to 1000


1000-1300 -wet season - Requires lots of moisture

Water lily (Nymphaea odorata)

- - - - -marshy, waterlogged areas

Water yam (Dioscorea alata) / 1



Watercress (Nasturtium officinale) / 1

40-80 1000 pH 6.5-7.5 light to medium textured, poorly drained (saturated >50% of yr) moderately fertile


Wax gourd (Benincasa hispida) / 2

80-160 up to 1500 pH 5.6-6.8 light textured, well-drained, highly fertile

400-800 -wet season -ample irrigation is needed during dry periods

(Note: The list constitute the NAFRI list of 2005 that was not part of the NAFRI 1998 table).


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Table 5d. List of vegetable varieties and horticultural requirements.

Name of

vegetable

Method of

planting

Quantity

of seeds

per rai

Planting distance Harvesting

period

(Day)

Appropriate

Fertilizer

formula

Fertilizer

application

Remark

Between

hill

Between

row

Chinese

cabbage

Sowing

Seed

dropping

2 kg

800 gram

30

30

40

40

40-60

40-60

12-8-8

12-8-8

After

transplanting

or aged 3

weeks old.

Chinese green

cabbage

Sowing

Seed

dropping

Seedling

2 kg

800 gram

200 gram

50 60 65-90 12-8-8 Two times:

before growing

and after

transplanting,

50-70 Kg/time

Transplant

after seedling

get 3- 4

weeks

Chinese mustard Drop seed

Seeding

800 gram

200 gram

50 60 55-75 12-8-8 After

transplanting or

aged 3 weeks

old

Pak choi Sowing 2 kg 25 30 45-55 12-8-8 After

transplanting or

aged 3 weeks

old

Chinese Kale Sowing

Seed

dropping

2 kg

800 gram

20 20 45-60 12-8-8 After

transplanting or

aged 3 weeks


45

Name of

vegetable

Method of

planting

Quantity

of seeds

per rai


period

(Day)

Appropriate

Fertilizer

formula

Fertilizer

application

Remark

Between

hill

Between

row

old

Lettuce Sowing 1.2 kg 25 30 40-50 12-8-8 After

transplanting or

aged 3 weeks

old

Head lettuce Sowing 50 gram 30 50 60-75 12-8-8 Two times:

before growing

and after 2

weeks of

transplanting.

75 Kg/time

Transplanting

after seedling

get for 3-4

weeks

Garland

Chrysanthemum

Sowing 4 kg 30-35 12-8-8 After

transplanting for

2 weeks

Cabbage Seedling 100-150

gram

40 60 60-90 12-8-8 Two times:

before growing

and after 2

weeks of

transplanting

Transplanting

after seedling

get for 3-4

weeks


46

Name of

vegetable

Method of

planting

Quantity

of seeds

per rai


period

(Day)

Appropriate

Fertilizer

formula

Fertilizer

application

Remark

Between

hill

Between

row

100 Kg/time

Cauliflower Seedling 100-150

gram

50 60 60-90 12-8-8 Two times:

before growing

and after 2

weeks of

transplanting

100 Kg/time

Transplanting

after seedling

get for 3-4

weeks

Chinese radish Sowing

Row

making

2 kg

1,8 kg

20 20 45-60 10-12-8 Two times:

before growing

and after 2

weeks of

transplanting

100 Kg/time

Transplanting

after seedling

get for 3-4

weeks

Carrot Sowing 1,2 kg 10 30 55-75 10-12-8 After

transplanting for

3weeks

yard long bean Hole

making

3-4 kg 50 80 60-90 8-12-12 After

transplanting for

3weeks

1 seed/hold,

making a

pole when it


47

Name of

vegetable

Method of

planting

Quantity

of seeds

per rai


period

(Day)

Appropriate

Fertilizer

formula

Fertilizer

application

Remark

Between

hill

Between

row

is growing up

French bean/

Sugar bean

Hole

making

5-8 kg 30 70 60-90 8-12-12 After

transplanting for

3weeks

2 seeds/hold,

making a

pole when it

is growing up

Cowpea Hole

making

1,5-2 kg 50 50 90-120 8-12-12 After

transplanting for

3weeks

1 seed per

hole

Cucumber Hole

making

1,5-2 kg 40 100 60-90 6-10-10 Before growing 1-2 seed per

hole

Bottle gourd Hole

making

1,2-2 kg 150 150 90-110 6-11-10 After

transplanting for

3weeks

1 seed per

hole

Pumpkin Hole

making

0,6 kg 300 300 90-120 6-10-10 After

transplanting for

3weeks

1 seed per

hole

Water melon Hole

making

200 gram 300 300 80-120 6-10-10 After

transplanting for

3weeks

1 seed per

hole

Sponge gourd Hole

making

1,5-2 kg 30 100 50-60 6-10-10 Before growing 1seed per

hole


48

Name of

vegetable

Method of

planting

Quantity

of seeds

per rai


period

(Day)

Appropriate

Fertilizer

formula

Fertilizer

application

Remark

Between

hill

Between

row

Bitter gourd Hole

making

1,5-2 kg 50-60 200 80-120 15-15-15 After

transplanting

1-2 seeds

per hole

Onion or

Spring onion

Seedling 450 kg 10-12 10-12 120 - 130 10-10-5 Two times:

before growing

and after 30

days of

transplanting.

50 Kg/time

Garlic 1 piece of

garlic/hole

80-120 kg 10-12 10-20 120 - 130 10-10-5 Two times:

before growing

and after 30

days of

transplanting

50 Kg/time

Red small onion/

sharllots

1

head/hole

100-200

kg

6-8 20 60-80 10-10-12 After the stems

are getting 5 cm

high

Multiplier onion 1 piece of 60 kg 10-15 10-15 50-60 8-10-12 After the stems

are getting 5 cm


49

Name of

vegetable

Method of

planting

Quantity

of seeds

per rai


period

(Day)

Appropriate

Fertilizer

formula

Fertilizer

application

Remark

Between

hill

Between

row

stem / hole high

Kangkong/

Morning glory

Sowing 12 kg - - 25-35 12-4-4 After the stems

are getting 5 cm

high

Tomato Seeding 300-500

gram

50 80-100 60-70 5-10-5 Two times:

before growing

and after 2

weeks of

transplanting

5 Kg/time

Transplanting

after

seedlings are

getting for 4

weeks

Snake gourd/

Angled loofah

Seeding 250 gram 50 100 80-100 15-15-15 Two times:

before growing

and after 30

days of

transplanting

50 Kg/time

Egg plant Seeding 100-150

gram

50 80-100 60-120 15-15-15 Two times:

before growing

and after 30

days of

Transplant

when

seedling are

getting 4-6


50

Name of

vegetable

Method of

planting

Quantity

of seeds

per rai


period

(Day)

Appropriate

Fertilizer

formula

Fertilizer

application

Remark

Between

hill

Between

row

transplanting

50 Kg/time

weeks

Source: NAFRI Horticulture Centre, 1998. Vegetables Handbook in Lao PDR).

Note (direct translation):

1. For amount of seeding and transplanting, the harvesting period starts to count since the transplanted day to harvested day.

2. The fertilizing ratio would vary depending on the fertility of soils in a locality for some vegetables species, there is short period

harvesting, namely: Chinese cabbage, lettuce, Shallots, Kangkong and Garland Chrysanthemum and etc. They will be

planted in a small seedbed and will be applied with ammonia sulfate for 100 gram/m2 or Urea for 50 gram/m2 , by mixing with

manure, 2-3 kg and use for two times, e.g. the first time, when vegetables 7- 10 days old and the second time, when they are

15- 20 days old.


51

5.2.2 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN CHOOSING THE SPECIES

a) Prepare the list of choices based on biophysical conditions. Study the soil, water and

other growth requirements of the crop. It must match the existing climatic and soil

conditions in the area. Tables 5a, 5b and 5c above summarized the environmental

requirements of various annual crops.

a.1. The rainfall pattern would dictate the crops to be grown in what part of the year. One

must know the rainfall pattern in order to make sure that water is available at the

right stage of plant growth. Many crops require adequate rainfall for growth but they

also need dry conditions during reproductive stage (e.g. grain filling). Others prefer

evenly distributed rainfall (e.g. some leafy vegetables).

a.2. The soil texture would influence the amount of moisture left in the soil to support a

successor crop. For instance, after the main crop of paddy rice it would be easier to

plant sequential upland crops in slightly light textured soils with sufficient organic

matter than formerly puddle, heavy soils with limited organic matter content.

a.3. Certain crops grow better in cool highland areas (e.g. cabbage) while others grow

better in lower elevations (e.g. grain legumes).

b) Identify crops that can grow before the main crop, during the same period of the main

crop (wet season) or after the main crop (dry season).

c) Check farmer’s preferences on the list developed from criteria (a) and (b) above. Access

to markets would vary from one community to another. Those near markets can have

more choices. Those that are distant from markets will have fewer choices. Farmers

usually choose the species that need not be sold right away and can be stored for longer

periods (e.g. grain legumes).

d) Check farmer’s capacity based on the current farming practices as well as the availability

of farm inputs. Some crops would require more skills while others are easier to grow.

Availability of seeds must also be considered. Unless training and close supervision and

planting materials can be provided, it is better to recommend crops that are not difficult

to grow. The tables above indicate the production intensity associated with the

production of particular species. This index (production intensity) is only indicative and

based on experience in production in Philippine vegetable production setting. It needs to

be validated in the field.

5.2.3 MULTIPLE CROPPING

After determining what species to plant, decide on the planting scheme for the new crops. In

general, grain legumes and root crops are grown in the field. Salad vegetables and indigenous


52

vegetables are generally grown in smaller gardens near the home. The discussion on field crops

is discussed in this section while vegetable production near the home garden is discussed in

Section 6.

Multiple cropping is the planting of several crops in the same piece of land in a calendar year.

The basic types of multiple cropping are:

a) Mixed cropping - this is a traditional practice where crops are grown together at random

without any distinct arrangement.

b) Intercropping – two or more crops grown at the same time following spatial

arrangement (in rows). An example would be planting corn with peanut.

c) Sequential cropping - plant the 2nd crop after the main crop is harvested. This is a

simple multiple cropping operation. An example would be planting cowpea after rice.

d) Relay cropping – plant the 2nd crop days before the main crop is harvested. This

ensures that the 2nd crop does not compete too much with the main crop but at the same

time take full advantage of the residual moisture in the soil. An example would be

planting of rice bean in between rows of mature corn. The rice bean then uses the corn

stalk as stake.

e) Growing the other crop before the main crop – this can be done in areas where there

is a long gap between the onset of the wet season (first rainfall) and the time that rice

seedlings are actually planted (peak rainfall period). The land could potentially support a

crop that has hardy seedlings to withstand wet conditions and can be harvested during

the wet season (e.g. corn, cowpea, green soybean). This operation, however, is quite

complex and is not recommended by this CCTAM.

The benefits of multiple cropping can be seen in the example of a certain practice among

indigenous North Americans which they call The Three Sisters. These involve the planting of

corn, bean and pumpkin in same piece of plot in the same growing period (intercropping). The

corn provides energy for the diet. Its stalk provides the stake for the climbing bean. The bean is

the source of protein for diet. It improves the fertility of the soil that benefits the corn and

pumpkin. The pumpkin provides the vitamins and minerals for the diet. For its fellow plants, it

covers the soil, thus, preventing weeds and at the same time improves soil fertility by protecting

beneficial soil microorganisms from direct sun.

5.2.4 PLANNING FOR INTERCROPPING

Under multiple cropping, one must decide on the right crop combination to avoid or minimize

competition for light, water and nutrients between crops. Examples of what to consider under

intercropping are:


53

a) The 2nd or 3rd crop must be able to adapt to the same soil and rainfall requirement of the

main crop. The cropping calendar prepared by NAFRI (Table 5e) will help us determine

the suitable period of the year to plant crops. The cropping period was developed more

than 10 years ago, rainfall patterns may have changed but they can still provide an

indication as to what crops require more rain or less.

b) Combine tall with short crop to minimize competition for sunlight. Example is corn and

peanut. Plant the main crop (rice or corn) slightly ahead of the intercrop.

c) Keep the proper distance between rows of crops. At the very least, the planting distance

of crops when grown as single crop must be maintained. Even better if the planting

distance is slightly increased.

d) Combine crops that help one another in terms of crop protection (corn and peanut

minimizes corn borer, or tomatoes and carrots). This is sometimes referred to as

companion planting.

5.2.5 PLANNING FOR SEQUENTIAL AND RELAY CROPPING

a) For successful sequential and relay cropping, the soil must have sufficient soil moisture to

support a second crop. Thus, it is important to make sure that the soil has sufficient

organic matter to “hold” the water in the soil for several months. Actions to ensure

sufficient organic matter content are discussed in Section 2 of this CCTAM.

b) The sequential or relay crop must be able to grow on the available soil moisture after the

first crop. If the soil moisture is not sufficient, only short duration crops should be planted

to reduce the risk of rapid moisture depletion during the growth and reproductive periods

of the sequential crop.

c) Rotate cereals (rice) and legumes (cowpea) so that the latter can help restore the

nutrients depleted by the previous crop of cereals.

d) In flooded rice paddies, drain the water from the field two to three days before the rice is

to be harvested. If the soil is heavy and difficult to work on (puddled soils that have

hardened), one can practice minimum tillage for the sequential crop. This is by done by

cutting the rice straw immediately after harvesting or even at the time of harvesting.

Dibble the seeds into the soil immediately after harvest. This will give it a head start over

the emerging weeds. Drill the seed near the former hill of the rice because it is usually

looser, has some aeration and is usually elevated above other parts of the paddy. Use

the rice straw as mulch.


54

Table 5e. Cropping calendar – time of year preferred for raising specific species.

Vegetable names Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep

White cabbage

Green cabbage

Kuangfutsoi

Kohlrabi

Lettuce

Chinese cabbage

Chrysanthemum

Cabbage

Cauliflower

Radish

Carrot

Convolvulus

Sweet potato

Water melon

Cucumber

Pumpkin

Squash


55

Bitter gourd

Kind of squash

Yard long bean

Green bean

Winged bean

Pigeon pea

Tomato

Small chili

Shallots

Garlic

Spring anion

Eggplant

Onion

Potato

Parleys

Source: NAFRI, 1998. Manual of Vegetable Planting. (translation under verification).


56

5.2.6 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION ON CROP CHARACTERISTICS

Additional information may be considered in choosing the species for crop diversification. Some

crops require short growing periods while others are considered to have high resistance to

drought situations. Table 5f shows preliminary list of what are considered as short duration

crops.

Table 5f. Vegetables that can be harvested in less than a month.

Scientific name Common Name Number of days from planting to

harvesting

Brassica juncea Mustard 25

Brassica chinensis Pechay 25

Raphanus sativus Radish 20-25

Basella alba Basella 25

Amaranthus gracilis Amaranth 25-30

Ipomoea batatas Sweet potato 20

Ipomoea aquatica Swamp cabbage 20

Coriandrum sativum Coriander 15

Cucumis sativus Cucumber 30

Lactuca sativa Leaf lettuce 25

Portulaca oleracea Purslane 25

Talinum triangulare Philippines spinach 25

The information below is partial list of crops known for their drought resistance. This information

will be useful for areas where soil moisture is low and long dry seasons are expected.

Table 5g. Partial list of crops known for their drought resistance.

Scientific Name Common Name Degree of Resistance

Arachis hypogaea Peanut Highly drought-resistant

Vigna sesquipedalis Yard long bean Highly drought-resistant

Cajanus cajan Pigeon pea Highly drought- and heat-resistant once


57

established

Abelmoschus

esculentus

Ladyfinger Fairly drought-resistant

Vigna aconitifolia Moth bean Most drought-tolerant crop grown in India

Sorghum bicolor Sorghum Highly drought-resistant

Vigna sinensis Cowpea Drought- and heat-tolerant

Solanun melongena Eggplant Drought-tolerant

Manihot esculenta Cassava Drought-tolerant once established

Dolichos lablab Lablab bean Drought-tolerant once established

Phaseolus lunatus Lima bean Drought-tolerant once established

lpomoea batatas Sweet potato Fairly drought-tolerant

Amaranthus gracilis Amaranth Fairly drought-tolerant

Phaseolus aureus Mungbean Fairly drought-tolerant

Source: IIRR, 2001

a) Sources of planting materials

To make a final decision on what crop to plant, check if ample seed supply is made available to

the farming community (for free or at cost). This can be determined by checking with the local

seed suppliers or with MAF Seed Production Centre.

Determine the likely quantity of seeds that may be needed by the community. This is done by

estimating the quantity of seeds required by farmers, who will demonstrate the technologies.

Plan to procure the seeds ahead of the planting season so that they are readily available when

the farmer needs them.

One can obtain seeds from independent commercial producers or suppliers who get supplies

from neighboring countries. However, these are usually very expensive and not necessarily

adapted to local conditions. They are usually also Fi seeds (hybrids) that cannot be reproduced

with the same characteristics of the purchased seed.

One can also obtain seeds from government sources and their network of farmer co-operators,

who have been trained how to produce seeds. The NAFRI Horticulture Center, for instance, has

a network of 100+ farmers who can locally produce vegetable seeds. It can be contacted to help

produce the seeds through its farmer network. The Center will require at least one season to

produce the seeds. Seeds are produced during the drier months.


58

Should there be farmers in the locality who want to learn how to produce their own seeds, they

can also produce most seeds on their own. Planting materials can be provided by NAFRI

Horticulture Center and its network of farmer co-operators who have been trained to produce

vegetable seeds. These farmer trainers are spread in different provinces. The Center has the

list of farmer seed suppliers in the different species.

b) Community production of vegetable seeds and planting materials

Once a starting stock of seeds is made available to the community, encourage interested

farmers to become local sources of good quality seeds and purchase the seeds from them. This

would be made possible by providing them training and skills in simple seed technology. One

on-going program of NAFRI together with SEARICE is helping farmer communities produce

their own vegetable seeds. There are farmer-trainers, Savanakhet while farmer trainers are

being developed in Sayaboury in collaboration with the PAFO.


There are many benefits from crop diversification. It provides alternative and supplemental

source of income in case of failure of the main crop. Under good conditions (no disaster or

weather aberration), the overall farm income can increase due to harvests from 2 to 3

commodities. Multiple cropping covers the soil and prevents weeds. If legumes are used, they

improve soil conditions and soil fertility. Companion planting helps plants become stronger when

they support other crops against pests and diseases.

The key costs involve the additional time needed for careful planning. More time is needed for

planning. The farmer will have to shoulder the additional cost of planting materials including the

time for procuring planting materials. There are additional labour requirements for sowing and

cultivating and harvesting the intercrop. The yield of each intercrop would be slightly lesser than

when grown as single crop and at higher planting density.


Crop diversification through multiple cropping methods is applicable in a wide range of upland

and lowland as well irrigated and rainfed conditions in IRAS project sites. Supplemental

irrigation would be helpful as it will reduce the risk of failure of the new crop.

In areas that do not have supplemental irrigation, sequential and relay cropping should be

planned carefully. Do only in farms with soils that have good organic matter content and

therefore, sufficient residual moisture after the first crop. Plant short duration crops to be sure.

Sites near markets can consider easily perishable vegetable crops, while those that are remote

from markets should consider planting crops that do not perish right away (e.g. grain legumes).


59

Farmers that practice soil management practices that enhance organic matter content of soils

can have better chance of introducing sequential or relay cropping.

Seeds for legumes and vegetables can be obtained from various sources: government seed

production centres, private companies and from efforts of farming communities themselves.

There is a village in Savanakhet where farmers have been trained on rice and vegetable seed

production. They can also share the knowledge with other communities. This is in Huahat

Village, Songkhon District, Savanakhet. Farmer trainers in Sayaboury are also being developed.

Dr. Chay of RCCR, NAFRI is the Project Coordinator. Other contacts are Mr. Bounsu Soudmaly

of Plant Protection Department of DOA, the Co-coordinator.

5.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COMES WITH

THIS CCTAM

Topic/List of Extension Material (Including NAFES Item Number) Source

1.NAFES PUBLICATIONS

LEGUMES

String Bean Planting - AI.21 NAFES

Long Bean Planting - AI.22 NAFES

Common Bean Planting - AI.11 NAFES

Planting Peanut Techniques - AV.3 NAFES

Planting Soy Bean - AV.4 NAFES

VEGETABLES

Garlic Planting - AI.1 NAFES

Multiple Onion Planting - AI.2 NAFES

Chinese Cabbage Planting - AI.3 NAFES

Onion Planting - AI.4 NAFES

Broccoli Planting - AI.5 NAFES

Cabbage Planting - AI.6 NAFES

Caulis leaf Planting - AI.7 NAFES

Chilli Planting - AI.8 NAFES

Chinese Kale Planting - AI.9 NAFES

Chinese Radish Planting - AI.10 NAFES

Coriander Planting - AI.12 NAFES

Cucumber Planting - AI.13 NAFES

Green Chilli Planting - AI.14 NAFES

Green Kuang leaf Planting - AI.15 NAFES

Hot Chilli Planting - AI.16 NAFES

Lettuce Planting - AI.17 NAFES

Long cayenne pepper Planting - AI.18 NAFES

Bell pepper Planting - AI.19 NAFES

Tomato Planting - AI.20 NAFES

Spring Onion Planting - AI.23 NAFES

CEREALS/GRASS/SHRUBS

Rice Planting - AV.1 NAFES

Cassava Planting - AV.2 NAFES

Maize Planting - AV.5 NAFES

Sugarcane Planting - AIV.1 NAFES


60

Topic/List of Extension Material (Including NAFES Item Number) Source

2. NAFRI – HORTICULTURE CENTER

Classification of Vegetables in Laos NAFRI

Vegetable Production NAFRI

Handbook on Cucumber Production NAFRI

Handbook on Cucumber Seed Production NAFRI

Handbook on Yard Bean Production NAFRI

Handbook on Yard Bean Seed Production NAFRI

Horticulture Training for Lao PDR NAFRI- DED

3. NAFRI – CROPS RESEARCH CENTER

Community based Rice seed production NAFRI

4.SUPPLEMNETAL GLOBAL INFORMATION

Bio- Intensive Approach To Small Scale Household Food Production (See Section on seed and seedling management)

http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl?a=d&d=HASH0130e52a04a35a3f1af40565.8.2&c=fnl&sib=1&ed=1&p.s=ClassifierBrowse&p.sa=&p.a=b&p.c=fnl

IIRR

Saving your own Vegetable Seeds http://www.avrdc.org/pdf/PROD6-saving_your_own_vegetable_seeds.pdf

AVRDC




http://www.avrdc.org/pdf/PROD6-saving_your_own_vegetable_seeds.pdf

http://www.avrdc.org/pdf/PROD6-saving_your_own_vegetable_seeds.pdf


61

Figure 5. Crop diversification

Figure 5.1. Multiple Cropping

Figure 5.2. The Three Sisters. Demonstrating the principles of multiple cropping.


62

Figure 5.3. Community/Farmer Based Seed Production


63

6.0 GROWING VEGETABLES UNDER HARSH CLIMATIC CONDITIONS


Climate change will influence the severity of environmental stress imposed on fruit and vegetable crops. Vegetable production is greatly influenced by water which is often limited during the rainy season due to excessive moisture brought about by rain. High temperatures can cause significant losses in productivity due to reduced fruit set, and smaller and lower quality fruits. Also, most vegetables are highly sensitive to flooding due to the reduction of oxygen in the root zone which inhibits aerobic processes

Vegetable production is an important livelihood strategy itself that is affected by climate change.

At the same time, it is an important climate change adaptation strategy for farmers who depend

largely on rice for livelihood. At the same time, those who have been growing vegetables will be

affected by the effects of climate change particularly in terms of erratic rainfall patterns and

temperature.

Vegetable production can provide an immediate source of vegetable protein and vitamins and

herbal medicine for primary health care. Near the house, it is easier to create a microclimate

that can preserve soil moisture and lower temperatures during extended drought periods. There

are also methods to maintain a garden during extended wet periods.


Vegetables may be grown for market, home consumption or both. If grown in relatively large

quantities they would normally be planted along rows and receive fertilizer and pesticide inputs.

Lower volume vegetable production in home gardens would follow a less organized way of

planting and incorporate more trees (fruit trees) in the system.

6.2.1 PLANNING THE LOCATION AND ARCHITECTURE OF VEGETABLE PRODUCTION

a. Locate the garden so that it gets morning sun and afternoon shade.

b. Build a fence using sticks, thatching grass and other available materials.

c. Create a good microclimate by planting or maintaining the trees around the house.

Trees that have “open-shaped” and medium-sized (e.g. native guava) will regulate

heat but will not overly shade out vegetables. Avoid planting large “umbrella-shaped”

species (e.g. mango, tamarind) that may overly shade out vegetables.

d. If the backyard is big enough, plant a few medium-sized trees in the middle of the yard

to provide a gentle shade. Prune the trees regularly. Good examples would be trees

that provide vegetables such as Sesbania grandiflora or Moringa sp. (drumstick).


64

e. Study the characteristics of the home garden area. Locate vegetables and fruit trees

according to their characteristics and varying characteristic of the land. Examples are

cited in Table 6a.

Table 6a. Crop locations and physical arrangements in the home garden (vegetables and selected important multi-functional trees).

Plants Wet Area (near water pump)

Plants for Dry Areas

Plants for Trellis

Plants that make good live Fences

Plants for under the Trellis

Plants that suppress Weed Growth

Taro Legumes Climbing legumes

Leucaena Taro Sweet Potato

Swamp Cabbage

Cassava String Beans Gliricidia Malabar spinach

Swamp Cabbage

Sugarcane Pineapple Lima Bean Drumstick Plant

Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage

Malabar spinach

Banana Tamarind Yard long Beans

Casarina Sweet Potato Squash

Mango Wing Bean Bamboo Amaranth Yam

Sugar Apple Yarn Beans (Sincamas)

Hibiscus Mustard Bitter gourd

Jackfruit Climbing fruit vegetables

Pineapple

Grapes Squash Cassava

Cashew Gourd Cactus

Guava Soursop

Cucumber

Condol

Bitter gourd

Source: UNICEF, 1999 The UNICEF Home Gardeners Handbook


65

6.2.2 PLANNING FOR COMPANION PLANTING

To minimize the use of pesticides, plant a variety of species, especially those that have beneficial effects to one another in terms of pest and disease prevention and control. Table 6b. Indicative list of companion crops and antagonistic crops.

Vegetable Companion Antagonist

Abelmoschus escolentus

(Ladyfinger)

Sweet potato, Swamp cabbage. Squash, Radish, Pechay

Allium cepa (Onion) Lettuce, Beets, Tomato Peas, Beans

Allium sativum (Garlic) Carrot, Lettuce, Beets, Tomato Peas, Beans

Apium graveolens (Celery) Cabbage family, Tomato, Bush bean

Asparagus officinale (Asparagus)

Tomato

Beta vulgaris Onion, Garlic Pole beans

Brassicas (Cabbage family) potato, celery, beet, onion, garlic Pole beans

Calocasia esculenta (Taro) Sweet potato, swamp cabbage

Cucumis sativus (Cucumber) Corn, Pole beans, Ladyfinger, Cowpea, Radish, Eggplant

Potatoes

Cucurbita maxima (Squash) Bottle gourd, Sponge gourd, Bitter guard, Cucumber

Ipomea aquatica (Swamp cabbage)

Cassava, Tomato, Ladyfinger, Corn, Eggplant, Amaranth

Ipomea batatas (Sweet potato) Corn, Cassava, Ladyfinger, Eggplant, Pigeon pea

Lactuca sativa (Lettuce) Carrots, Radish, Cucumber

Lagenaria siceraria (Bottle gourd)

Sponge gourd, Bitter gourd, Cucumber

Lycopersicum esculentum (Tomato)

Onion, Lettuce, Sweet potato, Radish, Swamp cabbage, Squash, Pechay, Garlic, Asparagus, Carrots

Potato

Mamordica charantia (Bitter gourd)

Lema bean, Hyacinth bean, Winged bean, Pole bean


66

Phaseolus aureus (Mung bean) Corn, Sorghum

Phaseolus vulgaris (Snap bean) Corn, Carrot, Cucumber, Potato, Cabbage family

Onion, Garlic

Raphanus sativus (Radish) Beans, Cucumber, Lettuce

Solanum melongena (Eggplant) Beans, Lettuce, Sweet potato, Swamp cabbage, Squash, Pechay, Radish, Pepper

Solanum tuberosum (Potato) Garlic, Beans, Corn, Cabbage Cucumber, Tomato

Vigna sesquipedalis (Pole bean) Corn Onion, Beet

Vigna sinensis (Bush bean) Potato, Cucumber, Corn, Celery Onion

Source IIR. 2007 Bio Intensive Approach to Small Scale Household Food Production Table 6c. Additional information on companion planting.

Plant Companion Combination

Sweet Potato Corn, Pigeon Pea, Cassava, Gumbo, Eggplant, Tomato, Chilli, Pole Yard long Bean, Wing Bean, Lima Bean, Rice Bean, Jute, Amaranth

Cassava Sweet Potato, Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage , Nightshade, Lettuce, Garlic, Vine Squash, Peanut

Taro Sweet Potato, Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage , and underneath any crop grown on a trellis

Tomato} Eggplant} Gumbo}

Sweet Potato, Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage , Vine Squash, Chinese Cabbage , Radish

Corn Gumbo, Tomato, Sweet Potato, Bush Beans, Pole Beans, Cabbage, Peanut, Vine Squash

Vine Squash} Bottle Gourd}

Sponge Gourd}

On trellis: Bottle Gourd, Sponge Gourd, Cucumber, Bitter melon

Bitter gourd On trellis: Legumes, Lima Bean, Yard long Bean, Hyacinth Bean, Wing Bean

Chinese Spinach or

Swamp Cabbage

Taro, Sweet Potato, Cassava, Tomatoes, Gumbo, Corn, Eggplant, any crop on trellis, Amaranth

Vine/ Legumes

On trellis, Bitter gourd on corn stalk, on banana stalk

Yam On fruit trees or trellis

Cucumber Corn, Pole Beans, Radishes, Gumbo, Eggplant

Tomatoes Sweet Potato, Radishes, Lettuce

(Drumstick Tree)

Sweet Potato, Chinese Spinach or Swamp Cabbage , Chinese Cabbage , Nightshade, Jute, Lettuce, Bush Squash, Yam, Amaranth

Source UNICEF 1999. The UNICEF Home Gardeners Handbook.


67

6.2.3 PREPARING THE GARDEN PLOTS

a) Make the soil loose and friable. With more space in the soil, more water can be stored.

This will encourage the roots to grow well and fully utilize available soil nutrients. This will also allow more plants to be planted on the plot, thereby reducing open space and evapotranspiration.

b) Together with deep digging technology, apply compost and practice mulching.

c) In areas where raw material for compost is lacking, establish the rows on east- west direction. Then establish a row of fast growing, leguminous trees in the alley every two plots. Cut the trees regularly to avoid shading and use the leaves green mulch when preparing the soil for the next cropping.

6.2.4 RAISING ROBUST SEEDLINGS

a) If local materials are available, raise vegetable seeds (those that do not have sensitive

roots) in individual containers available in the farm such as small baskets, empty cans and plastic bottles. Containers need to be about 6 to 10 cm deep (about the length of the middle finger). Water the individual containers. Do not do this with crops that have sensitive roots as carrots, radish, cauliflower etc.

b) Practice hardening of vegetable seedling. Before transplanting seedlings in containers to the garden expose them to the sun and wind for a few hours each day for a week. Increase the exposure each day.

6.2.5 WATERING THE PLANTS PROPERLY

a) How to apply water to vegetables could affect the way plants develop resistance to water

stress. Poor watering practices can stunt plant growth and can even be fatal to plants.

As a rule, plants should be watered thoroughly but infrequently.

b) Thorough but infrequent watering allows the water to sink slowly and the soil surface to

dry up. This allows the water to move down through the soil by progressively satisfying

the water-holding capacity of every soil particle. These conditions encourage the

development of a deep root system. Plants are deep-rooted and can withstand drought

periods because they rely on subsoil water.

c) Plants that are watered frequently and in small amounts are shallow-rooted and often

get affected with even a slight reduction in moisture availability. In this case, the plants

become dependent on applied water. Note: This does not apply to young plants (i.e.,

less than 40 days old), which need daily watering in dry weather.


68

d) Water the plants early in the morning. Do not water the plants at noon as roots will scald.

If watering in the late afternoon, make sure the plants dry out before nightfall to prevent

disease.

6.2.6 RAISING THE HOME GARDEN UNDER VERY WET CONDITIONS

a) Choose species that are tolerant to water-logged soils such as taro, yams, sesbanias,

etc. Choose plants that have multiple edible parts like the winged bean, sweet potato, cowpea, and amaranth.

b) Plant on raised beds to improve drainage. Use artificial sidings such as banana trunks, and wood planks.

c) Practice container gardening. Grow plant on used containers such as used plastic containers or bamboo culms. Then these containers are placed on raised platforms.Vegetables that is large-seeded, like beans, squash, etc., can be planted directly to the pots. Sow small-seeded varieties like tomatoes, etc., first in seedbeds for two to three weeks before transplanting them. Vine plants, like squash or ampalaya (bitter gourd), can climb the rooftops of the house or porch.

d) In areas subject to long-term floods, consider adopting the Sorjan methods. This involves high embankments where vegetables can be planted, side by side with ditches for fish (see also CCTAM #3 on on-farm and community level water management).

e) Also in long flooded periods, practice a system of floating garden. The Bangladesh system involves planting vegetables on garden soil carried by water hyacinth platform. (See also CCTAM #3 on on-farm and community level water management)


Growing vegetables under harsh climatic conditions whether in backyard or entrepreneurial

scale is possible, if practical but environmentally sound practices are observed. In the case of

backyard production, the benefits are readily available supply of low cost supplemental food and

nutrition and home medical remedies especially when farmers lose income from failure of main

crops. In the case of market-oriented production, the main advantage is the added income

especially if the type of crops and timing are planned well so that they can be marketed at the

right time and at the right price.

The main costs involved are the cost of seeds and planting materials and labor requirements

and for the production of natural fertilizers and pesticides. Labor costs increase if more species

are planted. If farmers can produce and save their own seeds, this will lower the cost of

planting materials. The farmer can start by producing only a limited number of vegetable

species that are relatively easy to grow. As the farmer gains more experiences and confidence,

more vegetable species could be planted.


69


The various technologies aimed to ameliorate harsh climatic conditions are applicable in the

project sites. However, the type of species to plant would depend on the rainfall, soil and

temperature features of particular sites. The marketability of particular species will also have to

be considered.

6.5 COMPANION ESTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) TO COME WITH THIS

CCTAM

Topics/List of Extension Materials (Including item number of NAFES) Source

FROM NAFES

Publications on Bio-fertilizers (see also Section 2 above) SAEDA

Publications on Legumes (see also Section 6 above) NAFES

Publication on Vegetables (see also Section 6 above) NAFES

FROM NAFRI

Horticulture Manual for Lao PDR NAFRI -DED


70

Figure 6. Growing vegetables under harsh climatic conditions

Figure 6.1. Preparing the Garden Plots

Figure 6.2. Integrated vegetable garden - alley cropping


71

Figure 6.3. Raising robust seedlings for dry prone areas

Figure 6.4. Under very wet conditions


72

Figure 6.5. During flooded conditions


73

7.0 GROWING FRUIT TREES AND OTHER TYPES OF TREES IN THE

FARM


Perennial crops are generally more drought resistant than annual crops. However

environmental stresses brought about by climate change affect soil fertility and availability of

nutrients important for fruit set and overall production. Pollination processes are important for

fruit development and are also suspected to be affected by these environmental processes.

Fruit trees and other economic trees can help farmers adapt to climate change and earn

additional income as well. Apart from providing extra cash, it helps in soil fertility improvements.

With deep roots, trees help “pump up” soil nutrient from the deeper parts of the soil which are

not normally available to shallow rooted food crops. Through its biomass (i.e. leaves that fall on

the ground), trees regularly provide nutrients to the soil, mimicking the function of forests. Trees

help minimize surface runoff by promoting water infiltration into the soil.


Fruit trees and industrial tree crops (e.g. coffee, cacao, and rubber) can be grown with annual

crops and livestock in various zones of the farm:

a) as farm border plants of live fence;

b) as part of home garden;

c) as alleys in the crop zone area;

d) as part of newly opened fallows; or

e) in specially designated areas not devoted to crops

To be able to obtain the benefits of trees in the farm without causing negative effects on annual

crops, the correct species and the proper planting scheme would be important.

7.2.1 CHOICE OF TREE SPECIES

Several criteria would be essential:

a) What species would meet a particular need preferred by the farmer? The farmer

may have a particular reason to want to plant trees (source of cash, food and nutrition,

medicine, fertilizer, etc.). Some trees possess many characteristics, others are few. For

instance, certain leguminous trees produce nitrogen rich biomass that easily decays.


74

They also can be coppiced (cut) regularly without dying (e.g. Leucaena sp. and Gliricidia

sp.).

b) What species can fit into the climatic and soil conditions of the area? Trees have

different characteristics. Some trees prefer distinct wet and dry seasons to be able to

flower and fruit successfully. Some trees cannot tolerate acidic soils. Only certain

species can grow at certain altitudes. Access to knowledge and skills to propagate

and establish the species. Some species require specialized knowledge for its

production operations.

c) What species will negatively affect the growth of the annual food crops? Big wide

canopied trees will shade out plants and deprive them of sunlight. Trees that have

shallow rooting habits may compete with soil nutrients. The ideal trees to be planted are

those that are of medium size, which do not have wide-spreading canopies and are

deep-rooted.

Table 7a below is a list of fruit tree species that have been prioritized for Lao PDR by NAFRI,

NAFES and NUOL in 2005. Additional information from FAO and other sources have been

provided to describe the environmental requirements and other characteristics of these species.

Table 7b is an additional list containing potentially important species that may be considered by

Lao farmers who are interested in fruit tree production.

Table 7c is a list of varieties of fruits important for Lao PDR. These varieties have been studied

by the NAFRI Horticulture Research Center.

Table 7a. Characteristics of tropical fruit trees prioritized for Lao PDR.

Crop Scientific Name

Plant Heigh

t (metr

e)

Space betwe

en plants (metre

)

Climate Requireme

nt*

Altitude

(metre)

Soil pH

Maturity

(years)

Intercrop*

Seed Stora

ge

Rambutan

Nephelium lappaceum

13 130 W 1000 SA 10 1,10 Moist

Sapota (chico)

Manikara zapota

8 10 D/W 1500 SA 5 2,6,10 Dry

Lychee Litchi chinensis

12 D 500 A 12 Moist

Mango Mangifera indica

30 15 D 500 SA 6 Moist

Sweet Tamarind

Tamarindus indica

25 16 D 500 SA 16 Dry

Lime Citrus 5 D 1000 A Moist


75

aurantifolia

Guava Psidium guajava

10 6 D 1500 SA 3 1,4,9,10 Dry

Pomelo Citrus grandis

5 8 W/D 1500 SA 5 1,10 Moist

Jujube Zizyphus abyssinica

12 D 2000 SA,A

Dry

Longan Dimocarpus longan

12 D 450 SA Moist

Jackfruit Artocarpus heterophyllus

10 8 W/D 1500 SA 4 1,2,4,9,10

Moist

Custard apple

Annona reticulata

10 W 1500 SA Dry

Papaya Carica papaya

4 2 W 900 SA,A

1,10 Dry

Cashew Anacardium occidentale

3 8 D 1000 SA 3 2,3,4,9,10

Dry

Source of list of species: NAFRI et al. 2005. Integrated Fruit Tree Systems in Improving Livelihoods in the Uplands of Lao PDR Source of information on environmental requirements: IIRR, 1993. 'Crops and Cropping Systems', Agroforestry Technology Information Kit (ATIK), Department of Environment and Natural Resources and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. ICRAF, - Agroforestry Tree Database. http://www.worldagroforestrycentre.org/sea/products/afdbases/af/index.asp Legend: Climate Requirement: D=dry, W=wet Intercrops: (1) Pineapple (3) Banana (5) Leucaena (7) Lanzones (9) Cacao (2)Lemon (4) Coffee (6) Annona Species (8) Avocado (10) Coconut Soil pH: A-Acidic; SA-Slightly Acidic; AL-Alkaline


76

Table 7b. Characteristics of tropical fruit trees potentially important for Lao PDR.

Crop Scientific name Plant Height (metre)

Space between plants (metre)

Climate Requirement*

Altitude (metre)

Soil pH

Maturity (years)

Intercrop* Seed Storage

Custard Apple Annona squamosa 5 5 D/W 1000 SA 3 1,2,10 Dry

Avocado Persea Americana 8 10 W 2000 SA 5 3,4,9,10 Moist

Banana Musa sp. 4 3 W 1000 SA 4 4,8,10 Moist

Breadfruit Artocarpus artilis 15 12 D/W 1500 SA 5 3,4,6,7,9 Moist

Star Fruit Chrysophyllym caimito

20 10 D/W 1500 SA 5 3,4,6,7,9 Dry

Lemon Citrus madurensis 5 5 D/W 1500 SA 4 1,10 Moist

Duhat Syzygium cumini 20 15 D/W 300 SA 7 3,4,7,9 Moist

Durian Durio zibethinus 30 15 W 2500 SA,A 5 4,7,9 Moist

Soursop Anona muricata 7 6 D 300 SA 3 1,4,9,10 Dry

Lanzones Lansium domesticum 15 8 W 200 SA 10 1,2,4,9,10 Moist

Orange Citrus sinensis 5 8 W/D 5000 SA 5 1,10 Moist

Papaya Garcinia mangostana 4 2 W 900 SA,A 1,10 Dry

Canarius sp. 20 14 W 1500 SA 14 1,3,7 Dry

Pineapple Anana sativa 1.5 1 W 1000 SA,A 1.5 3,4,5,9,10 Dry

Sandaricum koetjape 15 125 W/D 1500 SA 12 Moist

Source: DENR and IIRR,1993. Agroforestry Technology Information Kit (ATIK), Department of Environment and Natural Resources and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. Legend: Climate Requirement: D=dry, W=wet Intercrops: (1) Pineapple (3) Banana (5) Leucaena (7) Lanzones (9) Cacao (2)Lemon (4) Coffee (6) Annona Species (8) Avocado (10) Coconut Soil pH: A-Acidic; SA-Slightly Acidic; AL-Alkaline


77

Table 7c. Fruit varieties being studied by the NAFRI Horticulture Center.

1.Mango (Mangifera indica)

1.1 Falan

1.2 Nam Dokmai

1.3 Kiew Sweuy

1.4 Nang Kangvan

1.5 Slaya

1.6Chao Khounthip

1.7 Oak long

1.8 Nong zaeng

1.9 Sok Anan

1.10 Norhaed

1.11 Moungkaew No.1

1.12 Thongdam

1.13 Chozho

3.Longan (Dimocarpus longan)

3.1 E-dor

3.2 E-hiew

3.3 Biew Khiew

4.Litchi (Litchi chinensis)

4.1 Honghiuy

4.2 Kimcheng

5.Jujube (Ziziphus jujuba)

5.1 Vietnam

5.2 Lienthong (Golden coin)

5.3 Apple

5.4 Bombeh

2.Tamarind (Tamarindus indica)

2.1 Sythong

2.2 Somphoo

2.3 Nam Pheung

2.4 Muenjong

6.Rose apple (Syzygium jambos)

6.1 Zomphou

7.Pomelo or Pummelo (Citrus maxima or

Citrus grandis)

7.1 Paen Sythong

7.2 Khao paen

Source: NAFRI Horticulture Center


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7.2.2 WHERE AND HOW TO INCORPORATE FRUIT TREES

The following are the various ways to incorporate fruit trees in the farm

a) As Border Trees. This is the simplest form of agroforestry and the least intrusive to annual crop based farming (rice and other crops). Planting trees on the border contribute to biodiversity in the agricultural landscape.

b) As multi-storey system. This will involve planting shade tolerant annual and biennial crops together with perennial tree crops with different heights. Plants that are not shade tolerant can also be considered but this may only be possible while the trees are still young.

c) As part of a shorter duration fallow system. This is growing species to help improve

the fertility of a short fallow. An example is the growing of pigeon pea shortly after establishing upland rice in a newly opened fallow area.

The pigeon pea remains in the field after the rice is harvested and serves as a host to high value insect called Stick Lac, which produces a chemical-like industrial compound with adhesive qualities. The pigeon pea serves to enrich the fallow until such time that a new rice crop is planted on the 3rd year, whereby it is cut and replanted again.

d) As alley crops in between rows of rice or corn. The leaves from the alley crops are then used as fertilizer. This system has not been adopted by Lao farmers because it competes with space. However with the climate change scenario, this practice may be considered in very drought situations that demand drastic solutions.

e) Along the contours in a hilly farm. The same principle as alley crop is used here. This

has not been adopted also due to competition to space. However, under climate change scenarios that involve very high runoff, this practice may again be considered to help offset huge farm losses from massive erosion.

7.2.3 PLANNING FOR TREE–CROP INTERACTION (DISTANCING, COPPICING ETC.)

In choosing what fruit tree and other tree species to grow in the farm in direct combination with crops under it, consider the following:

a) Determine the crops that can possibly grow under trees. Table 7d is an indicative list of the various crops (annual and perennial) that can slightly or moderately tolerate shade.

b) Establish a certain distance between the tree and annual crop so that the crop will not be overly shaded or to avoid too much competition in water and nutrients.

c) Implement practices to further prevent competition for light, nutrients and water.

For instance, remove “watersprouts” or shoots from trees, as well as pruning.

d) Some species need to be coppiced in order to use the biomass as feed or fertilizer and also to reduce the shade it brings.


79

Table 7d. Planning for tree-crop interaction.

Crop type Slightly Shade tolerant Moderately Shade Tolerant

Fruits Bixa orellana (Achuete) Musa sp. (Banana) Anana sativa (Pineapple)

Annona muricata (Soursop ) Averrhoa bilimbi Lancium sp. (Lanzones) Pithecellobium dolce Psidium guajava (Guava) Theobroma cacao (Cacao) Amomum caradamomum (Indonesian cardamom)

Root crops Colocasia esculenta (Taro) Pachyrhizus erosus (Yam bean, singkamas)

Dioscorea alata (Purple Yam) Kaempferia rotunda

Vegetables and spices

Capsicum sp. (Chili) Ocimum basilicum (Basil) Coleus amboinicus (Oregano) Lablab purpureus (Bataw, hyacinth bean)

ZIngiber officinale (Ginger)

Legume Vigna unguiculata (Long bean) Arachis glabrata (Rhizoma peanut)

Acacia mearnsii (Black wattle) Centrosema pubescens (Centrosema) Calapogonium muconoides (Calapogonium)

Plantation crops Casuarina equisetifolia Vanilla fragrans (Vanilla)* Piper nigrum (Black Pepper) Coffea sp. (Coffee)

Ornamentals Calliandra calothyrsus (Calliandra) Flemingia macrophylla (Flemingia) Philodendron maximum (Philodendron)

Livistonia rotundifolia Boehmeria nivea (Ramie) Codiaeum variegatum (Croton) Anthurium sp.

*Highly tolerant Source: DENR and IIRR, 1993. Agroforestry Technology Information Kit (ATIK), Department of Environment and Natural Resources and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. 7.2.4 PREPARING SEEDLINGS FOR HARSH ENVIRONMENTS IN THE FIELD

After choosing the species and determining the location in the farm, the next step is to raise the

seedlings. Information on raising seedlings is indicated in several materials.

A few points that need to be raised to produce seedlings that can withstand hostile field

conditions with insufficient moisture and high temperatures are listed below.

a) Start with disease-free materials. Obtain planting materials especially from the citrus

families from known sources.


80

b) Practice hardening of seedlings. A few weeks before out planting, gradually expose the

seedlings to the sun few hours a day and increasing the number of hours as the out

planting time draws nearer.

c) Practice field grafting.

7.2.5 ENABLING YOUNG TREES TO WITHSTAND CONDITIONS OF WATER STRESS

Young seedlings in the field are vulnerable to moisture stress and intense heat. To deal with this

situation, consider the following:

a) Two months before planting, prepare a sufficient hole for the seedling (ideally 50 x 50).

Put the top soil aside. Fill it up with crop residues and compost. Upon planting return the

top soil on top of the crop residue.

b) Plant in the late afternoon.

c) Improvise shade for the young seedling.

d) Use mulch around the young seedling.

e) If planting in the grassland, ring weed around the seedling.

There is also a need for the community to agree on how to control the movement of animals in

the field to protect young seedlings from being eaten or destroyed. If this is not possible,

provide tree guards.


Introduction of perennial tree crops such as fruit trees would be a low cost but very important

investment towards improving the resilience of the farm against climate change. This includes

improving the microclimate against harsh solar radiation, contribute to erosion control and soil

fertility improvement and provide supplemental food, nutrition and income.

The costs basically include planting material production and procurement and labor for plant

proportion, plant establishment and maintenance especially during the first 3 to 4 years.


The above technologies for raising of seedlings, plant establishment and maintenance are

applicable in IRAS project sites. The choice of fruit tree species would, however, depend on the


81

climatic and soil conditions of the project sites especially its altitude, rainfall distribution and soil

pH.

Planting materials can be provided by NAFRI Horticulture Centre and its network of farmer co-

operators who have been trained to produce vegetable seeds. The farmer trainers are spread in

different provinces. The horticulture Centre has the list of farmer seed suppliers of the different

species.

7.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) TO COME WITH THIS

CCTAM

Topic/Title of Publication Source

A. NAFES PUBLICATIONS ON FRUIT TREES

Jackfruit Planting - AIII.1 NAFES

Banana Planting - AIII.2 NAFES

Papaya Planting - AIII.3 NAFES

Mango Planting - AIII.4 NAFES

B.NAFRI

Fruit Trees in Lao NAFRI

Horticulture Training Manual for Lao PDR NAFRI & DED


82

Figure 7. Growing fruit trees and other types of trees in the farm

7.1. How to incorporate fruit trees and other trees in the farm

7.2. How to incorporate trees in the farm (continued)


83

8.0 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT


On the global level, climate change is expected to alter climatic conditions that would tend to

increase the incidence of pests and diseases. Based on the reported trends in other countries,

certain organisms such as pollinator bees may also be affected by changes in climatic

conditions. Solely relying on chemical pesticides brings immediate relief from pests but not

sustainable in the long run. They also threaten the health of the farm family. Any sick member of

the family could mean having to dispose of safety nets such as livestock. The farm family

cannot afford to carry this additional risk on top of the threats posed by land degradation and

climate change.


In areas where pest incidence is a major concern on top of other concerns brought about by

climate change, two sets of actions are recommended. Where resources allow, the practice of

Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is strongly recommended. In areas where resources would

not immediately allow the implementation of Farmer field schools (FFS) and interim measures

should be encouraged such as helping farmers apply practical principles of IPM that emphasize

preventive measures.

8.2.1 INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM)

a) With proper planning, IPM can provide immediate and effective solutions on famer

problems with pests without jeopardizing the resilience of the farm to the effects of

climate change. IPM is an ecosystem approach to crop production and protection that

combines different management strategies and practices to grow healthy crops and

minimizes the use of pesticides.

b) IPM involves several steps that enable farmers to understand the ecosystem

(relationship between organisms and the environment) of a crop production enterprise.

They study the environmental factors that cause pest situation and on this basis, they

can plan ways to manage pest population to avoid damage that could cause yield loss.

Specific management measures include a combination of preventive methods,

application of carefully calibrated chemical pesticides or use of botanical control

methods.

c) Farmers go through a systematic learning process referred to as farmer field school or

FFS that lasts for one season. Under FFS, the field is used as the primary resource for

discovery-based learning. Farmers acquire management skills, generate knowledge,


84

carry out experiments, and learn how to make better informed decisions to protect their

crops from pests.

8.2.2 PRACTICAL PREVENTIVE MEASURES

While waiting for the conduct of FFS for IPM in their areas, farmers can immediately apply

practical measures for crop protection. These revolve around the preventive measures such as

the following:

a) To the extent possible, keep the soil very healthy so that plants are well-nourished with

high resistance against pest and diseases. Specific methods are described in Section 2.

b) Practice multiple cropping especially crop protection. Avoid planting the same crop

continuously in the same piece of land to cut the life cycle of pests.

c) In growing vegetables, practice companion planting. Section 6 describes the various

crops that can be planted together for crop protection purposes.

d) Know the natural predators of harmful insects on your major crops. Provide a sanctuary

for beneficial microorganisms that prey on harmful vectors and pathogens. Having tree

fences is one way of providing sanctuary for beneficial organisms.

e) Practice overall hygiene in the farm. Prune trees regularly. Burn or burry diseased parts

of plants to minimize spread.

f) Use homemade botanical pesticides as needed.

g) If chemicals have to be used, use the correct pesticide to the problem at hand. Observe

extreme caution in the use and disposal of pesticides.


Farmers who practice IPM are able to effectively manage pest and protect crop yields without

incurring huge production costs due to chemicals. At the same time, the long term resiliency of

the farm against other causes of stress or shocks is maintained. Farmers who go through FFS

become empowered to make informed decisions on concerns that affect the farm. The minimal

and careful use of pesticides will also mean avoiding the high cost of accidents or deterioration

of health due to pesticide pollution.


85

The main cost of IPM involves time and effort among farmers to go through farmers classes

over at least one season. Implementing the practices every season will also require additional

effort to regularly monitor the presence of pest populations as well as their natural enemies.


IPM methods can be introduced in IRAS project sites if farming communities express the desire

to undergo FFS. Farmers may prioritize the topic they would like to address i.e. rice, corn and

particular vegetable species.

IPM though FFS has been implemented in several provinces with rice and vegetables, among

others. If farmers are interested to go through FFS, they can request assistance from the MAFF

IPM program. A trainer/facilitator can be deployed to train a group of representative farmers

(between 20 to 30) though FFS methods.

8.5 COMPANION MATERIALS (LOCAL EXTENSION MATERIALS) THAT COME

TOGETHER WITH THIS CCTAM

Topic/Title (Including Code # for NAFES Publications) Source

FROM NGO PARTNERS

Natural methods for Pest Control MAF – DOA and HELVETAS

Natural methods for Pest Control SAEDA

SUPPLEMENTAL GLOBAL REFERENCE

Field Ecological Guide for Rice MAF IPM Program/FAO

Field Guide - Root crops : sweet potato MAF IPM Program/FAO

Field Guide for Vegetables: tomato cabbage, cucumber eggplant

MAF IPM Program/FAO

Field Guide for Legumes: Peanut, green beans, French beans

MAF IPM Program/FAO


86

Figure 8. Integrated pest management and preventive methods

Figure 8.1. Integrated Pest Management involves studying the ecology of a particular cropping

system so that effective village strategies can be implemented to address the pest problem in

the most eologically sound and economically viable way. Farmers attend a farmer field school

(FFS) to learn, in a hands on way, the nature of the pest and the damage it inflicts. It also

identified natural enemies and other ways to manage the pest population.

Figure 8.2. IPM methods include cultural practices such as companion planting (left) mechanical

methods such as wrapping fruits (center) and strict farm sanitation (right).

http://www.google.com.ph/imgres?hl=en&biw=1017&bih=463&tbm=isch&tbnid=rTlt6Ft0VSzPiM:&imgrefurl=http://mangoworldmagazine.blogspot.com/2012/03/mangoes-date-back-65-million-years.html&docid=-_C85Pi3PLWCFM&imgurl=http://kvkwestgarohills.nic.in/images/IPM_training3.jpg&w=365&h=274&ei=irntT5mJMKmEmQWJmbXPDQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=719&vpy=142&dur=2276&hovh=194&hovw=259&tx=97&ty=92&sig=109267575922993988908&page=1&tbnh=124&tbnw=176&start=0&ndsp=10&ved=1t:429,r:9,s:0,i:95

http://www.google.com.ph/imgres?num=10&hl=en&biw=1017&bih=463&tbm=isch&tbnid=3X6OGDlgeqkRrM:&imgrefurl=http://ipm.ait.asia/?page_id=95&docid=YqpifjM1nuKsAM&itg=1&imgurl=http://ipm.ait.asia/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/2012-03-19-002.jpg&w=4000&h=2248&ei=vLXtT6mNOaXemAW-_NjUDQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=76&vpy=114&dur=643&hovh=168&hovw=300&tx=175&ty=87&sig=109267575922993988908&page=3&tbnh=99&tbnw=176&start=26&ndsp=15&ved=1t:429,r:10,s:26,i:188

http://www.google.com.ph/imgres?start=101&hl=en&biw=1017&bih=463&tbm=isch&tbnid=LKJCUryydmOlIM:&imgrefurl=http://www.offthegridnews.com/2011/03/11/companion-planting/&docid=qIC7A5wIdlj40M&imgurl=http://www.offthegridnews.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/Companion-planting-300x225.jpg&w=300&h=225&ei=V7ntT_rvHPDymAWVnLDTDQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=106&vpy=156&dur=5594&hovh=180&hovw=240&tx=143&ty=114&sig=109267575922993988908&page=8&tbnh=139&tbnw=175&ndsp=16&ved=1t:429,r:5,s:101,i:74

http://www.google.com.ph/imgres?hl=en&biw=1017&bih=463&tbm=isch&tbnid=0WhLbFx7hNFDrM:&imgrefurl=http://www.ipsnews.net/2012/06/cilantro-spices-up-coexistence-with-drought-in-brazil/&docid=nD-NcXkUQ1gqAM&imgurl=http://ipsnews-net.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/Library/2012/06/Rio+20-small1.jpg&w=300&h=400&ei=dLztT8DSCqLomAWK9rDNDQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=703&vpy=77&dur=7224&hovh=259&hovw=194&tx=135&ty=169&sig=109267575922993988908&page=4&tbnh=135&tbnw=102&start=39&ndsp=15&ved=1t:429,r:3,s:39,i:205


87

Figure 8.3. IPM does not ban the use of pesticides, Rather it aims to help farmers become safe

and to use pesticides wisely (right). Botanical pesticides may also be tried out (left).

http://www.google.com.ph/imgres?start=130&hl=en&biw=1017&bih=463&tbm=isch&tbnid=D8u4QsKTvgHKGM:&imgrefurl=http://thailand.ipm-info.org/components/botanicals.htm&docid=rycJdE36soBYKM&imgurl=http://thailand.ipm-info.org/images/components/Farmer_prepares_bio_extracts.JPG&w=400&h=300&ei=ybjtT9nBHcqJmQW8xIDMDQ&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=93&vpy=142&dur=4931&hovh=194&hovw=259&tx=193&ty=139&sig=109267575922993988908&page=9&tbnh=127&tbnw=169&ndsp=15&ved=1t:429,r:10,s:130,i:154


88

9.0 POST HARVEST HANDLING


Farmers have traditionally suffered post-harvest loses even before the problems associated with

climate change have become more pronounced. Such loses are generally attributed to poor

harvesting practices and post-harvest handling practices. Recent changes with the rainfall

patterns mean that unexpected rainfall coincides with traditional harvesting periods. This

predisposes harvested crops from post-harvest infections and other conditions to early decay.

Absence of storage facilities, poor transport conditions also lead further to post harvest loses.

In rice, loses are experienced in each of the important stages of harvesting, threshing, cleaning,

drying storage and milling. In fruits and vegetables, farmers lose part of their production due to

poor harvesting, practices and post-harvest handling such as cleaning, sorting, packaging and

transport. Between 15 to 30% of production is lost from inappropriate practices.

Investing in raising more vegetables and fruits in the farm as an adaptation strategy, would

mean a need to ensure that farmers can fully benefit from that investment. One way to do this

would be to minimize losses from harvest and post-harvest handling. The major problems

include poor quality at harvest, careless harvesting and handling and improper processing

methods.


9.2.1 RICE

Various innovations have been tested and recommended to improve harvesting and post-

harvest handling. These innovations involve both simple farmer level measures that involve

machinery with the assistance of local business (e.g. mechanized harvesting, threshing and

improved milling practices) under the coordination of the respective PAFOS and DAFOs. At this

stage, there is a very limited official recommendation for rice post-harvest at the farm level.

However, more information may be obtained from the MAF Department of Agriculture.

9.2.2 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

There are existing global recommendations for each major vegetable and fruit crop. However,

only few have been actually tested in Lao PDR. The following are a combination of practical

global recommendations for vegetables and fruits in general, as well as local recommendations

for two species in particular (tomato and chilli).


89

a) Pre-harvesting operations

Unhealthy soils make plants vulnerable to various infections that are carried by the final

product at harvest time. Thus, make sure that plants are healthy especially during the

reproductive stage. Fertile soils and careful pest management will help ensure that

harvested products are free from infections at harvest time.

b) Harvesting

b.1. Quality cannot be improved after harvest, only maintained; therefore, it is important

to harvest during the proper maturity stage and at peak quality. Harvest the

vegetable and fruit at the right stage; not too late and not too early. Table 9a

provides examples of the right stage of harvesting.

b.2. Harvest during the cool periods of the day. If harvesting during the hotter part of the

day cannot be avoided, the produce should be kept shaded in the field to minimize

weight loss, and wilting.

b.3. Harvest maturity of other vegetables such as leafy mustards and amaranth is based

on the plant size, number of days after planting (usually 25-30 days) and/or

tenderness of leaves. Harvest when they have developed to the fullest size.

b.4. Harvest the fruit type of vegetable (e.g. tomato) or the fruit carefully to avoid cuts

and bruises that will allow pathogens to enter the product. Use knives, cutters or

pruning shears to cut the fruit from the stem.

b.5. Throwing harvested produce into the collection container should be avoided to

prevent physical injuries. Avoid stacking the cut crop in the field.

c) Cleaning, Sorting and Packaging

c.1. Most leafy vegetables are washed in clean water to remove dirt and other debris

and surface contaminants. This is especially important during rainy weather to

prevent contamination.

c.2. For root crop vegetables (carrots, sweet potatoes, potatoes) remove soil by

washing. Wash water should be changed at regular intervals before it becomes

heavily contaminated with fungi and bacteria and spreads infection. Cleaning should

be done before cooling and packing.

c.3. Do not wash most leafy vegetables and beans.

c.4. Immediately remove latex from certain fruits (mango, banana) to avoid discoloration

(causes brown mango and banana).


90

c.5. Immediately cull diseased or injured plants to avoid contamination.

d) Cooling, packaging and storage

d.1. Line existing containers (bamboo, wood) with banana leaves or other clean material

that will cushion the product from injury.

d.2. An alternative is to wrap the produce individually. Wrapping produce reduces

vibration and impact damage. Old newsprint and brown paper can be used as

wrapping materials. Some vegetables such as mustard greens and kale may be

bundled before wrapping.

d.3. Provide some ventilation for the packaging materials. A good rule of thumb is to

have 5% of the container sides and/or ends vented. A few large vertical vents are

better than many small round ones.

d.4. Do not store fruits and vegetables together. Fruits produce ethylene that causes

rapid ripening of vegetables. If clay jars are available, store vegetables in clay jar

with water at the bottom of jar.

d.5. Practice evaporative cooling. In the absence of refrigeration, a very simple way of

doing this is covering a bunch of vegetables with cloth and sprinkling water over the

cloth from time to time. In other instances, jars are used with wet cloth placed over

them.

d.6. Provide preventive treatment such as alum. For instance, to prevent soft rot in

cabbage, expose the butt end of the head of the cabbage to the sun or apply alum

on the same part. The use of saturated alum solution and lime paste has been

found very effective in controlling soft rot in common cabbage.

Table 9a. Some examples of maturity indices of vegetable crops.

Crop Index

Root, bulb and tuber crops

Radish and carrot Large enough and crispy (over-mature if pithy)

Potato, onion, and garlic Tops beginning to dry out and topple down

Yam bean and ginger Large enough (over-mature if tough and fibrous)

Green onion Leaves at their broadest and longest

Fruit Vegetables

Cowpea, yard-long bean, snap bean, hyacinth bean, sweet pea, and winged bean

Well-filled pods that snap readily

Lima bean and pigeon pea Well-filled pods that are beginning to lose their greenness


91

Crop Index

Lady finger Desirable size reached and the tips of which can be snapped readily

Bottle gourd, snake gourd, and dishrag gourd

Desirable size reached and thumbnail can still penetrate flesh readily (over-mature if thumbnail cannot penetrate flesh readily)

Eggplant, bitter gourd, chayote or slicing cucumber

Desirable size reached but still tender (over-mature if color dulls or changes and seeds are tough)

Sweet corn Exudes milky sap from kernel if cut

Tomato Seeds slipping when fruit is cut, or green color turning pink

Sweet pepper Deep green color turning dull or red

Muskmelon Easily separated from vine with a slight twist leaving clean cavity

Honeydew melon Change in fruit color from a slight greenish white to cream; aroma noticeable

Watermelon Color of lower part turning creamy yellow, dull hollow sound when thumped

Flower vegetables

Cauliflower Curd compact (over-mature if flower cluster elongates and become loose)

Broccoli Bud cluster compact (over-mature if loose)

Leafy vegetables

Lettuce Big enough before flowering

Cabbage Head compact (over-mature if head cracks)

Celery Big enough before it becomes pithy

Source: Bautista, O.K. and Mabesa, R.C. (eds). 1977. Vegetable Production. University of the

Philippines at Los Baños. Additional detailed maturity indices for fruits, vegetables and cut

flowers can be found online at http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu on a wide range of Produce Fact

Sheets.


Applying proper harvesting and post-harvest handling can help the farmer minimize loses which

could normally constitute up 30% of the produce.

In the case of rice, costs would involve rental fees for machinery. Arrangements need to be

made between farmer groups, the private firm who provides the machinery and the PAFO and

DAFO.

In the case fruits and vegetables, the costs will involve additional labor for practicing more

careful harvesting techniques, and the use of practical methods for cooling the products.

Additional materials for packaging (banana leaves) or storing (clay jars) may be incurred.


92

9.4 APPLICABILITY IN IRAS SITES

The various methods are generally applicable in IRAS project sites. In the case of fruits and

vegetables, one will have to check if the prices in the local market would justify the costs for

extra effort for harvesting and post-harvest handling.

9.5 COMPANION EXTENSION MATERIALS (LOCALLY AVAILABLE) THAT COME WITH

THIS CTTAM

Topic Source

FROM NAFES

None documented so far NA

FROM DOA (POST HARVEST UNIT)

Evaporative cooling DOA (forthcoming)

Treating soft rot of cabbage through application of alum or guava leaf extract

DOA (forthcoming )

SUPPLEMENTAL GLOBAL REFERENCES

Evaporative cooling http://www.fao.org/climatechange/17850-0c63507f250b5a65147b7364492c4144d.pdf

FAO

http://www.fao.org/climatechange/17850-0c63507f250b5a65147b7364492c4144d.pdf

http://www.fao.org/climatechange/17850-0c63507f250b5a65147b7364492c4144d.pdf


93

Figure 9. Post-harvest handling

Figure 9.1. Pre-harvesting and harvesting

Figure 9.2. Cleaning Sorting Packing


94

Figure 9.4. Cooling, Packing Storage


95

10.0 ADJUSTING THE PLANTING PERIOD (FYI ONLY)


Late rains, long dry spells during the growing season and abrupt endings of rainy season are

increasingly being felt by the farmers. One CCA approach is to adjust the timing of planting. The

objective is to plant at the right time (onset of the actual rainy season for a given year) and

harvest at the right time (end of that particular rainy season). Other farm operations will also be

adjusted.


Farming communities have traditional ways of predicting the onset or cessation of rains by

observing animal behaviour (height of ants’ nests in the tree, color of appendages of frog and

lizards etc.).

By combining this local knowledge with science based predictions, farmers and local extension

teams would be able to avoid or minimize losses from unexpected rainfall aberrations by either

planting earlier or planting later than the usual planting period.

Two cases in Indonesia and the Philippines demonstrate this process. In the Philippines, the

Local authority and the Weather Bureau (with the assistance of the Asian Disaster

Preparedness Center), set up local agro-meteorological station, which would issue regular

advisories. Local authorities and local agriculture offices interpret results and provide advice to

the farmers on the timing of planting and farm operations.

The GoL is in the final stages of preparing the system for climate information service for

farmers. Once fully established, farming communities with the assistance of the PAFO and

DAFO would be able to receive seasonal climate forecast. On this basis, farmers and PAFO

/DAFO would be able to decide on when to adjust the planting period.


96

11.0 PHASING THE IMPLEMENTATION OF TECHNOLOGIES

The ten (10) sets of practices and technologies for climate change adaptation cited above are

applicable in varying degrees in the IRAS project sites. However, location specific conditions at

the district level may require that some technologies be immediately implemented, while others

may be implemented at a later time. Such conditions would include the following:

- Relative exposure of communities to certain technologies; - Level of skills, level of risk taking; - Availability of planting materials and markets; and - Some financial resources for procurement of materials or hiring supplemental labour.

The following criteria may be used to identify those technologies that can be done immediately

(Year 1).

Local communities already have some exposure to the technology;

Do not require major changes in growing practices requiring new and relatively complex skills;

Those that do not involve crop competition (intercropping, multi-storey cropping, etc.);

Do not require a lot of time and money to acquire planting materials or equipment;

Can provide immediate protection or adaptation to physical hazards e.g. surface runoff.

Based on these criteria, the following technologies can be implemented immediately while

others can be done in succeeding years. However, for technologies falling under the second

category, certain preparatory work needs to be done immediately.

Table 11. Proposed phasing of application of technologies.

ACTIONS IN YEAR 1 ACTIONS IN SUCCEEDING YEARS

Water management ( See also CCTAM #3 )

Contour plowing

Natural vegetative strips (NVS)

Diversion canals in the upper portion of the farm

Gully checks and soil traps

Community level watershed and aquifer protection

Soil fertility improvement

Introduce more legumes through simple sequential cropping after the main crop of rice

Simple composting with application of bio extracts

Learn different sources of mulch to match farm nutrient needs ; and

Raising of forage on farm to support the full or partial housing of animals that allow collection and use of animal waste

Preparation and application of bio extracts


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proper application

Innovative Nature based production systems

Practice some of the component techniques of the production system such as mulching

Systems for Rice Intensification (SRI)

Direct Seeded Mulch based cropping System (SCV )

Organic agriculture

Climate smart varieties

Small plot trials of drought tolerant varieties

Small plot trials of flood tolerant varieties (for floods 21 days and below)

Based on results of trials , disseminate use of varieties to the community

Try varieties with resistance to certain pest and disease

Crop diversification

Introduction of short duration, grain legumes that have proven tolerance to moisture stress such as mungbean, cowpea and pigeon pea.

They can be introduced as sequential or relay crops in soils with some amount organic matter.

Introduction of hard to grow vegetables as intercrop and sequential crop.

Practice of intercropping which involves altering the spacing of plants Train interested farmers to locally produce seeds.

Vegetable production

Practices that increase tolerance to water stress

Companion planting ( involves planning plant combinations

Fruit tree and other fruit trees

Use of trees for fencing ,

Raising of seedlings to deal with water stress

Planting of trees along the contours of a Natural Vegetative Strip (NVS)

Practice of multi story cropping (growing crops, short trees, tall trees at the same time in the same area)

IPM and preventive systems

Preventive measures through basic farm sanitation

Practice IPM in rice, vegetables etc

Post harvest handling

Practice proper harvesting (right maturity) and post harvest handing of vegetables and fruits

Change timing of planting


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Change in timing of planting of the main crop (dependent on establishment of early advisory system)

Technologies that are recommended for implementation in succeeding years still require

preparatory work on Year 1. These preparatory works include the following:

- For changes in varieties - try out first in small plots (100 m2 to 1,000m2).

- For introduction of new species, try out in small plots first. Make arrangements for sustainable sources of plant materials. This may involve contacting seed centers or farmer seed networks to produce seeds,

- For new and complex technologies (SRI, SCV), learn the technology well, visit and interact with other farmers who have done it. Make arrangements for farmer trainers.


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Key References

ACIAR. 2012. Online report on Lao PDR projects in Agriculture.

AVRDC. Project report, Post-harvest Technology for Leafy Vegetables.

AVRDC. 2005. Saving your own seeds. Taiwan.

Bioversity. 2007. Bioversity Annual Report.

http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversity/publications/pdfs/1284_Biovers

ity_annual_report_2007.pdf?cache=1326962777

Bautista, O. 1994. Introduction to Horticulture. 2nd edition, Los Banos, Philippines.

Bautista, O.K. and Mabesa, R.C. (eds). 1977. Vegetable Production. University of the

Philippines at Los Banos. Additional detailed maturity indices for fruits, vegetables and

cut flowers can be found online at http://postharvest.ucdavis.edu on a wide range of

Produce Fact Sheets

CIAT, GTZ, LMRP. 2010. Study on Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Land Use in the

Lao PDR Department of Agriculture, Post Harvest Office, Lao PDR. 2012. Overview of

Post Harvest Handling Project in Lao PDR.

DENR and IIRR, ----. Agroforestry Technology Information Kit (ATIK), Department of

Environment and Natural Resources and International Institute of Rural Reconstruction

DOI. Systems for Rice Intensification – DOI guidelines

FAO-EcoCrop. http://ecocrop.fao.org/ecocrop/srv/en/cropFindForm

FAO. Soil and Water Conservation: A Study Guide for Farmer Field Schools and Community-

based Study Groups

FAO. 2006. Home Gardens Key to Improved Nutritional Well-being.

FAO 2010. Rice and food security in a changing climate.

http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/agphome/documents/Rice/rice_fact_sheet.pdf

FAO 2011. http://www.fao.org/forestry/15526-03ecb62366f779d1ed45287e698a44d2e.pdf

FAO. 2012. Vegetable IPM Asia. Bangkok. http://www.vegetableipmasia.org/


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Foley-NCA, 2009. Growing Resilience Adapting for Climate Change in Upland Laos Main

Report

Gummert, M. ____. Improved Post Harvest Technologies for Reducing Postharvest Losses and

Increasing of Farmers Incomes from their Rice Harvests.

ICRISAT, 2007. http://ejournal.icrisat.org/SpecialProject/sp1.pdf

IIRR. 1993. Bio Intensive Approach to Small Scale Household Food Production, Silang, Cavite,

Philippines.

IIRR and MYRADA. 1997. Resource Management in Rainfed Drylands, Cavite, Philippines.

IIRR, IFAD et al. 2001. Shifting Cultivation. Towards Sustainability and Resource Conservation.

IRRI Knowledge Bank. http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/

IWMI. 2010. Johnston, R.; Lacombe, G.; Hoanh, C. T.; Noble, A.; Pavelic, P.; Smakhtin, V.;

Suhardiman, D.; Kam, S. P.; Choo, P. S. 2010. Climate change, water and agriculture in

the Greater Mekong Subregion. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management

Institute. 60p. (IWMI Research Report 136). doi:10.5337/2010.212

IWMI and SIDA. 2010. Rethinking Agriculture in the Greater Mekong Subregion: How to

sustainably meet food needs, enhance ecosystem services and cope with climate

change.

MAF. IPM Program Field Guides.

MAF and UNDP. 2012. CCTAM for On Farm and Community Level Water Management. Draft

Manuscript.

NAFES. 200_. Various Extension Publications on Legumes, Vegetables and Fruits.

NAFES. -----. Organic Agriculture Manual

NAFES. ----. Organic Agriculture Pamphlets

NAFRI. -----. Direct Seeded, mulch based cropping systems (SCV)

NAFRI. 1998. Vegetable Production Manual.

NAFRI. 200_. Fruit Crop Production Manual.

NAFRI. 2001. Nutrient management in rainfed lowland rice in the Lao PDR


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NAFRI. 2002. System of rice intensification (SRI)

NAFRI. 2004. Lao Uplands Sourcebook. Volume 1 and 2.

http://www.nafri.org.la/03_information/sourcebook.htm

NAFRI. 2004. Varietal screening for drought resistance in rain-fed lowland rice in the Lao PDR

NAFRI. 2005. Effective Community-Based Irrigation systems Development in The Lao PDR

NAFRI. 2006. Rice in Laos (Chapters 1-4) Lao-IRRI Project

NAFRI. 2008. Recommended rice varieties for the dry-season irrigated environment of the Lao

NAFRI. 2011. Recommended Rice Varieties for Lao PDR (unpublished)

NAFRI and DED. 2001. Horticultural Training Manual for Lao PDR.

NAFRI and NAFES. 2005. Improving Livelihoods in the Uplands in Lao PDR. Volume 2.

NAFRI and SEARICE. 2012. BUCA Project Report.

PROSEA. ____. Handbook on Plant Resources of South East Asia. PROSEA Foundation.

Bogor, Indonesia.

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